BIOLOGY NOTES( CLASS 9)

TISSUES
Tissues are a group of cells which are having common origin and common function. Plant tissues
are mainly divided
into meristematic and permanent tissues.

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
These are the tissues which are located at the growing regions of the plant body which are young and
actively dividing. Meristematic cells are having following features
1 They have primary cell wall which is made up of cellulose.
2 Cells are spherical, isodiametric or polygonal in shape.
3 Cells are closely packed without intercellular spaces.
4 Cells are having dense amount of cytoplasm and conspicuous nucleus
5 Vacuole is very small or absent.
CLASSIFICATION OF MERISTEMS
Based on the position the meristems are classified into apical meristem, intercalary meristem and
lateral meristem.
APICAL MERISTEM
These are the meristem which are located at the tip of the root and shoot. By the activity of the apical
meristem the shoot and root elongate.

INTERCALARY MERISTEM
These are the meristem which are located in between the permanent tissues . They are located at the
base of the node , at the internode or at the base of the leaves. By the activity of these meristem
growth of the internode and the leaves take place.

LATERAL MERISTEM
These are the meristem which are located at the lateral side of the plant body which help to increase
the girth and diameter of stem. Best examples are vascular cambium and cork cambium. They are
responsible for the secondary growth in dicots.

PERMANENT TISSUES
These are the tissues made up of a group of living cells or dead cells. They are formed from the
meristems. They have lost the dividing power. They have fixed position in the plant body. They have
definite shape and function. Permanent tissues are classified into simple permanent tissues and
complex permanent tissues. Simple permanent tissues are classified into PARENCHYMA,
COLLENCHYMA AND SCLERENCHYMA
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PARENCHYMA
Shape ----- They are spherical, isodiametric, polygonal, cylindrical etc. They have a thin cell wall
which is made up of cellulose and pectin. Cells are having dense amount of cytoplasm and large
vacuole.
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Distribution -------- They are distributed in the root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. They are
distributed in the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, pith, pulp of the fruit, endosperm of
seeds, palisade, xylem and phloem.
Types--------- Parenchyma distributed in the storage organs are very large and store water and
nutrients ,are called as storage parenchyma . Aquatic plants are having the parenchyma with
cavities which is filled with air, called as aerenchyma. They maintain the buoyancy in water and
thus float on the water surface. Certain parenchyma are having chloroplast which are called as
chlorenchyma meant for photosynthesis in the mesophyll of leaves.
Functions
1 These are the storage tissue which store food in plants
2 They store the waste products such as resin, gum, tannin, crystals etc.
3 They give strength to the plants because of its high osmotic pressure and the compact
arrangement of cells.
4 Aerenchyma is meant for maintaining buoyancy of the hydrophytes
5 Chlorenchyma is meant for photosynthesis in leaves
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COLLENCHYMA
Collenchyma is a living mechanical tissue. The cell wall is unequally thickened . Corners of the
cells are having the deposition of cellulose and pectin. They are distributed in the leaves and
stem of dicots which give support and flexibility.
Distribution They are distributed below the epidermis of leaves. They are present in the stem of
dicots. But are absent in monocots as well as in roots.
Functions------------ 1 They give mechanical support as well as flexibility to the stem and
leaves.
2 Margin of the dicot leaves are having collenchyma which prevent the tearing of leaves by
wind.
3 Certain collenchymatous cells stores the starch.
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SCLERENCHYMA
Sclerenchyma is a dead mechanical tissue. It has secondary wall which is uniformly thickened by
lignin. Lignin is impermeable to the materials so the cells become dead. Lignification makes the
lumen of the cells narrow. Wall consist of some thin walled areas called as pits. Cells are closely
packed without intercellular spaces.
Types of sclerenchyma Based on the shape the sclerenchyma is classified into fibres and
sclereids. Fibres are elongated with tapering ends which occur in cluster. They are 1mm to
550mm in length. Sclereids are having various shapes like spherical, isodiametric, cylindrical,
dump bell shape and star shaped.
Distribution Fibres are distributed in the hypodermis, pericycle, secondary xylem and secondary
phloem. Sclereids present in the cortex, pith, phloem, seed coat, endocarp of the almond, husk of
the coconut etc.
Functions 1 Sclerenchyma give mechanical support to the plant body.
2 Sclerenchyma protects the seed
3 Sclerenchyma fibres of coconut, hemp and jute are having commercial
importance.
COMPLEX TISSUES
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These are the tissues made up of different types of cells which are having common origin and work
together to perform a common function. They are grouped into xylem and phloem. They help in the
transport of water, minerals and carbohydrate.

XYLEM It is a complex tissue which help in the transport of water and minerals from root to the
leaves. It is made of tracheids, vessels, xylem fibre and xylem parenchyma.
Tracheids Tracheids are the elongated tubular structures connected end to end. Walls are lignified
and have pits on them. It is a dead component of xylem. They help in the transport of water and
minerals.
Vessels They are tubular structures connected end to end. It is a dead component with lignified
walls. At the point of contact between two vessels, a lignified plate is present which is called as
perforation plate. This plate is having so many perforations through which water and mineral
transport occurs.
Xylem parenchyma These are a group of parenchyma associated with xylem. They store the
organic food and help in the lateral conduction of them
Xylem fibres These are sclerenchyma fibre associated with xylem. They give mechanical support
to xylem.
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PHLOEM This is a vascular tissue which help in the transport of organic solutes from leaves to
the non green regions of the plants. It is composed of sieve tube, companion cells, phloem fibre
and phloem parenchyma.
Sieve tube They are long tubular structures connected end to end. It is a living component of
phloem. They have non lignified walls. At the point of contact between two sieve tubes are having a
non lignified plate called sieve plates. Sieve plate has small openings called as sieve pores or sieve
areas. Cytoplasmic connections pass through the sieve areas called as plasmodesmata. Through this
the transport of organic solutes occur.
Companion cells These are a group of young living cells located along with the sieve tube. Both
sieve tubes and companion cells are having the same origin. That is why when sieve tube dies
companion cells also become non functional.
Phloem fibres These are a group of sclerenchyma fibres associated with the phloem. They give
mechanical support to the xylem.
Phloem parenchyma A group of parenchyma associated with phloem is called phloem
parenchyma. They store the organic food and help in the lateral conduction of them.

FUNCTIONS OF XYLEM
1 Help in the transport of water and minerals
2 Give mechanical support to the plants.
FUNCTIONS OF PHLOEM
1 Transport of organic solutes from leaves to the storage parts of the plants
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN XYLEM AND PHLOEM
XYLEM PHLOEM
1 Help in the transport of water and minerals 1 transport of organic molecules
2 Tracheids and vessels involved in conduction 2 sieve tube is the conducting unit
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3 Transport takes place in upward direction 3 transport is bi direction

4 Units are tracheids, vessels, xylem fibre and xylem 4 units are sieve tubes, companion
parenchyma cells, phloem fibre and phloem
parenchyma
5 Xylem parenchyma is the only one living component 5 only one dead component is
phloem fibre
6 Xylem gives mechanical support 6 does not
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT TISSUES AND ANIMAL TISSUES

PLANTS
1 plants are stationary, so they need very little energy. So majority of the tissues give
mechanical support to the plants. These tissues are dead and lignified
2 The growth is indefinite. They grow through out there life by the activity of meristematic
tissues which are located at certain regions of the plant body. These meristems give rise to
permanent tissues which don’t have dividing power.
3 The structural organization is not so complex and the tissues are not so complex as in
animals
ANIMALS
1 Animals can move , so they need a good amount of energy. So the tissues are made up of
living cells
2 The growth is definite and not confined to certain regions. They don’t have dividing zone
and non dividing zones as is in plants
3 The structural organization is very complex and the tissues are also very complex.
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On the basis of the function, the animal tissues are classified into four types-----------1 Epithelial
tissues 2 Muscular tissues 3 Connective tissues 4 Nervous tissues

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
1 These are the tissues which act as the protective covering
2 They act as the lining of outer surface of the body, body cavity and viscera( Internal
organs).
3 For instance they act as lining of mouth, stomach, intestine, lungs etc.( Occurrence)
4 Cells are compactly arranged
5 This tissue is not traversed by blood vessels
6 This tissue is resting on a basement membrane
FUNCTIONS
1 They protect the internal tissue
2 They act as lining of stomach intestine and other internal organs.
3 Epithelial lining of the intestine help to absorb water and digested food
4 They help to remove nitrogenous waste.
5 Help to secrete mucus and gastric juice
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DIFFERENT EPITHELIAL TISSSUES

1 squamous epithelium 2 cuboid epithelium 3 columnar epithelium 4 ciliated epithelium
5 glandular epithelium
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
OCCURRENCE: Lining the buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, Vagina etc

1 This is made up of flat irregular cells which are compactly arranged as the tiles in the floor,
that is why they are also called pavement tissues. They are simple or stratified. Simple
squamous epithelium consist of a thin layer of cells which lines the mouth and oesophagus.
Statified squamous epithelium act as lining of skin
2 Simlple squamous epithelium act as lining of blood vessels and alveoli of lungs. Epidermis of
skin is occupied by stratified squamous epithelium
3 Functions: protection, secretion, absorption and excretion are the general functions
CUBOID EPITHELIUM
1 This tissue is made up of cube shaped cells. They are polygonal in surface view and square
in section
2 They act as lining of salivary gland, thyroid gland, sweat gland, salivary duct, pancreatic
duct, ovaries, sperm duct etc.
3 Functions: protection, secretion, absorption, excretion etc
COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
1 This tissue is composed of columnar cells or pillar like cells having an elongated nucleus
2 They act as lining of stomach, intestine, gall bladder etc.
3 They involve in secretion, absorption and protection.
CILIATED EPITHELIUM
1 This tissue is made up of columnar or cuboidal cells. Surface of these cells are having cilia,
which are the out growth of cytoplasm and are originated from basal granules
2 They act as lining of spemduct, oviduct, nasal passage, ureter etc
3 Help in the movement of sperm , ovum, mucus , urine etc
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
1 This tissue is made up of columnar cells which is modified for the chemical secretion. They
act as lining of intestinal glands and gastric glands, pancreatic lobules
MUSCULAR TISSUE
These are the tissues made up of long narrow cells called as muscle fibre. These cells are having
one or more nuclei. Muscle cells are arranged parallel to each other. Movement of the muscle
cells are due to the contraction and relaxation of the contractile protein in the muscle fibres.
Muscle help in the movement of body, limbs, heart, flow of blood and lymph, movement of food
in the alimentary canal, flow of air through the lungs etc.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MUSCLES
1 Voluntary muscles/ striated muscles/ skeletal muscles
2 Involuntary muscles/ non striated muscles/ smooth muscles
3 Cardiac muscles
VOLUNTARY MUSCLES
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1 These are the muscles which are attached to the skeleton, as they are called as skeletal
muscles
2 Contraction and relaxation of these muscles are in our control, so they are called voluntary
muscles.
3 These muscle fibres are having alternate dark and light bands , so they are called striated
muscles.
4 Each muscle cell is long, cylindrical with a blunt end. Each cell is enclosed in a
plasmamembrane, called as sarcolemma . A nucles is placed at the periphery of the cell.
5 Occurrence: Located in the limbs, tongue, pharynx and the beginning of the oesophagus.
6 Function: Voluntary movement of the body
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES
1 They don’t have the striations, so they are called non striated muscles or smooth muscles.
2 They are long, narrow, spindle shaped with tapering ends.
3 Nucleus is located at the centre of the cell.
4 These cells are shorter than the voluntary muscle fibre
5 Distribution: All the internal organs are lined by this muscle except heart
6 Functions: 1 Working of these muscles are not in our control, so they are called voluntary
muscles 2 peristalsis of the stomach under the control of these muscles.
4 movement in the gall bladder, urinary bladder, ureter, uterus are under control of these
muscles.
CARDIAC MUSCLES
1 These are the made up of short cylindrical fibres having branches.
2 Each cell is having 1 or more nuclei
3 Fibres are having intercalated disc at their ends
4 Fibres are having faint stripes
5 Distrtibution: They are present in the walls of the heart, pulmonary veins and in superior
venacava
6 Function: By the continuous contraction and relaxation of these muscles causes the pumping
of blood from heart to different parts of the body
BLOOD
1 Blood is a fluid connective tissue
2 The fluid matrix of blood is called plasma. Plasma consist of 90% of water and 10% of other
materials. The blood contains protein such as albumin, globulin and fibrinogen. Moreover it
consist of aminoacids, vitamins , enzymes , minerals, waste products etc.
3 It contains RBC, WBC and platelets
4 RBC: It is the smallest cell in our body and in non nucleated. It contains an iron rich protein
called haemoglobin . Haemoglobin gives red clour to the blood and help in the transport of
oxygen.
5 WBC: It is larger than the RBC and is uninucleated. It shows amoeboid movement. This unit
is meant for defence. White blood cells are of two categories, such as phagocytes and
immunocytes. Phagocytes engulf the foreign bodies which enter in the blood. Immunocytes
give immunity by producing antibodies. 2) Phagocytes includes granulocytes and
agranulocytes.
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3) granulocytes include----- neutrophils, eosonophils and basophils. Neutrophil help to

engulf the foreign bodies, eosonophil has a response to allergic and basophil secretes heparin
and histamine. 4) Agranulocytes include monocytes which digest the bacteria 5)
immunocytes include lymphocytes which produce antibodies.
6 PLATELETS : The cells are larger , irregular without nucleus. These cells are meant for
clotting of the blood

WBC
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PHAGOCYTES IMMUNOCYTES
(GRANULOCYTE + AGRANULOCYTES) ( LYMPHOCYTES)
( MONOCYTES)
(1 NEUTROPHIL)
(2 EOSONOPHIL)
(3 BASOPHIL)

LYMPH
It is a colourless liquid tissue which connects the blood and tissues. It has plasma and WBC.
It differ from blood in the following aspects 1 due to the lack of RBC 2 due to the lack of
blood proteins 3 due to the lack of platelets
Lymph help to transport materials from blood to the tissues and vice versa. More over it protect
body against infection
NERVOUS TISSUE
These tissues are located in the brain, spinal cord and in the sense organs. They are made up of
nerve cells or neurons. They are meant to transmit the impulses. A typical neuron consist of
following parts
1 Cell body or cyton : This is the main part of a neuron which are irregular in shape . It consist
of a large nucleus and dense cytoplasm
2 Dendron: These are the branches originating from the cell body. Dendrons are further
branched into dendrites.
3 Axon : This is a long cylindrical process originating from the cell body. It is protected by
myelin sheath. Tip of the axon branched into axonites. Tip of the axonite is called as
synaptic knob. The space between the axonites of a neuron and dendrites of another neuron is
called synapse. This space contain acetylcholine which help to convert nerve impulses into
chemical impulses.
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CONNECTIVE TISSUES : They are classified into 1 Aerolar tissue 2 Dense regular connective
tissue 3 Adipose tissue 4 Skeletal tissue 5 Vasculay tissue
These are the tissues which bind one tissue to another . For instance, they help to bind one bone to
another or muscles to the bones. They help in the transport of materials from one part of the body to
another. They act as supporting frame work of the body. Main functions are binding, supporting and
packing the organs 2) Connective tissues are made up of living cells which are separated from one
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another. The space between the cells are filled with a matrix having cells and fibres. This matrix is
solid in bones and fluid in blood.
AEROLAR TISSUE
It is called as loose connective tissue. It consist of jelly like matrix filled with fibres and cells. Fibres
are two types-------a) White collagen fibres which is made up of a protein called collagen. These
fibres give flexibility and strength b) Yellow elastic fibres are made up of elastin which give
elasticity.
Functions: 1 Help to connect muscles with that of skin.
2 Act as a filling of the space inside the internal organs( Occurrence)
3 It is the main packaging tissue.
DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
It consist of densely packed cells and fibres. Fibres are loosely arranged and elastic. It constitutes the
main component of tendons and ligaments.
TENDONS
These are code like structure which connects the skeletal muscles with the bones. They consist of a
bundle of white collagen fibres bound together by aerolar tissue. Fibroblast is arranged regularly.
LIGAMENTS
It is formed by the yellow elastic tissues in which collagen fibres are bounded together by aerolar
tissue. Figroblast is arranged irregularly. Help to connect one bone to another.
ADIPOSE TISSUE
1 It is a fat storing tissue in which the matrix consist of adipocytes or fat cells.
2 Each fat cell contains a large fat globule.
3 The matrix also contains fibroblast, macrophages, collagen fibres and elastic fibres.
4 Adipose tissue is enclosed in aerolar tissue.
DISTRIBUTION AND FUNCTIONS
1 It is distributed beneath the skin act as an insulator.
2 It is distributed under the skin, around the heart, around the blood vessels, around the
kidneys, around the eyeballs. Adipose tissue which is distributed around the kidneys and the
eye ball act as a cushion which absorb the shock.
3 Blubber in whale is an insulator located under the skin.
4 Hump in camel also rich in adipose tissue

SKELETAL TISSUE
Skeletal tissue build up the skeleton. It supports the body of the vertebrates, help in locomotion
and provides protection to many vital organs. They are classified into 1 cartilage 2 bones
CARTILAGE
DISTRIBUTION’
In man cartilage ----------- at the end of the bones, ear pinnae, end of the nose, wall of respiratory
ducts. In shark and rays entire skeleton is carilage.
STRUCTURE
Cartilage is hard but flexible. 2 The cells Chondroblast become Chondrocytes when get surrounded
within fluid filled chambers called lacunae . 3 The chondrocytes are separated by matrix called
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Chondrin. 4 The surface of the cartilage is surrounded by irregular connective tissue called as
Perichondrium. 5 Cartilage grows by the multiplication of chondrocytes by mitosis.
FUNCTIONS
Cartilage absorbs stresses and provides flexibility to the body

BONES
Bones are strong and non flexible connective tissue. 2 It consist of living bone cells called
Osteoblasts 3 Latter is embedded in a calcified matrix. 3 Osteoblast contains lacunae which consist
of nerves and blood vessels. 4 Matrix is composed of 30% of organic materials like collagen fibres
and glycoprotein , 70% inorganic bone salts such as phosphates, carbonates of calcium and Mg. 5
Inorganic salts are responsible for hardness

FUNCTIONS
1 Bones are the endoskeleton
2 They provide movement , support and protects the delicate organs
QUESTIONS

Diagrams--------------------Neuron, structure and functions

Differences--------------Cartilage and bones
Voluntary and involuntary muscles
Differences------------Tendons and ligament