Basic units of —> structure and

function in organisms.
Cell theory
Cells come only from pre-existing
cells because cells are —> self
reproducing
1- Cell structure Quite small than 1mm ; some are
and function even as small as 1um .

Light microscope
Outlines visual rang of the eye :
Electron microscope.
Cell shape
Likely to have an adequate
surface area for —> exchanging
wastes for nutrients.
Why are cells so small?
Ex .. cutting a large cube into
smaller cubes provides a
lot more surface area per volume.

they lack a membrane-

bound nucleus.

They present in great numbers in

the air and soil.
are so named because :
live in and on other organisms.

Eukaryotic cell: cell with a

nucleus.

they cause some serious diseases.

tuberculosis and decompose the

Based on DNA and RNA remains
base sequences, divided into two separate types or Bacteria and Archaea. of dead organisms and, —> hence,
Bacteria are well known because: contribute to ecological cycles
prokaryotic cells domains called:
2- Prokaryotic are manufacturing all sorts of
Cells. products, from
Bacteria also assist humans in industrial chemicals to foodstuffs
: and
drugs (ex., human insulin).

A rod-shaped bacterium
called a bacillus, occur as
pairs or chains.

Spherical-shaped bacterium
The Structure of is a coccus, occur as pairs.
The three common shapes are:
Prokaryotes Some long rods are twisted
into spirals.

Spirillum (long rod) if it is

rigid or spirochete if it is
flexible.

A phospholipid belayer with regulating the entrance/exit of

Plasma membrane: embedded ( proteins with substances into/out of
important function) of The Cytoplasm

Plant cell has —> cellulose.

. Cell wall To maintain cell’s shape .
Peptidoglycan ( amino
1. Cell Envelope :
disaccharide and peptid
fragments ) —> in bacteria .

A layer of polysaccharide lying

outside the cell wall —> ( a
capsule ).
. Glycocalyx
It AIDS against drying out and

3- Organization helps bacteria resist a host’s —>

immune system.
of Bacteria: Semi-fluid solution.
Cytoplasm
Composed : water and inorganic ,
organic molecules ( encased by a
—> plasma membrane).

In chromosome , region called—>

nucleoid
DNA
2. Cytoplasm: Extra chromosome piece of
circular super coiled DNA —> (
plasmid )

Used in biotechnology To transport DNA into a

Plasmids
laboratories in —> Vectors. bacterium.

thousands of With ( RNA -Protein ) in 2

protein-synthesizing—> ribosomes subunits
A bacterial cell
Motile bacteria can move in flagella
water by can be used to help distinguish
the means of flagell ( a protein). different types of bacteria.

regulates the passage of

molecules into\ out the —>
Cytoplasm.
Has —> Plasma membrane.
To separate the content of cell
from the environment.

Nucleus is evolved as a result

of ( Plasma membrane
invagination)

Endosymbiotic theory :
mitochondria and chloroplasts —>
the two energy related
organelles .
Origin
Arose : large eukaryotic cell —>
engulfed independent
prokaryotes .

they are bound by a double

membrane, and contain their own
genetic material separate.
4- Eukaryotic
Cell wall Plant Contains —> cellulose fibrils
Cells Eukaryotic and plant cells have a
Plasma membrane

compartments of a eukaryotic
cell called: organelles, are membranous
.

Is an organelle , the houses the

genetic material——> within
eukaryotic chromosomes.

The nucleus with ribosomes in

the cytoplasm .

Organelles of the endomembran

and the endoplasmic reticulum
The communicates : and the Golgi apparatus ———>
The nucleus:
transport vesicles.

the energy-related organelles(

Structure mitochondria
and chloroplasts) —>is less obviou

An animal cell has only

mitochondria
A plant cell has
mitochondria and chloroplasts.

That maintains the shape of the

cell.

Assist in the movement of

The cytoskeleton Composed of protein fibres . organelles.

Protein fibres —> Serve tracks

for the transport vesicles that
take molecules from one
organelle to another.

Cells can become specialized by

the presence or absence of
particular organelles.

The nucleus is essential

to the life of a cell. It passed from cell to cell and from The ribosomes use this
to carry out protein synthesis.
contains the genetic generation to generation. information

information
appears as
an oval structure located
near the center of most
eukaryotic cells .

a network of
strands that undergoes
Contains : Chromatin Called : chromosomes
coiling into rod-like
structures;
5- The nucleus All the cell on an individual
The same number of chromosomes.
and Ribosomes contain :

cell division ensures that

except for the
daughter cells
egg and sperm, which usually
receive the same number of
have half this number (n)
chromosomes (2n).

The chromosomes are

Genes, composed of
the carriers of genetic
DNA, are units of
information containing
heredity located on the
DNA, protein and
chromosomes..
some RNA

The nucleus is separated from Out of the nucleus—( to )—> the

The nucleus the cytoplasm by a double with nuclear pores to permit the cytoplasm—( passage of )—>
membrane known as the nuclear passage of mRNA proteins , from the cytoplasm—(
envelope to )—> the nucleus.

ribosomal RNA (rRNA), joins with to form subunits of

proteins ribosomes.

specifies the sequence of amino

RNA are produced: messenger RNA (mRNA), acids in
a protein.

​participates in the assembly of

​transfer RNA (tRNA) amino acids
​during protein synthesis.

are particles where protein

synthesis occurs.

composed of two subunits, one

large and one
small; represent a mix of
proteins and rRNA.

Ribosomes either singly or in groups called :

some ribosomes occur freely polyribosomes
In eukaryotic cells: within the

The cell cytoplasm. others are attached to the

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

the genetic code indicating the

needed sequence
of amino acids in a particular
protein

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is

membranous flattened
small sacs physically continuous
with the nuclear envelope
that transport molecules to
ER consists of rough ER and
other parts of the cell, ex., the
smooth ER forming vesicles:
Golgi apparatus.

Rough ER contains enzymes that

Endoplasmic Reticulum can add carbohydrate (sugar) eg., glycoproteins.
chains to proteins,

is associated with the production

of lipids and
Smooth ER:
testosterone and with the
detoxification of drugs.

consists of
a stack of three to twenty
curved.

ER to a signal
6- The The Golgi Apparatus molecule that determines the
It can modify the carbohydrate
protein’s final destination in the
Endomembrane It contains enzymes that change
cell.

System one sugar for the other. ,sorts the modified

molecules and packages them
into vesicles that depart from the
outer face; secretion or
exocytosis

are membrane-bounded vesicles

produced by the
Golgi apparatus.

to assist in digesting
material taken into the cell and
They store powerful digestive destroy
Lysosomes enzymes nonfunctional
organelles and portions of
cytoplasm

that are enclosed within

Some white blood cells defend vacuoles. When lysosomes fuse
the body by engulfing bacteria with these vacuoles, the
bacteria are digested.

Chloroplasts and
mitochondria are the two that specialize in converting
eukaryotic (plant energy to a form that can be
used by the cell.
and algae) membranous
organelles
chloroplasts, use solar energy
through photosynthesis to solar energy + carbon dioxide +
photosynthesis synthesize carbohydrates; an water → carbohydrate +
organic nutrient molecule for oxygen
plants and all living things.

carbohydrate + oxygen → carbon

Cellular respiration:
is the process by which dioxide + water + energy
carbohydrates
are broken down in mitochondria The energy is used for active
to produce ATP transport and energy-requiring
processes in cells.

Some algal cells have only one

chloroplast.

Some plant cells have as many

as a hundred.

They are bounded by a double

have a three-membrane system. membrane enclosing the semi-
fluid.

Chloroplasts stroma enzymes and thylakoids.

disk-like sacs formed from a
third chloroplast membrane.

consists of two separate sets of

reaction .

solar energy is absorbed.

the light reactions and the Calvin water is split so that oxygen is
cycle reactions and Steps of released.
Photosynthesis
light reactions are:

ATP and NADPH are produced.

CO2 is absorbed
Steps of the Calvin cycle
reactions are: so
(CH2O) by utilizing AT P
CO2 is reduced to a then, ADP and NADP+ go back to that carbohydrate
and NADPH from the light become AT P and NADPH
carbohydrate (CH2O) light reactions, production can
reaction. once more
continue.

The number of mitochondria

Nearly all eukaryotic cells
contain mitochondria
varies in cells depending on their
activities.
liver cells have as many as 1000
mitochondria, while
fat cells contain few
mitochondria.

mitochondrial.

DNA
the inner is highly
ribosomes.
7- The Energy- It has two membranes;
twisted to increase the
surface area into cristae
The matrix contains:
highly
Related that flew into a semi-
fluid matrix.
concentrated mixture of enzymes
that break down carbohydrates.
Organelles
other nutrient molecules.

to supply
produce most of the AT P utilized the chemical energy through a
by the cell process called (cellular
respiration).

oxygen (O2) .
by breaking
is the process by which cells down nutrient molecules
the breakdown of glucose to
acquire energy produced by photosynthesis
release carbon
through the use :
dioxide, water (H2O) and energy (
enough to produce 36-38 AT P
molecules).
Respiration
1. Glycolysis

2. Preparatory reaction,
Cellular respiration involves
Mitochondria four phases: 3. The citric acid cycle.

4. The electron transport

chain.

takes place outside the

mitochondria and does not require
Phases of glucose breakdown.

the presence of oxygen;

anaerobic, while other phases
Glycolysis. take place inside the
mitochondria, where oxygen is
required, aerobic.

Oxidation results in
Glycolysis; breakdown of
NADH and provides energy
glucose to two molecules of
for the net gain of two AT P
pyruvate.
molecules.

where pyruvate is broken down

The preparatory (prep) reaction: to two acetyl groups and CO2 is
released..

where oxidation occurs—( results )

—>NADH

The citric acid cycle and more CO2 is released.

Because two acetyl groups enter

is able to produce one ATP
the cycle per glucose molecule,
per turn.
the cycle turns twice

The electron transport chain (

ETC); where NADH and energy are
used to produce AT P.

The equation for photosynthesis

in a chloroplast is opposite to
that of cellular respiration in a
mitochondrion .

The ultimate source of energy

Flow of energy the sun: for producing a carbohydrate in
chloroplasts .

Therefore, there is a flow of

The ultimate goal of cellular
respiration in a mitochondrion is
the:
conversion of carbohydrate
energy through chloroplasts to
energy into that of AT P
carbohydrates and then through
molecules.
mitochondria to AT P molecules.

carbohydrate and
oxygen produced by chloroplasts
during photosynthesis.

the
carbon dioxide produced by
During cellular
8- Cycling of mitochondria return back to
respiration, living things chloroplasts.
Chemicals: utilize:
Therefore, chloroplasts and
through living things and permit
mitochondria allow a flow of
a cycling of chemicals.
energy

are membrane-bounded vesicles enzymes whose actions result in

RH2 + O2 → R + H2O2
that enclose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2):

a toxic molecule.

Hydrogen peroxide, is immediately broken down to

Peroxisomes water and oxygen by another
peroxisomal enzyme called (
catalase)

peroxisomes oxidize fatty acids that can be converted to sugars

In germinating seeds :
into molecules needed by the growing plant.

are membranous sacs specialized

for storing excess for breaking down
Other Vesicles water, substances and digestive nutrients in the cell .
enzymes
and Vacuoles-9
Few animal cells contain vacuoles.

Typically, plant cells have a

large central vacuole that may
take up
to 90% of the volume of the cell.

Plant vacuoles contain cell sap of

Vacuoles water, sugars, salts, water-
soluble pigments and toxic
molecules.

are responsible for many of the

The pigments : red, blue, or purple
colors of flowers and some leaves.

help protect a plant from

Toxic substances:
herbivorous animals.

plant cell can rapidly increase in

by enlarging its vacuole.
size —>