Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

1.1 WHAT IS STATISTICS?

Statistics refers to the practice of science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large
quantities. In general, one can say that

Statistics is the methodology for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and drawing

conclusions from information.

In other words, statistics is the methodology which scientists and mathematicians have
developed for interpreting and drawing conclusions from collected data. Everything that deals
even remotely with the collection, processing, interpretation and presentation of data belongs
to the domain of statistics, and so does the detailed planning of that precedes all these
activities.

Collecting

Organizing

Analyzing

Interpreting

Presenting

Figure 1: Statistics involves scientific procedures and methods

These statistical processes form a part of the decision making process in many
organizations. Managers of today need to have strong mathematical abilities to interpret
statistical analyses before they can make informed decisions.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 2

Quick Check 1

1. Explain what you understand by statistics.

2. Briefly describe two meaning of the words statistics.

1.2 TERMINOLOGIES

1.2.1 Variable
A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or
counted.

1.2.2 Data

Groups of information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, numbers or

symbols) that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set
of variables.

Example: Researchers may collect data on the amount of money spent by

secondary school students on textbooks, the brand of the detergents most preferred
by housewives in Perak, the monthly income of rubber smallholders in Malaysia, the
time taken by Malaysian-made cars to accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h, the average
length of stay of foreign tourists in Malaysia and their favourite places of visits.

1.2.3 Population

A group of measurements about which one wishes to draw conclusions.

Example: An investigator may desire to draw conclusions about school-age children

with asthma. The investigator may define her population to be all school-age
children with asthma treated in government hospitals in Malaysia.

1.2.4 Sample

A subset of all the measurements in the population.

Example :If it is not possible to obtain information about all school-age children with
asthma in Malaysia, she may select just 50 school-age children with asthma treated
in government hospitals in Malaysia and obtain a sample data of these 50 children.

Figure 2: Population and sample

 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 3

1.2.5 Census

Census is a study of entire population.

1.2.6 Sample Survey

Sample survey is a study on sample (selected segment of population).

1.2.7 Parameter

Numerical descriptive measure of population.

1.2.8 Statistics

Numerical descriptive measure taken from sample.

1.2.9 Pilot Study

The study before the actual fieldwork is carried out.

1.2.10 Sampling Techniques

The methods used to select samples from a population.

1.2.11 Random sampling

The selection of sample requires that each member of the population has an equal
and independent chance of being selected.

(http://explorable.com)

Random sampling techniques include simple random sampling, systematic

sampling, cluster sampling and stratified sampling.

1.2.12 Non-random sampling

The selection of sample does not require that each member of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being selected.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 4

Non-random sampling techniques include convenience sampling, quota sampling

and judgemental sampling.

1.2.13 Sampling frame

A list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn.

A sampling frame is needed so that everyone in the population is identified so they

will have an equal opportunity for selection as a subject (element).

Example :If it is not possible to obtain information about all school-age children with
asthma in Malaysia, she may select just 50 school-age children with asthma treated
in government hospitals in Malaysia and obtain a sample data of these 50 children.

The sampling frame would be: A list of all school-age children with asthma treated in
government hospitals in Malaysia.

1.3 TYPES OF STATISTICS

Broadly speaking, applied statistics can be divided into two areas: descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics or inductive statistics.

1.3.1 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics consists of methods for organizing, displaying, and

describing data by using tables, graphs, and summary measures. Thus, raw
data are transformed into meaningful forms so that the user and manager can make
generalizations or conclusions just by taking a quick look at visual presentation.

Example: In the last three years (2011-2013),hundreds of thousands of foreign

tourists have flocked to Malaysia for medical appointments. These people are
termed as foreign medical tourists. The arrivals of the tourists have shown a
significant growth every year since 2011. For example, in 2011 there were 583,314
foreign patients, in 2012 there were 671,727 and in 2013 there were 770,000 foreign
patients seeking medical treatment in Malaysia. Thus, the medical tourism is
capable of generating foreign currencies for the country and sustaining its balance
payments. Today, Malaysia is fast becoming the healthcare destination of choice for
foreign patients from all over the world for reasons such as affordable costs, wide
range of specialists, more advanced technologies, high quality medical care and
shorter waiting periods. These factors, combined with the diverse tourism product
available in the country, offer an attractive package for medical travellers. Some of
the more popular treatments are orthopedics, gastroenterology, dental, cosmetic
and general surgeries (Mann,2007).

1.3.2 Inferential Statistics

In inferential statistics, we make generalizations about a population by

analyzing a sample. If the sample is a good representation of a population,
accurate conclusions about population can be inferred from the analysis of this
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 5

sample. This is because the sample values are close representations of the actual
values of the population of interest. However, there is a certain amount of
uncertainty about the estimations. Therefore, probability is often used when stating
the conclusions.

Thus, inferential statistical techniques are used to make inferences about the
population based on measurements obtained from the sample. The procedure is to
select a sample from a population, measure the variables of interest, analyze the
data, interpret the output and draw conclusions based on the data analysis.

Example:The accompanying chart, reproduced from

MALAYSIA TODAY, shows that 61% of workers
surveyed said that they are not pressured by their
boss or co-workers to come to work when they are
sick with the flu,38% said they feel pressured, and 1%
said they are not sure.

Quick Check 2

1. What is difference between descriptive statistics and inferential

statistics?
2. Briefly explain the types of statistics.

1.4 TYPES OF VARIABLE

1.5.1 Quantitative Variables

Variables whose values are measurements or counts.

Example: age, weight, height, number of defective items produced or income.
There are two classifications:

Discrete Variable
It is a countable variable
Example: number of children in your family, number of students in a class or
number of television sets in your houses.

Continuous Variable
It can be measured and the responses take on values that lie within a
continuum or interval.
Example: height of students, weights of babies, age and father’s income.

1.5.2 Qualitative Variables

They are categorical in nature and their values cannot be counted or measured.
Example: gender, father’s occupation, program of study, courses registered or place
of birth.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 6

1.5 TYPE OF DATA

1.5.1 Quantitative data

Data collected for a numeric variable. It is information that can be measured and
written down with numbers.

1.5.2 Qualitative data

Data collected for a categorical variable. It is expressed not in terms of numbers, but
rather by means of a natural language description such as attributes, characteristics,
properties of a thing or phenomenon. In statistics, it is often used interchangeably
with "categorical" data.

TYPES OF
VARIABLE /DATA

Quantitative
Qualitative
(Numerical) (Categorical)

Discrete Continuous

Figure 3 : Types of Variable

Here's a quick look at the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Overview: Overview:

 Deals with descriptions.  Deals with numbers.

 Data can be observed but not  Data which can be measured.
measured.  Length, height, area, volume, weight,
 Colors, textures, smells, tastes, speed, time, temperature, humidity,
appearance, beauty, etc. sound levels, cost, number of members,
 Qualitative → Quality ages, etc.
 Quantitative → Quantity
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 7

Example 1: Example 1:

Oil Painting Oil Painting

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

 blue/green color, gold frame  picture is 10" by 14"

 smells old and musty  with frame 14" by 18"
 texture shows brush strokes of oil paint  weighs 8.5 pounds
 peaceful scene of the country  surface area of painting is 140 sq. in.
 masterful brush strokes  cost $300

Example 2: Example 2:

Latte Latte

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

 robust aroma  12 ounces of latte

 frothy appearance  serving temperature 150º F.
 strong taste  serving cup 7 inches in height
 burgundy cup  cost $4.95

Example 3: Example 3:

Freshman Class Freshman Class

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

 672 students
 friendly demeanors  394 girls, 278 boys
 civic minded  68% on honor roll
 environmentalists  150 students accelerated in mathematics
 positive school spirit
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 8

1.6 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

Data may be described in accordance with the level of measurement attained. The four
levels of measurement are – from weakest to strongest level – nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio scales.

Ratio
Interval

Ordinal

Nominal

1.6.1 Nominal

 Data classified into various distinct categories which have no numerical

meanings and the category can’t be ranked.
 The weakest form of measurement.
 Example:
Gender (Male &Female)

1.6.2 Ordinal
 Data for which numerical order is meaningful and the categories can be
 ranked.
 Example:
Education Qualification (PhD, Master, Degree, Diploma, SPM)

1.6.3 Interval

 An ordered scale that gives meaning to the difference between

 measurements and does not involve a true zero point.
 Example:
Temperature Reading
A temperature of 80oF is 4 degrees warmer than a temperature of
76oF. This 4 degrees difference is the same if two temperatures
measured are 65oF and 61oF, so the meaning is the same throughout
the temperature scale.
1.6.4 Ratio
 Like the interval scale, it also has order scales. However, the difference
between measurements involves a true zero point like that in the
measurement of height, weight, age or number of phone calls made per
month.

 Example:
A person who is 6 feet tall is twice as high as a 3 feet tall person or a
15 year-old boy is thrice as old as a 5 year-old boy.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 9

1.7 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1.7.1 Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

A random sampling process which is each member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected as an element in the sample.

Procedure

i. Select a suitable sampling frame.

ii. Assign a number to each element in the sampling frame (e.g. 001, 002,….,
500 for population size N = 500)
iii. Select elements for study by:
a. Drawing numbers from box (‘lucky draw’)
b. Using a table of random numbers. It is a table displaying hundreds
of digits from 0 to 9 set up in such a way that each number is
equally likely to follow any other. (See text for random sampling
details & table of randomnumbers)
c. Computer-generated random number table

Advantage

i. Easy to assemble the sample.

ii. The sample is unbiased and represents the population, thus allowing us to
makegeneralizations from the result of the sample back to the population.

Disadvantage

i. Difficult to get a complete and up-to-date sampling frame.

ii. We may end up with a clustered selection of subjects.

1.7.2 Systematic Sampling

A random sampling process in which every kth (e.g every 4th) element or member of
the population is selected for the sample after a random start is determined

Procedure
𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
i. Determine value 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
.
ii. Use a table of random numbers to select one number between 1 and k. Say
this number ism. This is the first element of the sample.
iii. The rest of the members of the sample will be elementsm + k, m + 2k, m +
3k, ……until the desired sample size is obtained.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 10

Example:
Suppose population size (N) = 2000, sample size (n) = 50. Hence k = 2000/ 50
= 40. Use a table of random numbers to select a number between 1 and 40.
Suppose the number selected is 15. This is the starting point for selecting
every 40th subject. With the list of the 2000 subjects in the sampling frame, we
select subject number 15, 15+40=55, 15+55=70, …..until the sample size is
reached.

Advantage

i. It is faster and simpler than simple random sampling.

ii. There is assurance that the population will be evenly sampled

Disadvantage

The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the
population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the
sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample
is compromised.

1.7.3 Cluster Sampling

The population is first listed by clusters or categories. Then we randomly select 1 or

more clusters and take all of their elements.

Advantage

i. This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an

entire country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can
allocate his limited resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas
when using cluster samples.
ii. The researcher can also increase his sample size with this technique.
Considering that the researcher will only have to take the sample from a
number of areas or clusters, he can then select more subjects since they are
more accessible.

Disadvantage

i. The sample may not be a representative of the population. If the individuals

within a cluster have similar characteristics, there is a chance that the
researcher can have an overrepresented or underrepresented cluster which
can skew the results of the study.
ii. There is a possibility of high sampling error. This is brought by the limited
clusters included in the sample leaving off a significant proportion of the
population unsampled.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 11

1.7.4 Stratified Sampling

The population is divided into subgroups, called strata, according to some variable
or variables in importance to the study.Variables often used include: age, gender,
ethnic origin, SES (socioeconomic status), diagnosis, geographic region, institution,
or type of care.A common approach to stratification is by proportional method
whereby subgroup sample sizes equal the proportions of the subgroup in the
population.

Example: A medical and health sciences college population has15% medical

students, 25% biomedical students, 25% nursing students and 35% nutrition
students. With proportional sampling the sample has the same proportions as the
population.

Differences between Cluster Sampling and Stratified Sampling

In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while in
thecluster sampling researcher only randomly selects a number of clusters from the
collection of clusters of the entire population. Therefore, only a number of clusters
are sampled, all the other clusters are left unrepresented.

Quick Check 3

For the Example above, calculate the number of students that must be selected
from each department to form a sample of size 40.

1.7.5 Convenience Sampling

 Selection of the most readily available people or objects for a study.
 No way to determine representativeness.
 Saves time and money

Advantage

This technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.

Disadvantage

Limitation in generalization and inference making about the entire population.

Since the sample is not representative of the population, the results of the study
cannot speak for the entire population.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 12

1.7.6 Quota Sampling

 Selection of sample to reflect certain characteristics of the population
 Similar to stratified sampling but does not involve random selection
 Quotas for subgroups (proportions) are established. For example, if a quota of
50 males and 50 females have been set, the researcher will recruit the first 50
men and the first 50 women that meet certain inclusion criteria

Advantages

i. It allows the researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the

study. If a study aims to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain
subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal technique.
ii. It allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups. In
some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another
subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this
type of sampling technique.
Disadvantages

i. It may not be totally representative of the population since only the selected
traits of the population were taken into account in forming the subgroups.
ii. Other traits in the sample may be overrepresented. In a study that considers
gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the subgroups, the
final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational
attainment, marital status and a lot more.

1.7.7 Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type

of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in
mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects
aremorefit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why
they are purposively chosen as subjects.

1.8 Data Collection Method

After samples are selected from the population, data are now ready to be gathered from
the selected samples using data collection techniques. There are four major techniques:

1.8.1 Personal Interview / Face to Face Interview

Personal interview is a data collection techniques in which an interviewer ask the

respondents by face to face.However, sometimes the respondent insists on filling
the questionnaire himself.

Advantages


i. Higher response rates

ii. The interviewer can clarify any terms that are not understood by the
respondents
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 13

iii. The interviewer can note specific reactions and the environment surrounding
the respondents.
iv. Can get response spontaneously from respondents
v. A well trained interviewer can detect incorrect information respondents

 Disadvantages

i. Very expensive
ii. Any movement, facial expression or statement by the interviewer can affect
the response obtained
iii. Errors in recording

1.8.2 Telephone Interview

Telephone interview is a technique in which an interviewer ask questions to one or

more respondents through telephone


Advantages

i. Less expensive then personal interview

ii. The researcher can monitor the interviewers

Disadvantages

i. The response rate is lower than personal interview

ii. Fewer questions may be asked before the respondent tires of the proceedings
iii. Only restrict to persons who can be reached by telephone. This could lead to
the selection of a sample that would not be from the population of interest.

1.8.3 Mail Questionnaire

It is a technique in which information is obtained from respondents based on

questions by mailing to respondentsviasnail mail or internet.

Advantages

i. Save cost
ii. The investigator does not have to monitor the interviewers
iii. No gestures from the interviewer to affect the response obtained

Disadvantages

i. The lowest rate of response

ii. If the respondent has difficulty in interpreting the questions, no one is available
for assistance
iii. Longer time to gather data.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 14

1.8.4 Direct Observation

Observation is a technique in which trained observers are assigned at a strategic

location to observe and record respondents’ behavior, actions or events at the time

of their occurrences

Example: Ifwe are interested to estimate the amount of time a customer spends at
checkout counters in a supermarket, we can assign a worker to record the time

from the moment she gets in the queue until she finishes paying at the counter.


Advantages

i. The access of information from objective sources that are not affected by the
respondents
ii. Observation avoids interviewer-interviewee bias

Disadvantages

i. Observation fails to record an important aspect of consumer action

ii. The observers may wrongly interpret what the respondents are doing
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 15

FURTHER READINGS

WHO USES STATISTICS?

Agriculture
What varieties of plant should we grow? What are the best combinations of fertilizers,
pesticides and densities of planting? How does changing these factors affect the course of
the growth process?

Anthropology
How old is an archaeological site? What difference in physical size was there between
ancient Celts and modern day English people? Does the percentage of body fat differ
between urban and rural dwellers in India?

Business and economics

How should options to buy shares be priced? Which companies are likely to go out of
business in the next year? What is the likely tourist flow next year? What causes companies
to choose a particular method of accounting? Do inducements (e.g. prizes) to open bank
accounts produce any long term business? Is it true that the companies most likely to be
taken over are those that have been achieving poor returns? How have living standards
changed over the last six months? Should shoplifting (shop theft) detection devices be
hidden or should their presence be made obvious?

Education
Does a course on classroom behavior for teachers purchased by the Department of
Education have a measurable effect on the teacher’s classroom performance? Do boys
perform better than girls in Mathematics examinations? Is there evidence of sex bias in
admissions to the University of California at Berkeley? What proportions of graduates of
various programs are subsequently employed in their field of study?

Environmental studies
What impact will a proposed industrial plant have on the surrounding ecology? Is there an
increase in birth defects near nuclear power plants? Do strong electric or magnetic fields
induce higher cancer rates among people living close to them?

Fisheries
How many fish of a given species are in the fishing grounds? What level of quotas imposed
on fishermen will maintain the fish stocks? Does antifouling paint contaminate the fish
supply? What is the distribution of deep fish in the North Atlantic Basin?

Forestry
How much wood is there in a forest due to be felled? When should we fell trees in order to
maximize economic return?

Genetics
Does the data support genetic theories about how various characteristics are inherited?
In statistics, the word population is used to designate the complete set of items that are of
interest in the research. Meanwhile, the term sample is used to designate a subset of items
that are chosen from the population. Data on the variables of interest are obtained from the
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 16

sample. The data are then summarized, analyzed and presented in useful forms so that
effective information and conclusions can be derived.

Population versus Sample

In statistics, the word population is used to designate the complete set of items that are of
interest in the research. Meanwhile, the term sample is used to designate a subset of items
that are chosen from the population. Data on the variables of interest are obtained from the
sample. The data are then summarized, analyzed and presented in useful forms so that
effective information and conclusions can be derived.

Statistic versus Parameter

What we are typically after in a study is the parameter. A parameter is a numerical value that
states something about the entire population being studied.For example; we may want to
know the mean wingspan of the American bald eagle. This is a parameter, because it is
describing all of the population.Parameters are difficult if not impossible to obtain exactly. On
the other hand, each parameter has a corresponding statistic that can be measured exactly.

A statistic is a numerical value that states something about a sample. To extend the example
above, we could catch 100 bald eagles and then measure the wingspan of each of these.
The mean wingspan of the 100 eagles that we caught is a statistic.The value of a parameter
is a fixed number. In contrast to this, since a statistic depends upon a sample, the value of a
statistic can vary from sample to sample.

Census versus Sample Survey

Surveys are used as a tool to collect information from some or all units of a population and
compile the information into a useful form. There are two different types of surveys that can
be used to collect information in different circumstances to satisfy differing needs. These
are sample surveys and censuses.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 17

Sample Surveys
In a sample survey, only part of the total population is approached for information on the
topic under study. These data are then 'expanded' or 'weighted' to make inferences about
the whole population. We define the sample as the set of observations taken from the
population for the purpose of obtaining information about the population.
Advantages

 Reduces cost - both in monetary terms and staffing requirements.

 Reduces time needed to collect and process the data and produce results as it
requires a smaller scale of operation.
 (Because of the above reasons) enables more detailed questions to be asked.
 Enables characteristics to be tested which could not otherwise be assessed.
An example is life span of light bulbs, strength of spring, etc. To test all light
bulbs of a particular brand is not possible as the test needs to destroy the
product so only a sample of bulbs can be tested.
 Importantly, surveys lead to less respondent burden, as fewer people are
needed to provide the required data.
 Results can be made available quickly.

Disadvantages

 Data on sub-populations (such as a particular ethnic group) may be too

unreliable to be useful.
 Data for small geographical areas also may be too unreliable to be useful.
 (Because of the above reasons) detailed cross-tabulations may not be
practical.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 18

 Estimates are subject to sampling error which arises as the estimates are
calculated from a part (sample) of the population.
 May have difficulty communicating the precision (accuracy) of the estimates to
users.
Censuses

A census is a collection of information from all units in the population or a 'complete

enumeration' of the population. We use a census when we want accurate information for
many subdivisions of the population. Such a survey usually requires a very large sample
size and often a census offers the best solution.
Advantages
 Data for small areas may be available, assuming satisfactory response rates
are achieved.
 Data for sub-populations may be available, assuming satisfactory response
rates are achieved.
 (Because of the above reasons) detailed cross-tabulations may be possible.
 The estimates are not subject to sampling error.

Similarly, the disadvantages of censuses relate to the advantages of sample surveys.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a research study conducted before the intended study. The aim is to identify
possible problems and difficulties that the researcher may encounter when the actual study is
being carried out. Pilot studies are usually executed as planned for the intended study, but
on a smaller scale. Although a pilot study cannot eliminate all systematic errors or
unexpected problems, it reduces the likelihood of making a Type I or Type II error. Both
types of errors make the main study a waste of effort, time, and money.

Designing a Questionnaire

A questionnaire should be constructed to encourage participation by the respondents. The

following awesome important steps that you should consider when designing questionnaire:

 Use short questions.

 Use simple language.
 Ask only one issue per question. Do not write questions that ask about two things at
once.
 Use clear terms. If necessary, define terms that are not familiar to the respondents.
 Avoid personal questions.
 Avoid questions that require calculations to be made by respondents.
 Use more closed-ended questions. Minimize the use of open-ended questions.



 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 19

EXERCISE CHAPTER 1
1. A randomly selected sample of 15 mothers with newborn babies living in a town is asked
the following questions in a face-to-face interview:

1.Will you give your baby vaccination? Yes / No

2. How many children do you have?

3. What is your education level? School dropout / High school / College graduate

i. Discuss TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of using the method described
above to collect the data.
ii. What is the population for the study?
iii. What are the variables in the study? Determine the level of measurement of each
variable.

2. An office has approximately 1500 employees working in three departments: 800

employees in Manufacturing, 600 in Sales and 100 in Administration. The management
wants to find out the average overtime payment paid to the employees by selecting a
random sample of 150 employees.

i. What is the variable of interest? Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?

ii. What is the population in the survey?
iii. How can the sample be chosen by using the simple random sampling method?
iv. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using the sampling method above.
v. How can the sample be chosen by using the stratified method?
vi. Which do you think is a better method to select the sample? Give your reason.
vii. The management intends to collect the information by mailing a questionnaire.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this data collection method.

3. A researcher wishes to study the career aspirations of students from the Faculty of
Applied Science, which consists of 50 classes. The researcher intends to choose only 10
classes and all the students from these 10 classes will be chosen for the study.

i. State the population for the above study.

ii. State the variable for this study. What type of variable is it?
iii. State the sampling technique that is used for this study.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics 20

4. A group of researcher from Yayasan ABC conducted a survey on their sponsored

students who are currently pursuing their studies at universities abroad. The purpose of
the study is to determine the problems faced by the students. All 350 sponsored
students attended a dinner and 70 students whom the researchers met were selected as
the sample.

i. State the population of the study.

ii.State the variable mentioned in the study.
iii.
What is the sampling technique used?
iv.Do you think the technique in (iii) is suitable for the study? Give reasons for your
answer.
v. What is the most suitable data collection method to be used for the above study?
Give one advantage and one disadvantage of this method.
