Fluidized Bed Dryers

8 Chung Lim Law and Arun S. Mujumdar

CONTENTS

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 174

8.2 Advantages and Limitations of Fluidized Bed Dryers........................................................................... 177
8.3 Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds ............................................................................................................ 177
8.4 Mathematical Models of Fluidized Bed Drying .................................................................................... 178
8.4.1 Diffusion Model ......................................................................................................................... 178
8.4.2 Empirical Model ......................................................................................................................... 179
8.4.3 Kinetic Model............................................................................................................................. 180
8.4.4 Single-Phase Model .................................................................................................................... 181
8.4.5 Two-Phase Model....................................................................................................................... 181
8.5 Effect of Operating Parameters on Fluidized Bed Drying ..................................................................... 182
8.5.1 Effect of Bed Height ................................................................................................................... 182
8.5.2 Effect of Particle Size.................................................................................................................. 182
8.5.3 Effect of Gas Velocity................................................................................................................. 182
8.5.4 Effect of Bed Temperature ......................................................................................................... 182
8.6 Types of Fluidized Bed Dryers: Classification and Selection................................................................. 182
8.7 Conventional Fluidized Bed Dryers....................................................................................................... 184
8.7.1 Batch Fluidized Bed Dryers........................................................................................................ 184
8.7.2 Semicontinuous Fluidized Bed Dryers........................................................................................ 184
8.7.3 Well-Mixed, Continuous Fluidized Bed Dryers ......................................................................... 184
8.7.4 Plug Flow Fluidized Bed Dryers ................................................................................................ 185
8.8 Modified Fluidized Bed Dryers.............................................................................................................. 185
8.8.1 Multistage and Multiprocess Fluidized Bed Dryers ................................................................... 185
8.8.2 Hybrid Fluidized Bed Dryers ..................................................................................................... 185
8.8.3 Pulsating Fluidized Bed Dryers .................................................................................................. 186
8.8.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers with Immersed Heat Exchangers ............................................................. 187
8.8.5 Mechanically Assisted Fluidized Bed Dryers.............................................................................. 187
8.8.6 Vibrated Fluidized Bed Dryers ................................................................................................... 187
8.8.7 Agitated Fluidized Bed Dryers/Swirl Fluidizers ......................................................................... 188
8.8.8 Fluidized Bed Dryers of Inert Particles ...................................................................................... 188
8.8.9 Spouted Bed Dryers.................................................................................................................... 189
8.8.10 Recirculating Fluidized Bed Dryers.......................................................................................... 190
8.8.11 Jetting Fluidized Bed Dryers .................................................................................................... 190
8.8.12 Fluidized Bed Dryers with Internal Baffles............................................................................... 190
8.8.13 Superheated Steam Fluidized Bed Dryers................................................................................. 191
8.8.14 Fluidized Bed Freeze Dryer ...................................................................................................... 191
8.8.15 Heat Pump Fluidized Bed Dryer .............................................................................................. 192
8.9 Design Procedure ................................................................................................................................... 192
8.9.1 Design Equations........................................................................................................................ 192
8.9.1.1 Residence Time ............................................................................................................ 192
8.9.1.2 Sizing of Bed ................................................................................................................ 193
8.9.1.3 Gas Flow Rate ............................................................................................................. 193
8.9.1.4 Mass Balance, Continuous Drying, Well-Mixed Bed................................................... 193

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 8.9.1.5 Heat Balance, Continuous Drying, Well-Mixed........................................................... 193
8.9.2 A Sample Design Calculation..................................................................................................... 195
8.10 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 198
Notation ......................................................................................................................................................... 198
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 199

8.1 INTRODUCTION The bed of particles rests on a gas distributor plate.

Fluidized bed dryers (FBD) are used extensively for
the drying of wet particulate and granular materials
that can be fluidized, and even slurries, pastes, and
suspensions that can be fluidized in beds of inert
solids. They are commonly used in processing many
products such as chemicals, carbohydrates, foodstuff,
biomaterials, beverage products, ceramics, pharma-
ceuticals in powder or agglomerated form, health-
care products, pesticides and agrochemicals, dyestuffs
and pigments, detergents and surface-active agents,
fertilizers, polymer and resins, tannins, products for
calcination, combustion, incineration, waste manage-
ment processes, and environmental protection pro-
cesses. Fluidized bed operation gives important
advantages such as good solids mixing, high rates of
heat and mass transfer, and easy material transport.
For drying of powders in the particle size range
of 50 to 2000 mm, fluidized beds compete suc-
cessfully with other more traditional dryer types,
e.g., rotary, tunnel, conveyor, continuous tray (see
Table 8.1).
Conventional fluidized bed is formed by passing a
gas stream from the bottom of a bed of particulate
solids. At low gas velocities the bed is static (packed).
The fluidizing gas passes through the distributor and
it is uniformly distributed across the bed. Pressure
drop across the bed increases as the fluidizing gas
velocity is increased. At a certain gas velocity, the
bed is fluidized when the gas stream totally supports
the weight of the whole bed. This state is known as
minimum fluidization and the corresponding gas vel-
ocity is called minimum fluidization velocity, umf. Pres-
sure drop across the bed remains nearly the same as
pressure drop at minimum fluidization even if the gas
velocity is increased further. Figure 8.1 shows various
regimes of the particulate bed from packed to bubbling
bed when the gas velocity is increased. The graphs
show the bed pressure drops and bed voidage under
various regimes.
A fluidized bed is operated at superficial gas vel-
ocities higher than the minimum fluidization velocity,
umf, normally at 2–4 umf. The minimum fluidiza-
tion velocity is typically obtained from experiments.
There are several ways to determine the minimum
fluidization velocity experimentally. It can also be
estimated using various correlations. A list of min-
imum fluidization velocity can be obtained from
Gupta and Sathiyamoorthy [1]. It should be noted
that these correlations have limitations such as

TABLE 8.1
Comparison of Fluidized Bed Dryers (Conventional Types and Modified Types) with Other Competing Dryers
for Particulate Solids

Criterion Rotary Flasha Conveyor Conventional FBDs Modified FBDs

Particle size Large range Fine particles 500 mm–10 mm 100–2000 mm 10 mm–10 mm
Particle size distribution Flexible Limited size distribution Flexible Limited size distribution Wide distribution
Drying time (approx.) Up to 60 min 10–30 s Up to 120 min Up to 60 min Up to 60 min
Floor area Large Large length Large Small Small
Turndown ratio Large Small Small Small Small
Attrition High High Low High High
Power consumption High Low Low Medium Medium
Maintenance High Medium Medium Medium Medium
Energy efficiency Medium Medium High High High
Ease of control Low Medium High High High
Capacity High Medium Medium Medium High
a
Flash dryer is used only for removing surface moisture from smaller particles at relatively short drying times typically in the range of 10–30 s.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.


Fixed bed Expanded Minimum Bubbling
bed fluidization fluidization
Pressure
drop
umf Gas velocity
Bed
voidage
umf Gas velocity
FIGURE 8.1 Various regimes of a bed of particles at differ-
ent gas velocities.
particle size, column dimensions, operating param-
eters, etc. Thus, they are valid in a certain range of
criteria and operating conditions. The effect of wetness
of the particles is, however, not included.
Particles with high initial moisture content require
a higher minimum fluidization velocity than similar
bed of dry particles. Due to dominant cohesive forces
exerted by wetted surfaces, only the top layer of the
bed of solids is fluidized bed. The bottom layers may
remain stationary during the initial stage of drying
when the solids are quite wet.
For the case of dry (or partially dry, no surface
moisture) particles, if the fluidizing gas is further
increased, the bed of particles goes through different
types of fluidization regimes depending on the types
of particles with reference to the Geldart classification
of powders [2,3]. Based on fluidization quality, pow-
ders can be classified into four groups: group A (aera-
table particles, easy-to-fluidize when dry), group B
(sandlike particles, easy-to-fluidize when dry), group
C (fine and ultrafine particles, difficult-to-fluidize due
to dominated cohesive forces between particles), and
group D (large and dense particles, poor fluidization
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
quality due to formation of large bubbles in the bed).
Figure 8.2 shows the various fluidization regimes
exhibited by a bed of dry particles of different classes
with increasing gas velocity. Fluidized bed dryers
are normally operated in the regimes of smooth and
bubbling fluidization.
After passing through the fluidized bed, the gas
stream is introduced into gas-cleaning systems to sep-
arate fine particles (dusts) from the exit gas stream
before discharging it to the atmosphere. Figure 8.3
shows a typical setup of fluidized bed drying system.
A typical fluidized bed drying system consists of a gas
blower, heater, fluidized bed column, gas-cleaning
systems such as cyclone, bag filters, precipitator, and
scrubber. To save energy, sometimes the exit gas is
partially recycled.
The bubbling fluidized bed (Figure 8.3) is divided
vertically into two zones, namely a dense phase and
a freeboard region (also known as lean phase or
dispersed phase). The dense phase is located at the
bottom; above the dense phase is the freeboard in
which the solids hold-up and density decreases with
height (Figure 8.3).
Fluidizing gas after passing through the bed of
particles enters the freeboard region, and carries
with it fine particles which are terminal velocities
smaller than the operating gas velocity. This phenom-
enon is known as elutriation. Solids hold-up in the
freeboard region decreases as the freeboard height is
increased until a height beyond which the solids hold-
up remains unchanged. This point is known as the
transport disengagement height (TDH). TDH can be
estimated from several empirical correlations; these
correlations are expressed in terms of one or two
operating parameters thus, the predictions are gener-
ally poor. However, there is no universally accep-
ted equation for calculating TDH. As a result, it is
best to determine the transport disengaging height
experimentally.
In designing a fluidized bed dryer for solids dry-
ing, it is important to take note about the occurrence
of entrainment of fine particles, especially if the solids
are polydispersed (i.e., have wide particle size distri-
bution). The gas exit should be placed at a height
above the TDH to minimize elutriation of fines.
On the other hand, by means of fines elutriation,
solids in fluidized bed can be classified into fine and
coarse products. Particles that are elutriated by the
fluidized gas stream are known as fine products
whereas particles retained in the bed are known as
coarse products. This process is called fluidized bed
separation or classification or dedusting. For pro-
cesses that require a certain degree of dedusting (re-
moval of undesirable fine particles) or classification,
operating gas velocity and location of gas exit should
 #

Fixed Smooth Bubbling Turbulent Fast Pneumatic

bed conveying

# Bubble maximum size greater than 0.66

column diameter

Channeling Gas velocity

FIGURE 8.2 Various fluidization regimes exhibited by different classes of particles with increasing gas velocity.

be chosen carefully in order to achieve the appropri-
ate product cut size. Cut size refers to the critical size
that separates the fine (elutriated) and coarse (remain
in bed) particles.
To ensure uniform and stable fluidization, the
type of distributor has to be chosen carefully. This is
to prevent poor fluidization quality of solids in certain
regions in the fluidized bed, to prevent plugging of
distributor-perforated holes, and to avoid solids from
dropping into windbox or gas plenum located be-
neath the fluidized bed. There are many types of
distributors available. Figure 8.3 (lower right image)
shows four common types of distributors, namely,
ordinary (i), sandwiched (ii), bubble cap tuyere (iii),
and sparger (iv). It should be noted that pressure drop
across the distributor must be high enough to ensure
good and uniform fluidization.
As a rule of thumb, for upwardly and laterally
directed flow, pressure drop across the distributor
must exceed 30% of the pressure drop across the bed
[4]. Whereas for downwardly directed flow, the pres-
sure across the distributor must be greater than 10%
of the pressure drop across the bed. Upwardly direc-
ted flow is normally found in ordinary perforated
plates (Figure 8.3, lower right image-i). Sandwich-
type distributor is used if reinforcement of the
distributor is needed due to heavy load of bed of
particles (Figure 8.3 lower right image-ii). Laterally
directed flow is normally obtained with bubble caps
and nozzle types of distributors (Figure 8.3, lower

Solids reservoir (a) Freeboard; (b) dense phase

Cyclone
Feeder

Solids hold up
Windbox
Gas feed
Distributor plate
Heater Blower

FIGURE 8.3 Typical fluidized bed drying setup. Zones in a fluidized bed with its corresponding solids hold-up are shown in
upper right side image. Types of perforated distributor plates that can be used are shown in lower right side image.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

right image-iii), whereas the sparger type gives lat-
erally or downwardly directed flow (Figure 8.3,
lower right image-iv).
8.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Commonly recognized advantages of fluidized bed
drying include: high rate of moisture removal, high
thermal efficiency, easy material transport inside
dryer, ease of control, and low maintenance cost.
Limitations of fluidized bed dryer include: high pres-
sure drop, high electrical power consumption, poor
fluidization quality of some particulate products,
nonuniform product quality for certain types of flu-
idized bed dryers, erosion of pipes and vessels, en-
trainment of fine particles, attrition or pulverization
of particles, agglomeration of fine particles, etc. See
Mujumdar and Devahastin [5] for detailed discussion.
Besides drying, fluidized bed has found wide
ranges of industrial applications in various industries
for mixing, dedusting, granulation, coating, agglom-
eration, cooling, chemical reactions, incineration,
combustion, gasification, etc. Many of these processes
can be incorporated with fluidized bed drying in one
unit processor to accomplish two or more processes in
the same unit. Processes that can be advantageously
incorporated with fluidized bed drying are described
briefly in the following paragraphs.
The mixing effect in a fluidized bed is generally
good for particle sizes between 50 and 2000 mm. For
fine particles (particle size less than 50 mm), or for
particles that are difficult-to-fluidize when wet, vibra-
tion is normally applied to improve the fluidization
quality and the mixing effect. For large particles,
insertion of internals or use of the spouting mode
can help to improve the operation. For fluidized bed
drying, good particle mixing is essential. Thus, know-
ledge on particle fluidization characteristics and their
properties is required to ensure good performance of
a fluidized bed dryer. In addition, the bed of particles
can be fluidized by a pulsating flow or by fluidizing
sections of the bed periodically such that the entire
bed is fluidized in sequence once over a cycle. Clearly,
this operation results in saving of drying air and
hence electrical power but it also leads to a longer
operating time due to the intermittent mode of heat
input. Besides, intermittent fluidization can reduce
problem of mechanical damage to the particles due
to continuous vigorous particle–particle collision as
well as attrition-induced dusting.
Spray drying, granulation, coating, and agglom-
eration share the same basic operating principle.
A fine spray of solution–paste–slurry–suspension is
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atomized and sprayed in the fluidized bed of the
drying material itself or inert particles, which are
already loaded in the drying chamber. Formation
and growth of solid particles takes place in the cham-
ber as evaporation and drying carry away moisture.
In granulation, growth of solid particles is carried out
by successive wetting and coating of liquid feed onto
the solid particles, and solidification of the coated
layer by hot drying air. In coating, a layer of expen-
sive active agent can be coated on a less expensive
substrate, or to add a surface agent on solid particles,
which is needed for downstream processing. By spray-
ing a suitable binder onto the bed of solid particles,
agglomerated or granulated solid particles of large
particle size are produced.
In most cases, spray drying alone is not energy
efficient to remove all moisture content inside the
solids. This is because considerable amount of heat
and time is needed to remove internal moisture that
is trapped inside the solids internal. Fluidized bed
drying can be incorporated as the second-stage drying
to remove the internal moisture. This can be fol-
lowed by a third-stage fluidized bed cooling to avoid
the condensation problem during packaging in some
applications.
8.3 HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDIZED BEDS
Heat transfer in gas-fluidized bed can occur by con-
duction, convection, and radiation depending on the
operating conditions. The contribution of the respect-
ive modes of heat transfer to the coefficient of heat
transfer depends on particle classification, flow con-
dition, fluidization regimes, type of distributor, oper-
ating temperature, and pressure. Heat transfer
between a single particle and gas phase can be defined
by the conventional equation of heat transfer:
q ¼ hp Ap (Tp  Tg ) (8:1)
where q is the rate of heat transfer (W), hp is the heat
transfer coefficient (W/(m2K)), Ap is the surface area
of a single particle (m2), Tp is the temperature of the
particle (K), and Tg is the temperature of gas (K).
The value of heat transfer coefficient of a single
particle in a fluidized bed system is generally not high.
It is in the range of 1 to 700 W/(m2K). However, due
to the large interfacial surface area, in the order of
3,000 to 45,000 m2/m3, extremely high rates of heat
transfer are achieved in this system. The heat capacity
is in the order of 106 J/(m3K). As a result, thermal
equilibrium is reached quickly. In designing fluidized
bed dryers, an isothermal condition is often assumed.
The heat transfer coefficient, hp, is a function of
the operating parameters, particulate characteristics,
and dryer geometry. It can be estimated from the
following correlations depending on the particle
Reynolds number, Rep:
kg
hp ¼ Nup
dp
where kg is the gas thermal conductivity (W/(m K)),
dp is the particle diameter (m), and Nup is the particle
Nusselt number, and Prg is the gas Prandtl number [6].
For 0.1  Rep  50, Nup ¼ 0.0282 Re1.4 0.33
p Prg and
4
for 50  Rep  1  10 , Nup ¼ 1.01 Rep 0.48
Prg0.33
Tubes, single or multiple, as well as flat channels can
be immersed in a fluidized bed to provide additional
heat for drying by conduction. These surfaces may be
vertically or horizontally oriented. Empirical cor-
relations are available in the literature for various
geometries and operating conditions.
The surface-to-bed heat transfer coefficient,
hw ¼ q/aw (Tb  Tw), is based on the surface area of
the submerged object. This coefficient consists of two
components, convective and radiative if the tempera-
ture is high. Here aw is wall surface area (m2) and TW
is wall temperature (K), Tb is bed temperature (K).
The convective heat transfer coefficient, hc, can be
estimated using correlation by Vreedenberg [7] for
horizontal immersed objects:
!0:3
hc dt r m2g
¼ 420 s Prg 2 3 Re0t :3 if
kg rg grs dp
The radiant heat transfer coefficient, hr (W/m2 K) can be
estimated using the following equation among others [8]:
 
eb ew s(Tb4  Tw4 )
hr ¼ (8:7)
(8:2) eb þ ew  eb ew (Tb  Tw )
where s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Radiative
heat transfer is insignificant at temperatures, T, lower
than 7008C. Typically bed emissivity, «b, is approxi-
mately 0.9 and wall emissivity, «w, is between 0.9 and
1.125 [8]. Since most drying processes are carried out
at temperatures lower than 7008C, radiant heat trans-
fer can be neglected.
The effect of various operating parameters on the
heat transfer coefficient is given in Table 8.2.
8.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELS
OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYING
Many mathematical models of fluidized bed drying
have been proposed in the literature and verified with
experimental data. These models have been developed
based on different assumptions.
8.4.1 DIFFUSION MODEL
This model assumes that drying of single particles in a
fluidized bed is totally controlled by diffusion of
moisture inside the particle. For the analysis of par-
ticulate drying, diffusion equation for spheres of an
rs equivalent diameter can be used. Zahed and Epstein
Rep  2550
rg [23] developed a diffusion model for spout bed drying
and later Martinez-Vera et al. [24] applied the same
(8:3)
model for fluidized bed drying.
This model assumes

!0:44 . Solids are spherical, isotropic, uniform size, and

hc dt 0:3 rs (1  «) r
¼ 0:66Prg Re0:
t
44
if s Rep  2050 homogeneous. They are perfectly well mixed in
kg rg « rg fluidized bed.
(8:4) . Physical properties of the dry solids remain
constant with time.
In these equations, dt is the column diameter (m), rs is . Solids shrinkage and temperature gradient in-
the particle density (kg/m3), rg is the gravitational side the solid are negligible.
acceleration (m/s2), mg is the gas viscosity (Ns/m2), . Drying kinetics is governed by internal moisture
« is the void fraction, and Re is the Reynolds number diffusion. Thus, moisture at the solid surface is
defined by in equilibrium with the bed air humidity.
. Air is perfectly mixed. Exhaust air is in thermal
dt r g ug equilibrium with bed.
Ret ¼ (8:5) . The dryer is perfectly insulated.
mg
The diffusivity is assumed constant. The following
and diffusion equation defines moisture transport:
   
dp r g ug @X @2X 2 @X
Rep ¼ (8:6) ¼D þ (8:8)
mg @t @r2 r @r

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TABLE 8.2
Effect of Operating Parameters on Particle Heat Transfer Coefficient

Parameter Effect on Heat Transfer Coefficient, h Reference

Particle
Diameter, dp For fine particles, h is higher; for coarse particles, h is lower 9
Shape Higher for rounded and smooth surface particles 10,11
Specific heat, cp h /cpn, where 0.25 < n < 0.8 12,13
Thermal conductivity, kp No influence for small Biot number 14,15

Gas
Velocity, ug Increases above umf to a maximum value at an 9
optimum velocity, uopt and decreases thereafter
Density, rg Increases with increasing, rg 10,11
Viscosity, mg Increases with decreasing, mg
Specific heat, cg At moderate pressure and velocity, no information available 16,17
At high pressure, increases with increasing cg
Thermal conductivity, kg h / kgn, where 0.5 < n < 0.66 14,18
h Increases as bed temperature increases, due to increasing of kg
Fluidized bed
Bed height, Hb No influence 12,19
Bed diameter, db No information available
Bed temperature, Tb Gas-convective: increases for small particles; decreases for coarse particles 20
Bed pressure, Pb No influence on particle-convective heat transfer 21
Gas-convective heat transfer increases
Heat transfer surface
Length, L No influence 22
Tube diameter, dtube Increases with decreasing dtube 17

where X is the free moisture content, i.e., that in 8.4.2 EMPIRICAL MODEL
excess of the equilibrium value, D is the diffusivity
(m2/s), and r is radial dimension (m). In this model, the drying process is divided into dif-
If diffusivity is variable and dependent on the ferent periods where drying mechanisms in each dry-
radial distance of drying boundary from the center ing period are different.
of the solids, the following diffusion equation is used The general solution of Fick’s diffusion expresses
instead: the moisture content in terms of the drying time in
exponential function. The solution for spherical solids
 2      is given in the folowing the equation [26–28]:
@X @ X 2 @X @D @X 2
¼D þ þ (8:9) Sphere:
@t @ r2 r @r @X @r

Once the diffusivity is known, numerical analysis is X  Xeq 6 X

applied to the diffusion equation in order to find
moisture content profile inside the solid. Diffusivity
of various food products can be obtained from
Sablani et al. [25]. Average moisture content, X , can
be obtained from the following equation:
ð rp
4p
X¼ r2 X dr
Vp 0 experimental data obtained from fluidized bed drying
where Vp is the particle volume (m3). Note that mois-
ture content and temperature-dependent diffusivity
values can be used to solve the equation numerically.
1
1 n2 (p2 Deff t=r2sph )
¼ 2 e (8:11)
Xo  Xeq p n¼1 n2
where rsph is the sphere radius (m), Deff is the effective
diffusivity (m2/s) and L is slab half thickness. Subscript
‘‘eq’’ denotes equilibrium and ‘‘o’’ indicates initial state.
Since the general solution of the diffusion equa-
tion is expressed as a series of exponential functions,
(8:10)
can be correlated as an exponential function. Many
empirical exponential equations have been proposed.
Equation 8.12 is a simple exponential equation. It
assumes that the drying rate is proportional to the

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difference between the average moisture content and sufficient to estimate the residence time of solids in
the equilibrium moisture content [29]: order to achieve the desirable final moisture content.
Moisture content of solids in different drying periods
X  Xeq can be estimated from the following equations.
¼ ekt (8:12)
Xind  Xeq In the constant rate period,

where subscript ‘‘ind’’ denotes induction period. X ¼ Xo  at (8:16)

Equation 8.13 is a modified version of Equation
8.12 by Henderson and Pabis [30]. This equation is In the falling rate period,
also analogous to the theoretical diffusion equation
solution for an infinite slab [26,31]. Comparing Equa- X ¼ Xeq þ (Xcr1  Xeq )ea(ttcr1 )=(Xcr1 Xeq ) (8:17)
tion 8.13 and Equation 8.11, b ¼ Deffp2/r2sph [32]:
where subscript ‘‘cr1’’ denotes the first critical point
X  Xeq that distinguishes constant and falling rate periods.
¼ aebt (8:13)
Xind  Xeq For a single-stage continuous fluidized bed kinetics
model, solids exit the fluidized bed system with a
Equation 8.12 tends to overpredict the early stage and distribution of moisture content due to the wide
underpredict the later stage of drying. Equation 8.14 residence time distribution. An average value of the
is an empirical modification of Equation 8.12 by moisture content and residence time is used.
introducing an exponent y [33]. It has been used The average moisture content of solids in a con-
most commonly because most experimental data can tinuous fluidized bed drying is given by
be fitted very well with the following equation:
ð 
X X
X  Xeq ¼ E(u) du (8:18)
¼ ext
y
(8:14) Xo Xo b
Xind  Xeq
where (X/Xo)b is the moisture ratio in batch fluidized
Equation 8.15 uses the first two terms from Fick’s bed dryer, E(u) is the residence time density for the
second law of diffusion. This equation has been used solids, and E(u) ¼ eu. u ¼ t/tcr1 is dimensionless
regardless of solids geometry [34]: time. Subscript ‘‘b’’ denotes batch process [36].
In the constant rate period,
X  Xeq
¼ a1 eb1 t þ a2 eb2 t (8:15)
Xind  Xeq X at
¼1 (8:19)
Xo Xo
It should be noted that drying constants in the models
mentioned above are empirical and depend on the In the falling rate period,
type of materials, operating conditions as well as
dryer dimensions. If one of these models is used for
X at
fluidized bed dryer design, experimental investigation ¼1 (8:20)
on drying kinetics has to be conducted to obtain the Xo (bt þ 1)Xo
drying constant for the particular material prior to
For a continuous fluidized bed that exhibits both
the dryer design.
constant and falling rate periods, the moisture content
is then given by the following equation:
8.4.3 KINETIC MODEL
 
Chandran et al. [35] developed a kinetic model for X at bte  uc
¼1þ 1 (8:21)
fluidized bed drying of solids. For a batch fluidized Xo Xo bt þ 1
bed kinetic model, it is assumed that the drying pro-
cess has both constant and falling rate periods. Dry- where b ¼ a/(Xcr1  Xeq), uc ¼ t/tcr1,X is the average
ing rate in the falling rate period falls linearly with moisture content, t is the average residence time, and
decreasing moisture content. Feed conditions and a is the drying coefficient.
total contact area between solids and hot airstream Once the average moisture content is known,
remain the same throughout the whole drying pro- equations obtained from mass and energy balances
cess. In the batch drying operation, there is little in the following models can be used to calculate the
interaction between the particles (wet and dry par- humidity and temperature of the exhaust air as well as
ticles) in the system. Thus, data on drying kinetics is the solids temperature. The simplest model is the

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

single-phase model that treats the fluidized bed as a
continuum. As the number of phases considered in
the model goes higher, the fluidized bed drying model
becomes more complex and involves more transport
properties. Complicated fluidized bed drying models
that account for many transport processes that occur
within and across the phases are beyond the scope of
this chapter.
8.4.4 SINGLE-PHASE MODEL
In a single-phase model, the fluidized bed is regarded
essentially as a continuum (Figure 8.4). Heat and
mass balances are applied over the fluidized bed. It
is assumed that particles in the bed are perfectly
mixed. Equation 8.22 and Equation 8.23 are the
equations of moisture balance and energy balance,
respectively [24].
Moisture Balance:
dX
Ms ¼ Gg (Yout  Yin )
dt
where cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure (kJ/
(kg K)) and l is the latent heat of vaporization
(kJ/kg). Subscript ‘‘s’’ denotes wet solid, ‘‘g’’ denotes
dry air, and ‘‘v’’ denotes water vapor. Equation 8.23
neglects sensible heat of the water in solids.
8.4.5 TWO-PHASE MODEL
A simple two-phase model of fluidized bed drying
treats the fluidized bed to be composed of a bubble
phase (dilute phase) and an emulsion phase (dense
phase). The bubble phase contains no particles or
the particles are widely dispersed. This model assumes
that all gas in excess of minimum fluidization velocity,
umf, flows through the bed as bubbles whereas the
emulsion phase stays stagnant at the minimum fluid-
ization conditions [37]. Figure 8.5 shows a schematic
diagram of the simple two-phase model.
Zahed et al. [38] have presented mass and energy
balance equations for the dense phase and the bubble
phase for fluidized bed drying. Mass balance of liquid
(8:22)
in the bubble phase gives the following equation:

where Ms is the mass hold-up of dry solid in bed (kg), dYbb Vgbb
X is the average moisture content (kg/kg), Gg is the rg «bb þ rg (Ybb  Yin )
dt Vb t
mass flow rate of dry air (kg/s), and Y is the air
6Kc rg «bb
humidity (kg(water vapor)/kg(dry air)). ¼ (Yd  Ybb ) (8:24)
Energy Balance: dbb

dT where subscript ‘‘bb’’ denotes bubble phase and ‘‘d’’

Ms cps ¼ Gg (cg þ Yin cv )(Tin  Tout ) denotes dense phase. The rate of change of mass in
dt
the bubble phase can be assumed to be negligible [38]
 Gg (Yout  Yin )l (8:23)
and Equation 8.24 can be rearranged to express hu-
midity in the bubble phase, Ybb in terms of humidity
Outlet drying air in the dense phase, Yd. In the equation, Vgbb/Vb is the
Yout, Tout gas flow rate in bubble phase per unit volume of bed.

Solid particles
ms, Ts, cs
Dense phase Gas crossflow Dilute phase
particulate solids bubbles

Inlet drying air

Yin, Tin, Gg Gas flow
FIGURE 8.4 Schematic diagram of the single-phase model FIGURE 8.5 Schematic diagram of a two-phase model for
of fluidized bed dryer. fluidized bed drying.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Kc is the mass transfer coefficient across the bubble
boundary.
Mass balance of liquid in the interstitial gas in the
dense phase gives the following equation:
6Kc rg «bb Vgd
(Ybb  Yd )  rg (Yd  Yin ) þ m
_
dbb Vb t
DYd
¼ rg «mf (1  «bb ) (8:25)
dt
Likewise, the rate of change of mass in the interstitial
gas can be assumed to be negligible. In this equation,
m_ is the mass rate of evaporation of water per unit
volume of bed, which in turn can be obtained from
mass balance on dense phase. Vgd/Vb is the gas flow
rate in dense phase per unit volume of bed.
Mass balance of liquid in the dense-phase particles
yields the following equation:
dX
_ ¼ rp (1  «mf )(1  «bb )
m (8:26)
dt
The coupled mass and energy balance in dense phase
that consists of particles and interstitial gas phases is
given in the following equation:
dTp
rp (1  «mf )(1  «bb )(cps  cplX )
dt
Vgd
¼ rg (cpg þ Yin cpv )(Tgin  Tp )  DHevap
V t
 b
Vgd 6Kc rg «bb
 rg (Yd  Yin )  (Ybb  Yd )
Vb t dbb
(8:27)
The above equation expresses the change of particle
temperature in the dense phase in terms of average
moisture content, X , which can be determined from
any one equation from Equation 8.8 through Equa-
tion 8.21 depending on the operating conditions and
the drying model, humidity of dense and bubble
phases, Yd, Ybb, enthalpy of evaporation, DHevap,
bubble diameter, dbb, and mass transfer coefficient
of bubble boundary. Solving Equation 8.27 yields
the solids temperature at different drying times.
8.5 EFFECT OF OPERATING PARAMETERS
ON FLUIDIZED BED DRYING
8.5.1 EFFECT OF BED HEIGHT
For materials with high mobility of internal moisture
such as iron ore, ion-exchange resins, silica gel, most
drying takes place close to the distributor plate. Bed
height has no effect on its drying rate that increasing
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
bed height beyond a particular value leads to no
differences in drying rates. For materials with main
resistance to drying within the material, e.g., grains,
drying rate decreases with increasing bed height.
8.5.2 EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE
For group B particles (sandlike particles, according
to Geldart Classification of Powdes), drying time that
is required to remove a given amount of moisture
increases as the square of the particle diameter pro-
vided that all other conditions remain unchanged.
However, this effect is much smaller for group A
(aertable particles, according to Geldart Classifica-
tion of Powdes) particles because these particles are
finer than group B and it exhibits smooth fluidization
before entering bubbling fluidization regime.
8.5.3 EFFECT OF GAS VELOCITY
Gas velocity has a dominant effect on removing sur-
face moisture. Increasing the gas velocity increases
the drying rate. However, gas velocity has no effect
at all for particles with high internal resistance to
moisture transfer. High internal moisture resistance
dominates at the end of the falling rate period.
8.5.4 EFFECT OF BED TEMPERATURE
Bed temperature is increased by high external heat
fluxes. This in turn leads to higher moisture diffusiv-

ities and hence higher drying rate. This effect is com-
plex and depends on the relative significance of
external and internal resistances to moisture transfer.
8.6 TYPES OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS:
CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION
Various types of fluidized bed dryers have been studied,
developed, and operated in many industrial processes
according to the respective process, product, oper-
ational safety, and environmental requirements. It is
important to become familiar with the specific charac-
teristics of different fluidized bed types in order to make
a logical and cost-effective selection. It should be noted
that in many instances several different types may pro-
vide similar performance at the same cost.
Some novel fluidized bed dryers, which have not
found application in industrial drying, are used to
overcome disadvantages and difficulties that may
occur in conventional fluidized bed dryers. It should
be noted that not all modified fluidized bed dryers
are necessarily better than the conventional dryers
in terms of product quality, or energy efficiency, or
drying performance.
TABLE 8.3
Classification of Fluidized Bed Dryers
Criterion
Processing mode/feed
and discharge
Particulate flow regime
Operating pressure
Fluidization gas flow
Fluidizing gas temperature
Heat supply
Fluidization action
Fluidized material
Fluidizing medium
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Type of Dryer Subclassification
. Batch FBDs (well-mixed)
. Semicontinuous FBDs
. Continuous . Well-mixed FBDs
. Plug flow FBDs or
. Single stage
. Multistage FBDs
. Hybrid/combined FBDs
. Well-mixed FBDs
. Plug flow FBDs
. Circulating FBDs
. Hybrid . Multistage FBDs (well-mixed—plug flow)
. Hybrid/combined FBDs
. Low (for heat-sensitive products,
low pressure strategy)
. Near atmospheric (most common)
. High (5 bars, superheated steam FBDs)
. Continuous
. Pulsed FBDs
. Constant
. Time-dependent . Step down
. Step up
. Periodic (zigzag)
. Combined
. Convective
. Convective/conduction (immersed FBDs)
or
. Continuous
. Intermittent (multiple variable strategy)
. By gas flow (pneumatic) . Ordinary FBDs
. Circulating FBDs
. By jet flow . Spouted FBDs
. Recirculating FBDs
. Jetting FBDs
. With mechanical assistance . Vibration (vibrated FBDs)
. With external field . Agitation (agitated FBDs)
. Rotation (centrifugal FBDs)
. Microwave–radio frequency field (MW–RF FBDs)
. Acoustic field
. Magnetic field
. Particulate solid (most common) . Group A and B (most common, conventional FBDs)
. Group C (vibrated FBDs, agitated FBDs)
. Group D (vibrated FBDs, baffled FBDs, spouted FBDs)
. Paste/slurry . Spray onto a bed of inert particles (inert solids FBDs)
. Spray onto absorbent particles (silica gel, biomass)
. Spouted FBDs
. Heated air/flue gases/direct combustion gas
. Superheated steam/vapor
. Dehumidified cool air (heat pump FBDs)
. Air below freezing point of liquid being
removed (fluidized bed freeze dryers)
 Table 8.3 classifies the diverse variants of fluidized
bed dryers according to various criteria.
8.7 CONVENTIONAL FLUIDIZED
BED DRYERS
8.7.1 BATCH FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
A batch fluidized bed dryer is used when production
capacity required is small (normally 50 to 1000 kg/h)
or several products are to be produced in the same
production line. It is preferable to operate batchwise
if upstream and downstream processes are operated
in batch mode, or several processes are to be carried
out in sequence (e.g., mixing, drying, granulation/
coating, cooling) in the same processing unit.
Drying air temperature and flow rate are normally
fixed at a constant value. However, by adjusting the
airflow rate and its temperature, it is possible to save
energy and reduce attrition. Mechanical assistance
such as agitation or vibration is normally applied
for processing materials that are difficult-to-fluidize.
Figure 8.6 shows a typical batch fluidized bed dryer
with expanded freeboard and built-in internal bag fil-
ters. Expanded freeboard is used to reduce elutriation
of fine particles.
8.7.2 SEMICONTINUOUS FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
In semicontinuous fluidized bed drying system, the
drying chamber consists of a series of subprocessors.
The wet product is accurately dosed and charged into
the batches. The product is either transported batch-
wise from one processor to another processor or the
batches (the processors with the batches of product)
rotates along the process line [39]. This gives uninter-
rupted continuous operation over a long period.
Figure 8.7 shows a schematic diagram of a semicon-
Bag
filters
Fluidized
bed
FIGURE 8.6 Batch fluidized bed dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Rotation Wet solids
Exhaust
air
Heated air
Dry solids
FIGURE 8.7 Semicontinuous fluidized bed dryer.
tinuous fluidized bed dryer where the batches are
rotated. In addition, gas temperature and velocity at
different batches can be varied.
8.7.3 WELL-MIXED, CONTINUOUS FLUIDIZED
BED DRYERS
The well-mixed continuous fluidized bed dryer
(Figure 8.8) is one of the most common fluidized
bed dryers used in the industry. As the bed of particles
is perfectly mixed, the bed temperature is uniform and
is equal to the product and exhaust gas temperatures.
However, particle residence time distribution is neces-
sarily wide, thus resulting in wide range of product
moisture content. On the other hand, as the feed
material is continuously charged into the fluidized
bed of relatively dry particles, this gives the added
advantage of enhanced fluidizability and better fluid-
ization quality. In some cases, a series of well-mixed
continuous dryers may be used with variable operat-
ing parameters. In addition, a well-mixed continuous
Exhaust air
Wet solids
lot air or
Dry solids
flue gas
FIGURE 8.8 Well-mixed fluidized bed dryers.
fluidized bed dryer can be incorporated with other
types of dryers such as plug flow fluidized bed dryers
to give better drying performance.
8.7.4 PLUG FLOW FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
In plug flow fluidized bed dryers, vertical baffles are
inserted to create a narrow particle flow path, thus
giving relatively narrow particle residence time distri-
bution. Particles flow continuously as a plug from the
inlet toward the outlet through the path. This ensures
nearly equal residence time for all particles irres-
pective of their size and ensures uniform product
moisture content. Various paths can be designed such
as straight or spiral paths. Length-to-width ratio is
normally in the range of 5:1 to 30:1. Figure 8.9
shows a plug flow fluidized bed dryer of straight and
reverse paths.
Operational problems might occur at the feed inlet
because wet feedstock must be fluidized directly ra-
ther than when mixed with drier material as in the
case of a well-mixed unit. To overcome the problem of
fluidizability at the feed inlet, the inlet region may be
agitated with an agitator, or by applying backmixing of
solids, or by using a flash dryer to remove the surface
moisture prior to plug flow fluidized bed drying.
8.8 MODIFIED FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Various types of modified fluidized bed dryers have
been developed and applied in many industrial pro-
cesses. Modified fluidized bed dryers are applied to
overcome some of the problems and disadvantages
encountered in conventional fluidized beds.
8.8.1 MULTISTAGE AND MULTIPROCESS FLUIDIZED
BED DRYERS
As fluidized beds offer many distinct features and
advantages for processing of particulate materials,
Exhaust gas
Exhaust gas Wet solid
Hot air
Perforated
distributor
Dry solid
(a)
FIGURE 8.9 Plug flow fluidized bed dryers. (a) Straight path; (b) reversing path.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
two or more processes can be carried out and accom-
plished in a fluidized bed column. This can be
achieved by simply changing the operating conditions
of fluidized bed to mix, dry, granulate, or coat [40], or
cool in a single unit without discharging the material
from the unit.
In a fluidized bed spray dryer, spray drying is
carried out in the upper part of the chamber fol-
lowed by fluidized bed drying or agglomeration (Fig-
ure 8.10a). The large-scale fluidized bed coal dryer is
also a particle classifier (Figure 8.10b). Drying and
classification (separation of fines) are carried out in
the same fluidized bed. By changing the fluidizing gas
velocity, cut size (particle size that separates fine and
coarse particles) can be adjusted in the classification
process. Another example is upper stage of fluidized
bed drying that can be followed by a lower stage
of fluidized bed cooling (Figure 8.11a). A fluidized
bed dryer or cooler consists of first-stage fluidized bed
dryer followed by second-stage fluidized bed cooling
(Figure 8.11b).
In addition, different types of fluidized bed sys-
tems can be incorporated in a processing unit as well.
For instance, first-stage well-mixed fluidized bed pre-
drying can be incorporated with second-stage plug
flow fluidized bed drying (Figure 8.11a). By incorpor-
ating different processes and combining different
types of fluidized beds, space requirement, installa-
tion costs, and energy consumption can be reduced
appreciably.
8.8.2 HYBRID FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Hybrid fluidized bed dryers are useful for through
drying of solids that contain surface and internal
moistures. Surface moisture can be removed in the
first-stage drying using a flash or cyclone dryers. Sec-
ond-stage drying is then carried out in fluidized
bed dryers in which residence time can be easily
controlled. Figure 8.12 shows an example of hybrid
Wet solid
Hot air
Partition plate/
internal baffle
Dry solid
Perforated
distributor
(b)

Exhaust gas
Liquid
Hot gas
Dry solids
(a)
FIGURE 8.10 (a) Spray fluidized bed dryer; (b) fluidized bed coal dryer and classifier.
cyclone fluidized bed dryer [39]. Wet solids are first
charged into the cyclone dryer by exiting fluidizing
gas from fluidized bed dryer. Surface moisture
content of solids is quickly removed with the gas
in the cyclone dryer. Solids and gas are separated in
the cyclone. Partially dried solids are then pneuma-
tically conveyed into the fluidized bed for second-
stage drying. Other types of hybrid fluidized bed
dryers include flash-fluidized bed dryer, filter-fluidized
bed dryer [41].
A multistage spray fluidized bed dryer consists of
a spray chamber followed by first-stage fluidized bed
drying and second-stage fluidized bed cooling (Fig-
ure 8.13). When solid powders are formed in the spray
dryer, these powders still contain some internal mois-
ture. It is costly to use a spray dryer to remove all of
the internal moisture. Instead, using a second-stage
fluidized bed dryer is more cost-effective. Lisboa et al.
[42] applied fluidization technique in a conventional
rotary. The dryer is known as roto-fluidized dryer.
Inlet solids
Exhaust air
Upper
stage
Lower
stage
Product Heated air
(a)
FIGURE 8.11 Two-stage fluidized bed dryers. (a) Upper stage well-mixed fluidized bed followed by lower stage plug flow
fluidized bed; (b) first-stage dryer followed second-stage cooler.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Exhaust gas
Solids
inlet
Fluidized bed
coal dryer
Solids outlet
Heated air
(b)
It was found that the roto-fluidized dryer performs
better than the conventional rotary dryer.
8.8.3 PULSATING FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Pulsating fluidized bed dryers are used to overcome the
problems of restricted particle size and size distribu-
tion, as well as aggregative fluidization and channeling
that occur in a conventional fluidized bed dryer when
processing certain types of powders. By pulsating the
fluidizing gas stream, the fluidized bed either the whole
bed or part of the bed is subjected to variable fluidizing
gas velocity (Figure 8.14) [43–46]. This contributes to
effective energy costs saving and enhanced drying per-
formance without affecting the fluidization quality and
process performance or added extra capital costs. For
larger particles (group D particles), intermittent spout-
ing of the bed with a rotating spouting jet has been
shown to reduce energy consumption with only a mar-
ginal increase in drying time for batch drying.
Exhaust air Exhaust air
Wet solids
Hot air Cooling air Cooling air
(b)
 Wet increases the contacting efficiency between the bed
Exhaust
solid
gas
and the heat transfer surface. However, heat transfer
coefficient reaches a maximum value. Beyond this
point, increasing superficial gas velocity will hinder
heat transfer between the bed and the heating surface.
Fluidized
Cyclone This is because of increasing preponderance of bubble
bed dryer
dryer (not particles) at the heating surface, which decreases
particle-to-wall heat transfer.

Pneumatic
8.8.5 MECHANICALLY ASSISTED FLUIDIZED
conveyor Air BED DRYERS
Dry Fluidization quality of fine and large particles can be
solid Hot gas enhanced by the assistance of external means such as
vibration or agitation. Moreover, these particles can
FIGURE 8.12 Hybrid cyclone fluidized bed dryer. be immersed in a bed of fluidizable inert particles to
improve their fluidization quality [47].

8.8.4 FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS WITH IMMERSED
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Fluidized beds equipped with internal heaters or im-
mersed tubes transfer heat indirectly to the drying
material. Horizontal tube bundles (Figure 8.15) are
used extensively compared to vertical type. Tube
pitch is an important design parameter. Fluidizing
gas stream fluidizes the material and carries over the
evaporated moisture. As a result, total sensible heat
of gas and thus quantity of gas required are reduced.
Immersed tubes or internally heated fluidized bed
dryers are used to dry smaller size or fine powders.
This is because heat transfer coefficient decreases with
increasing particle size. Instead of tubes, vertical
plates are also used as immersed heaters.
Heat transfer is highly dependent on the particle
heat capacity and mixing. Vigorous bubble action
gives better particle circulation and mixing, and thus
8.8.6 VIBRATED FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Vibration combined with upward flow of air in an
aerated bed enables particles to pseudofluidize
smoothly. The gas velocity required for minimum
fluidization is considerably lower than the mini-
mum fluidization velocity in conventional fluidized
bed dryer. Attrition due to vigorous actions between
particle–particle and particle–wall is thus minimized
appreciably. Hence, application of fluidized bed can
be extended to fragile, abrasive, and heat-sensitive
materials. The problem of fine particle entrainment
is also avoided. For polydisperse powders, low gas
velocity fluidizes the fine particles gently whereas
vibration keeps the coarse particles in a mobile state.
Vibrating fluidized beds are generally plug flow
type (Figure 8.16). Vibrating fluidized beds are rela-
tively shallow as the effect of vibration imparted by
the vibrating grid decays with distance from the grid.

Liquid
Exhaust gas Exhaust gas
Feed
Heated air
Aglomeration
chamber

Cyclone

Vibro-fluidizer
Particles

Sieve

Heated air Cool air

Desirable
product Coarse Fine
Recycled fine, crushed coarse

FIGURE 8.13 Multistage fluidized bed spray dryer.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Exhaust air

Wet Product
feed

Perforated
distributor

Inlet gas distributor

Hot air
FIGURE 8.14 Pulsating fluidized bed. Parts of the bed are fluidized periodically.

There are some acoustic noise issues associated with bed is formed without channeling or formation of
such devices. These units can operate in batch as well large bubbles. Moreover, agitated fluidized bed dryers
as continuous modes. are useful for drying pastes or cakes consisting of fine
particles [48]. In this case, agitation helps to disinte-
8.8.7 AGITATED FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS/SWIRL grate and disperse the pasty feed. The agitator serves
FLUIDIZERS as a mixer in the dryer [49]. Moreover, deeper bed
depth is possible if the bed is agitated whereas its
Another way to improve fluidization quality of fine fluidization quality is maintained.
particles is to impart mechanical agitation to the bed
(Figure 8.17). By agitation, a homogeneous fluidized
8.8.8 FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS OF INERT PARTICLES
In recent years, the application of fluidized bed drying
Exhaust gas has been extended to drying of fine powders, pastes,
slurries, suspensions, pulp, and enzymes-containing
aqueous medium [50–55]. This is accomplished by
using inert particles of high heat capacity (Figure
8.18) [56]. Inert particles must be able to fluidize
Solids well in a fluidized bed. By mixing the inert particles
inlet
whose fluidization quality is generally good with the
materials mentioned above, the fluidization quality of
the materials is improved appreciably [57,58]. In add-
ition, the inert particles with high heat capacity serve
as energy carriers that enhance heat transfer [59,60].
Drying on inert particles can be performed in a var-
Solids flow iety of fluidized beds namely ordinary fluidized bed,
Heating
fluid spouted bed, spouted fluidized bed, jetting-spouted
Gas flow
bed, as well as vibrated fluidized bed [61].
Immersed tube The liquid to be dried is sprayed into the fluidized
bed; it coats the inert particle surfaces. The coated
Solids out layer dries as a result of combined convective heat
Hot gas transfer from hot air and contact heat transfer due to
FIGURE 8.15 Immersed tubes fluidized bed dryer. sensible heat of the particles. When the thin layer is

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Exhaust air
Wet solids
Hot air
Vibrator
FIGURE 8.16 Vibrating fluidized bed.
dry, it becomes brittle, cracks, and is peeled off
due to attrition by particle–particle and particle–wall
collisions. As a result, a fine powder is formed and is
carried over by the exhaust gas to be collected
and separated in suitable gas-cleaning devices such
as cyclones or bag filters.
8.8.9 SPOUTED BED DRYERS
Spouted bed dryers are useful for drying of large
(Geldart’s group D) particles (>5 mm), which exhibit
slugging under normal fluidization. In a spouted bed,
a high gas velocity jet of gas penetrates through an
opening at the bottom of the bed of particles and
Exhaust
air
Solids inlet
Rotation
Agitator
Heated air
Product
FIGURE 8.17 An agitated fluidized bed dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Flexible
couplings
Dry solids
transports the particles to the bed surface. Energetic
spouting at the bed surface thrusts the particles
into the freeboard region at the center of the bed
(Figure 8.19). After losing their momentum, these
particles fall back onto the bed surface. Through
this fountain-like action, good solid mixing is in-
duced. A cyclical flow of particles is thus created.
Details of spouted bed drying are discussed elsewhere
in this handbook.
The spout bed has been applied to drying, granu-
lation, coating as well as to drying of pastes, solu-
tions, slurries, and suspensions. Mujumdar [62] has
classified spouted beds into at least 30 different vari-
ants, each with a specific set of advantages and limi-
tations. Periodically spouted beds, multiple spouted
Exhaust gas
Liquid
Fluidizing gas
FIGURE 8.18 Inert solids fluidized bed.

Bed surface
Spout
Conical
base
Spouting gas
FIGURE 8.19 Spouted bed dryers.
beds, two-dimensional spouted beds, and oscillating
spouted beds are some of the ideas introduced by
Mujumdar in 1985, which have been examined in
the literature in recent years.
8.8.10 RECIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Insertion of a tubular draft tube into an ordinary
spouted fluidized bed changes its operational and
design characteristics. This type of fluidized bed is
known as recirculating fluidized bed (or internally
circulating fluidized bed, see Figure 8.20). Unlike
spouted beds, recirculating fluidized beds do not
have limitation of maximum spoutable bed height
and minimum spouting velocity. As spouting gas
stream passes through the draft tube, it is confined
within the tube and does not leak out horizontally
toward the downcomer. After passing through the
draft tube, particles follow a certain flow pattern in
the bed and flow downward in downcomer region.
Since there is more flexibility in operating recircu-
lating fluidized bed, it is applicable to handle all
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Exhaust gas
Draft tube Solids out
Downcomer
Solids flow
Gas flow
Gas and
solid feed
FIGURE 8.20 Recirculating fluidized bed dryer.
groups of powders and particles. Its application in
drying has been reported in coating of tablets in
pharmaceutical industries, and in drying of dilute
solutions containing solids. However, it is not a
common dryer type now.
8.8.11 JETTING FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
In an ordinary fluidized bed, inlet gas is passed
through nozzles, which are perforated evenly across
the distributor plate. Jetting regions appear above
every nozzle. In a spouted bed, inlet gas stream is
supplied through a centrally located jet, spout in di-
lute phase is thus created, and penetrates the center
region of the spouted bed (Figure 8.19). However, if a
fairly large jet replaces the conical centrally located jet
in a spout bed, a jetting fluidized bed is formed. One
distinctive feature of jetting fluidized bed is that
bubbles are formed instead of dilute phase spout
(Figure 8.21). Small-scale jetting fluidized beds have
been applied in coating and granulation processes.
8.8.12 FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS WITH
INTERNAL BAFFLES
Internal baffles can be inserted into a fluidized bed to
divide the bed into several compartments. Various
types of baffles can be used, e.g., wire mesh, perfor-
ated plate, turn plate, louver plate, and ring [63]. In
 Exhaust
gas
Jet
Solids out
Gas inlet
FIGURE 8.21 Jetting fluidized bed dryer.
addition, the internals can be placed horizontally or
vertically (Figure 8.22). Horizontal baffles are fre-
quently used. The objective of inserting baffles (hori-
zontal and vertical) is to limit bubble growth and
coalescence [64,65]. Hence, the baffled fluidized bed
is useful to process group B and D particles because
large bubbles are formed with such particles. The
effect of baffles on the gas and solids flow is very
complex and is dependent on bed diameter, distance
between baffles, baffle opening and operating condi-
tions. The optimum conditions for operating an
Solids in
Bubbles
Horizontal
baffles
Gas distributor
Gas in
(a)
FIGURE 8.22 (a) Horizontal baffled fluidized bed dryer; (b) vertical baffled fluidized bed dryer.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
efficient baffled fluidized bed dryer can only be deter-
mined by carrying out pilot testing.
8.8.13 SUPERHEATED STEAM FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS
Superheated steam as the fluidizing medium offers a
number of advantages, e.g., no fire or explosion haz-
ards, no oxidative damage, better operation perform-
ance (higher drying rate) and product quality,
environmental friendliness, high energy consumption
efficiency, suitability for drying of products contain-
ing toxic or expensive organic liquids, ability to per-
mit pasteurization, sterilization, and deodorization of
food products [66,67]. Details are available elsewhere
in this handbook.
The application of superheated steam fluidized
bed dryer has been reported for drying of paper and
pulp, wood-based biofuels (Figure 8.23), sugar beet
pulp, and paddy [65,66]. Superheated steam fluidized
bed drying of foodstuff, coal, bagasse, sludges, spent
grains from breweries, lumber, tortilla, vegetables,
herbs, and spice is also possible [67,70].
8.8.14 FLUIDIZED BED FREEZE DRYER
Freeze-drying is one of the low-temperature drying
techniques suitable for drying of highly heat-sensitive
materials such as drugs, pharmaceutical, biological,
and food products. Freeze-drying removes mois-
ture captured inside the solids by sublimation of
moisture from solid state (ice) to vapor state.
Ordinary freeze-drying is carried out in vacuum.
Over the years, new developments showed that freeze-
drying can be carried out at atmospheric pressure
and as well as in a fluidized bed (e.g., Refs. [71–73]).
Here the drying rate is very slow. Wolff and Gibert
[74] showed that fluidized bed freeze-drying at
Solids out
Gas
in
(b)
 Steam
Cyclone from dryer
Heat exchanger
Steam supply
Pressurized screws
Fluidized bed Wet product
Dry product
Condensate
Screw conveyor Distributor plate
Impeller
FIGURE 8.23 Pressurized superheated steam fluidized bed
dryer.
atmospheric pressure with the use of adsorbents can
increase the drying rate appreciably (about sevenfold
compared to that without adsorbent). In this case,
adsorbent particles play a dual role as transfer agent
for both heat and mass transfers. But there is diffi-
culty in separating adsorbent particles and frozen
dried products at the end of the process. It is thus
suggested to use particles that are edible or compat-
ible with human consumption such as starch. Fluid-
ized bed freeze-drying assisted by adsorbent involves
three stages, namely freezing of product, sublima-
tion of free-frozen water, and secondary dehydration
by desorption.
Wolff and Gibert [75] suggested that fluidized bed
freeze-drying should be carried out at higher tempera-
ture, but lower than the freezing point. They showed
that fluidized bed freeze-drying with absorbent con-
tributes to about 35% saving in heat requirement,
respectively, although much longer drying time is
needed as compared to vacuum freeze-drying.
8.8.15 HEAT PUMP FLUIDIZED BED DRYER
An ordinary fluidized bed drying system consists of a
blower, heater, dehumidifier (optional), fluidized bed-
chamber, and cyclone, whereas an ordinary heat
pump drying system consists of evaporator, compres-
sor, condenser, and an expansion valve. By combin-
ing fluidized bed and heat pump drying systems,
where the evaporator acts as a dehumidifier and the
condenser as a heater, a heat pump fluidized bed
dryer is formed.
The working fluid (refrigerant) at low pressure is
vaporized in the evaporator by heat drawn from the
exhaust humid air. At the same time, condensation of
moisture occurs as the exhaust air temperature goes
below dew point temperature. Thus, the process air
is dehumidified. The working fluid then goes to
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
compressor. The compressor raises the enthalpy of
the working fluid and discharges it as superheated
vapor at high pressure. Heat is removed from the
working fluid and returned to the process air, which
has been dehumidified previously at the condenser.
As a result, the process air temperature increases. The
working fluid is then throttled using an expansion
valve to the low-pressure line and enters the evapor-
ator to complete the cycle, whereas the dehumidified
and heated process air is charged into the fluidized
bed drying chamber to remove moisture of solids.
Details on heat pump drying are available elsewhere
in this handbook.
Figure 8.24 shows a typical heat pump fluidized
bed dryer. The fluidized bed drying chamber receives
wet solids and discharges dried product whereas de-
humidified and heated air is charged into the chamber
from the bottom of the chamber. The drying tempera-
ture can be adjusted by monitoring the capacity of
condenser, whereas the desired humidity of inlet air
can be obtained by controlling the motor frequency
of compressor.
The advantages offered by heat pump fluidized
bed dryer are: low energy consumption due to high
specific moisture extraction rate (SMER), high coef-
ficient of performance (COP), wide range of drying
temperature (20 to 1108C), environmental friendli-
ness, and high product quality. Thus this type of
dryer is suitable for heat-sensitive products such as
food and products of bio-origin.
As chloroflurocarbons (CFC) and hydrochloro-
flurocarbons (HCFC) are to be phased out very soon,
working fluids such as carbon dioxide, ammonia,
R717, and R744 can be used as substitutes [76].
Many products have been tested at the Norwegian
Institute of Technology, such as food products, fish,
fruits, and vegetables [77,78].
8.9 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Design procedures for batch and continuous dryers in
constant and falling rate periods vary widely. The
discussion here is restricted to particulate solids drying.
8.9.1 DESIGN EQUATIONS
8.9.1.1 Residence Time
If the particles are small, very porous, and sufficiently
wet to contain free moisture, the drying rate remains
constant throughout the drying process. On the other
hand, if the solid particles initially contain surface
moisture, falling rate period will occur after a short
period of constant rate period. In this case, the design
calculation should include two steps: one for the
 Wet solids

External Receiver
condenser
Compressor Expansion valve
Dry solids

Evaporator

Condenser Condensation

Three way valve

FIGURE 8.24 Heat pump fluidized bed dryer.

constant rate and the other for the falling rate. Table 8.9.1.4 Mass Balance, Continuous
8.4 shows the equations for calculating residence time Drying, Well-Mixed Bed
at different operating conditions.

8.9.1.2 Sizing of Bed Fs (Xin  Xout ) ¼ Gg (Yout  Yin ) (8:30)

Sizing of bed is based on simple hold-up mass bal-
ance. Cross-sectional area of the fluidized bed can be
determined from the following equation after solids
flow rate (dry basis), Fs, bed density, rb, and bed
height, Hb, are specified, and particle residence time,
tR, is determined:
Fs tR
A¼ (8:28)
r b Hb
In this equation, Fs is the solids flow rate (kg/s), X is
the moisture content (kg/kg), Gg is the gas flow rate
(kg/s), and Y is the absolute humidity (kg/kg).
8.9.1.5 Heat Balance, Continuous
Drying, Well-Mixed
Heat balance for the single-phase model gives the
following energy balance:

8.9.1.3 Gas Flow Rate Fs Hsin þ Gg Hgin þ Qh ¼ Fs Hsout þ Gg Hgout þ Qw

Gas flow rate (dry basis) is calculated from the fol-
lowing equation. The operating gas velocity, ug, is
specified as a multiple of the minimum fluidization
velocity, normally it is 2–3umf for fluidized bed
drying. Anyway, the suitable operating gas velo-
city can be determined from laboratory-scale fluidized
bed testing as long as the gas velocity yields good
fluidization quality during the operation:
Gg ¼ rg ug A (8:29)
(8:31)
In this equation, Qh is the rate of heat input from
immersed tubes (kJ/s), Qw is the rate of heat loss from
wall (kJ/s), and H is the enthalpy (kJ/kg). Enthalpy of
solids at the inlet and outlet can be obtained from
Equation 8.32 and Equation 8.33, respectively:
Hsin ¼ (cps þ Xin cl )Tsin (8:32)

where rg is the density of gas. Hsout ¼ (cps þ Xout cl )Tsout (8:33)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

TABLE 8.4
Equations to Determine Residence Time Required for Drying

Remarks Drying Time Required

Batch Drying
(Xo  X)Ms l
1. Constant rate period Only surface moisture present tR ¼
Gg cpg (Tin  Tout )
X  Xeq 6 X 1
1 [(np)2 Dt=R2 ]
2. Falling rate period (i) From diffusion model ¼ 2 e
Xo  Xeq p n¼1 n2
tR is obtained by trial and error
 
Ms cps Tp  Tin
(ii) Simplified equation tR ¼ ln
Gg cpg Tpo  Tin
 
Xcr1  Xeq
(iii) Empirical formulation tR ¼ k1 ln
X  Xeq
Continuous drying
Ð1
(a) Well-mixed Design curve: X ¼ 0 X (t)E(t)dt [79]
Xo  X
1. Constant rate period Only surface moisture tR ¼
k
 
1 Xin  Xeq
2. Falling rate period tR ¼ 1 [80]
k Xout  Xeq
3. Batch drying curve (1) Obtain a record of the changing bed temperature Tb during constant inlet air temperature run
(2) Divide the constant inlet air temperature batch drying curve X(t) into increments of length, DX. For each
increment note the time DtT1 required to accomplish that amount of drying at constant bed
temperature of T1
(3) Calculate the time DtT2 required to accomplish the same increment of drying at constant bed temperature,
T2 by the use of the following equation:
DtT1 [(psat  pin )(X  Xe )]T1
¼ [81,82]
DtT2 [(psat  pin )(X  Xe )]T2
(4) Build up the constant bed temperature batch drying curve by increments
(5) Obtain drying equation for each curve
(6) Obtain residence time from design curve
 
SA Xin  Xout
tR ¼ [83,84]
f *Gb Xout  Xeq
where S is the bed loading, A is the bed area, f* is ratio of bed loading (S) and flux of gas flow rate (G/A)
at constant be temperature, T1
(b) Plug flow " #
1 (1  t=tm )2
1. Batch drying curve Residence time distribution function is E(t) ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp 
2 pB 4B
where
4
Dtm 3:71  10 (u  umf )
B ¼ 2 and D ¼ 1=3
[82];
L u mf

1:49[0:01(Hb  0:05) þ 0:00165rs (u  umf )]u0:23

D¼ 2=3
[83]
umf
Note that validity of Reay’s correlation for particle diffusivity has only been confirmed for bed depths up
to 0.10 m. There is some evidence in the literature that D may be an order of magnitude larger in much
deeper beds [50]. Shallow bed is recommended if the objective is a close approach to plug flow behavior
of solid particles in the bed

For a gas–vapor system, Hgin and Hgout can be
obtained from Mollier diagram and for organic vapor–
inert gas systems, Hgin and Hgout can be obtained
from the following equations:
Hgin ¼ (cpg þ Yin c1 )Tgin þ Yin l
Hgout ¼ (cpg þ Yout c1 )Tgout þ Yout l (8:35)
A summary of steps for fluidized bed dryer design is
given in Figure 8.25, whereas a simple guide for
selecting suitable fluidized bed dryers (FBD) based
(8:34) on material properties is given in Figure 8.26.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Setup laboratory-scale FBD

Determine fluidization characteristics

Set ug, z, Tg, perform batch drying

Calculate constant bed temperature

batch drying curve

Determine design curve Change

z, T

Estimate residence time, tR

Fix bed geometry, A and

gas flowrate, Gg

Change A, Gg
Determine outlet gas humidity, Yout
Change Gg
and dew point

Check RH, satisfactory? No

Yes
Check for risk of condensation Yes
No
Optimize? No

Yes

Check the requirement for:

• Cooling • Stringent requirement for final
• Good distributor design moisture content
• Efficient gas cleaning • Recovering of valuable solvent
• Reduction of entrainment • Explosion hazard
• High heat demand • Toxic hazard
• Justification due to low drying rate • Ignition hazard

FIGURE 8.25 Design steps starting from laboratory tests.

8.9.2 A SAMPLE DESIGN CALCULATION between drying rate and moisture content is given by
the following equation:
Wet particulate solids (6000 kg/h) with an initial
moisture content of 20% (db) at 208C are to be dried dX
to final moisture content of 4% (db). Inlet air at  ¼ 0:005X
dt
1258C with humidity of 0.005 kg/kg is used. Bed
depth is 20 cm. Calculate
Under these conditions, bed density is 500 kg/m3
and equilibrium moisture content is zero. Specific (a) Mean particle residence time
heat of the dry solids and liquid water are 1.0 and (b) Bed area
4.2 kJ/kg8C, respectively. Figure 8.27 gives the sum- (c) Mass flow rate of air
mary of all available data on this problem. Heat loss (d) Absolute humidity of exhaust air
at the wall of the dryer is estimated as 5% of the heat (e) Temperature of exhaust air
content of inlet air. Batch drying curve was obtained (f) Check whether condensation will occur in
at the conditions mentioned above; the relationship cyclone

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Group A, B Group C, D Liquids; pastes

good fluidizability particles poor fluidizability particles

Crystalline Fragile Colloidal/porous Group C Group D Liquids Pastes

surface moisture surface + internal moisture fine particles large particles slurries

• V-FBD

Heat-sensitive Heat-resistant Heat-sensitive Heat-resistant Surface Surface + internal

moisture moisture

Mono Poly Mono Poly

sized disperse sized disperse

• M-FBD • WM-FBD • V-FBD • H-FBD

• V-FBD • V-FBD • A-FBD (spray-
• SBD • SBD • IT-FBD FBD)
• PF-FBD • V-FBD • WM-FBD • V-FBD • SBD • M-FBD • A-FBD
• SBD • SBD • V-FBD • H-FBD • SBD
• P-FBD (SD-slow), • IS-FBD
• B-FBD (FED-slow)

WM-FBD Well-mixed FBD SBD Spouted bed P-FBD Pulsating FBD H-FBD Hybrid FBD
PF-FBD Plug flow FBD M-FBD Multistage FBD IT-FBD Immersed tubes FBD IS-FBD Inert Solids FBD
V-FBD Vibrated FBD A-FBD Agitated FBD B-FBD Baffled FBD SD Spray drying

FIGURE 8.26 Dryer selection.

 Wet solids
Fs = 6000 kg/h
Exhaust air Ts,in = 208C
Bed Xo = 0.20 kg/kg
Hb = 20 cm rs = 2000 kg/m3
rb = 500 kg/m3 cps = 0.84 kJ/kgK
tR = ???
A = ??? Wet solid
Tb = ???
Hot air
ug = 0.70 m/s
Yg,in = 0.005 kg/kg
Hot air or rg = 1 kg/m3
Dry solid
flue gas cpg = 1.00 kJ/kgK
Tg,in = 125 8C
Dry solids
Gg = ???
X = 0.04 kg/kg
FIGURE 8.27 Sample calculation.

Solution Gg ¼ 1:0  0:70  11:11

For continuous, well-mixed dryer operation in the
linear falling period, the residence time is given by Gg ¼ 7:777 kg=s

! Outlet air humidity can be obtained from the equation

1 Xo  Xeq
tR ¼ 1
k X  Xeq Fs (Xin  Xout ) ¼ Gg (Yout  Yin )
  Fs
1 0:20  0 Yout ¼ (Xin  Xout ) þ Yin
tR ¼ 1 Gg
0:005 0:04  0

tR ¼ 800 s 1:389
Yout ¼ (0:20  0:04) þ 0:005
7:777
Dry solid mass flow rate is calculated from wet solid Yout ¼ 0:0336 kg H2 O=kg dry air
mass flow rate, wet solid has initial moisture content
of 20%, Outlet air temperature can be obtained from the
equation
kg wet solid 1 kg dry solid 1h
F ¼ 6000   Fs Hsin þ Gg Hgin þ Qh ¼ Fs Hsout þ Gg Hgout þ Qw
h 1:20 kg wet solid 3600 s

F ¼ 1:389 kg dry solid=s Qh ¼ 0 since there is no immersed tube.

Qw ¼ 0.05GgHgin assumes that heat loss to wall is
Bed area is given by taken as 5% of the enthalpy of inlet air:

Hsin ¼ (cps þ Xin c1 )Tsin

Fs tR
A¼
r b Hb Hsin ¼ (0:84 þ 0:20  4:2)  20

1:389  800 Hsin ¼ 33:60 kJ=kg

A¼
500  0:20
Hsout ¼ (cps þ Xout c1 )Tsout
A ¼ 11:11 m2
Hsout ¼ (0:84 þ 0:04  4:2)T
Mass flow rate of air is calculated from the equation Hsout ¼ 1:008T kJ=kg

Gg ¼ rg ug A Hgin ¼ (cpg þ Yin c1 )Tgin þ Yin l

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Hgin ¼ (1:00 þ 0:005  4:2)  125 þ 0:005  2370 cp heat capacity at constant pressure
J/(kg K)
Hgin ¼ 139:5 kJ=kg d diameter, m or mm
D diffusivity, m2/s
Hgout ¼ (cpg þ Yout c1 )Tgout þ Yout l e emissivity
E(u) residence time density
Hgout ¼ (1 þ 0:0336  4:2)T þ 0:0336  2370 F solids mass flow rate, kg/s
g gravity acceleration ¼ 9.80665 m/s2, m/s2
Hgout ¼ 1:141T þ 79:63
G gas mass flow rate, kg/s
H height, m
Fs Hsin þ Gg Hgin þ Qh ¼ Fs Hsout þ Gg Hgout þ Qw
h heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)
Kc mass transfer coefficient across bubble
Fs Hsin þ Gg Hgin þ Qh
boundary, m/s
¼ Fs Hsout þ Gg Hgout þ 0:05Gg Hgin k thermal conductivity, W/(m K)
L length, m
Fs Hsin þ 0:95Gg Hgin þ Qh ¼ Fs Hsout þ Gg Hgout M mass, kg
m
_ mass rate of evaporation of water per
1:389  33:6 þ 0:95  7:777  139:5 þ 0 unit volume of bed, kg/(m3 s)
¼ 1:389  (1:008T) þ 7:777  (1:141T þ 79:63) n integer
Nu Nusselt number
T ¼ 44:6 C p partial pressure, Pa
P pressure, Pa
From the psychrometric chart, air at absolute humid- Pr Prandtl number
ity of 0.0336 kg/kg has a dew point of 33.58C and q rate of heat transfer, W
relative humidity is 55%. Since the outlet air leaves Qh heat input from immersed tubes, kJ/s
the dryer at 44.68C (108C higher than the dew point), Qw heat loss to column wall, kJ/s
there is no risk of condensation. r radius, m
Re Reynolds number
8.10 CONCLUSION t time, s
T temperature, 8C, K
Fluidized bed dryers have replaced some of the con- u velocity, m/s
ventional dryers, e.g., rotary or conveyor dryers in V volume, m3
many instances. Among some of the recent develop- X moisture content, kg/kg
ments in fluidized bed drying is the idea of applying Y absolute humidity, kg/kg
microwave energy field continuously or intermittently
in a fluidized or spouted bed. Use of superheated
steam will probably become more popular in some GREEK SYMBOLS
applications in the future.
The presence of moisture on particle surface can b root of Bessel function
cause major changes to fluidization quality as com- « void fraction
pared with that of dry particles to which most of the l latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
available literature is applicable. Also, there are nu- m viscosity, Ns/m2
merous variants of the fluidized bed that require dif- r density, kg/m3
ferent design information and design strategies. For s Stefan–Boltzmann constant ¼ 5.67108 W/
example, drying using a time-dependent heat input or (m2 K4), W/(m2 K4)
drying under low-pressure conditions or using super- f sphericity
heated steam as the drying medium, etc. must be
handled with some modifications and new data sets
and models.
SUBSCRIPT
b bed
NOTATION bb bubble
c convective component
a, b, x, y, k drying constant, drying coefficient cr1 first critical
A area, m2 cyl cylinder
c heat capacity, J/(kg K) d dense

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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