MICROBIOLOGY &  For nutrition, most bacteria use

organic chemicals (either dead or

BIOTECHNIQUES living organism)
 Some can manufacture their own food
 Microbes are also called by photosynthesis, some can derive
Microorganisms, are minute living nutrition from inorganic substances.
things that individually are usually  Aerobic (an organism that uses
too small to be seen with the unaided oxygen for respiration). Anaerobic
(organism that can live without
eye.
oxygen)
 Many bacteria can "swim" by using
Types of microorganisms
moving appendages called flagella
1. Bacteria
2. Fungi  can be classified according to its
3. Protozoa shape
4. Microscopic algae
5. Virus Group shape Rep. species
Coccus Round Staphylococcus
BACTERIA Bacillus Rod Streptococcus
 prokaryotic (without true nucleus) Spiral Twisted Spirillum
 unicellular or single-celled
microorganism Classification Characteristics
 enclosed in cell walls composed of a Diplococci Two cocci
carbohydrate and protein complex Streptococci Chain of cocci
called peptidoglycan Tetrad Four cocci; division in
 generally reproduce by dividing into 2 planes
two equal cells in the process called Sarcinae Eight cocci; cube like
binary fission arrangement;
division in 3 planes
Staphylococci Clusters of cocci
Archaebacteria/Archaea
-discovered by Carl Woese and
George E. Fox
-oldest organisms living on Earth
-prokaryotic; unicellular and
microscopic
-extremophiles
-lacks peptidoglycan in their cell wall

Classifications
Groups Characteristics  Protozoa have a variety of shapes and
Methanogens Release methane live either as free entities or as
as by product (ex, parasites
Methanobacterium)  Protozoa can reproduce sexually
Halophiles “salt loving” ex. (fission, budding, and schizogony); or
Halobacterium asexually (conjugation).
Thermophile “heat loving” ex.
s Thermus aquaticus Phylum Locomotion Rep. species
Acidophiles “acis loving” Sarcidona pseudopodia Amoeba
Ferroplasma Ciliata Cilia Paramecium
acidarmanus Mastigophor Flagella Tryponosoma
a
FUNGI Sporozoa None Plasmodium
 Eukaryotic
 Unicellular or multicellular ALGAE
 Large multicellular fungi, such as  Photosynthetic eukaryotes
mushrooms, may look somewhat like  The cell walls of many algae, are
plants, but they cannot carry out composed of a carbohydrate called
photosynthesis. cellulose
 Their cell walls are composed of
chitin. Chlorophyta (green algae)
 Reproduce sexually or asexually. -either unicellular or multicellular
 They obtain nourishment by -they have cellulose cell walls
absorbing solutions of organic -they store carbohydrates (starch)
material from their environment- -they can be found in the humid rocks,
whether soil, seawater, fresh water, or bark of a tree, non-flowing canals,
an animal or plant hos freshwaters and in polluted
waterways
PROTOZOA -some are edible
 Unicellular eukaryotic microbe
 Protozoa move by pseudopods,  Rhodophyta (red algae)
flagella, or cilia. -chlorophyll is masked with red
pigment
-it can change its color depending on
the light
-they can store food in the form of
floredian starch

 Phaeophyta (brown algae)

 -chlorophyll is masked with brown
pigment
-they can store carbohydrate called
laminarin
- Some brown algae contain alginic
acid that can be used as an ingredient
in making products such as ice
creams; Algins is also used in the
production of non-food goods such as
rubber tires and hand lotions
 Chrysophyta (yellow-green algae)
-chlorophyll is masked with yellow
pigment
-example: Diatoms
 Dinoflagellates
-unicellular algae collectively called
plankton or free-floating organisms
-live in seas and oceans
-they contain cellulose embedded in
plasma membrane
-some dinoflagellates produces
neurotoxins/toxins
VIRUS
 means poison in ancient Rome
 characterized by the presence of
capsid (protein coat covering the
nucleic acid)
 Each capsid is composed of protein
subunits called capsomeres.
 Viruses whose capsids are not
covered by an envelope are known as
non-enveJoped viruses
Multiplication
 Attachment: virus locates a specific
binding site on the recipient host cell.
Penetration: genetic materials or the whole
virus enters the cell.
 Replication and synthesis: the
genetic component of the virus
dictates to the host cell to reproduce
materials needed by the virus for the
reproduction.
 Assembly: viral materials are
structured to become new viruses.
 Release: new viruses are liberated
from the host cell.
Lytic cycle: all steps in multiplication steps
are immediately and successively done.
Lysogenic cycle
-the incorporated viral genetic material does
not immediately produce the needed
material.
-genetic materials stay incorporated in the
genetic make up of the host cell until
triggered to produce materials needed of
virus assembly.
*Classifications
DNA Virus Disease caused
Herpes simplex Herpes
Chicken pox virus Chicken pox
RNA Virus Disease caused
Dengue virus Dengue fever
Mumps virus Mumps
Human Acquired
Immunodeficiency virus Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
The host range of a virus is the spectrum of
host cells the virus can infect.
A virion is a complete, fully developed,
infectious viral particle composed of nucleic
acid and surrounded by a protein coat that
protects it from the environment and is a
vehicle of transmission from one host cell to
another.
Bacteriophage: group of virus that infects
bacterial cell.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF
MICROORGANSIMS
I. Environmental Benefits
- microorganisms are required to
maintaiin a healthy environment. Not only to
do they recycle natural wastes and dead
animal and plant matter, they also porduce
many of the nutriens that plants need to
grow.
 Bioremediation – is the use of
prokaryotes (or microbial
metabolisms) to remove pollutants or
agricultural chemicals (pesticides
and fertilizers) that leach from soil
into groundwater.
 Decomposition or Biodegradation-
results in the breakdown of complex
organic materials to form carbon that
can be used by other organisms.
 Nitogen fixation- is a process found
only in bacteria which removes N2
from the atmosphere and converts it
into ammonia (NH3) for use by
plants and animals.
 Oxygenic photosynthesis- occurs in
plants, algae and cyanobacteria. It is
the photosynthesis that results in the
production of O2 in the atmosphere.
At least 50% of oxygen on earth is
produced by photosynthetic
microorganisms (algae and
cyanobacteria), and for at least
billions of years before plants
evolved, microbes were the only
organisms producing oxygen on
earth.
Examples:
Physarum polycephalum – for
decomposition.
Sargassum – habitat for marine animals.
Diatoms – produces diatomaceous earth
used for abrasives and filtering aids.
Gonyaulax – causes red tides.
Rhozobium – bacterium in plant roots that do
nitrogen fixation.
II. Microorganisms in Food
- in addition to their direct
environmental benefits, microorganisms are
important partners when it comes to the
work of creating food. They can be used to
increase the fertility of the soil and increase
crop yields, and they are necessary when
making products like bread, beer and cheese
and when growing coffee.
Examples:
Porphyra- source of nori, an edible seaweed.
Caulerpa – source of food.
III. Bodily Health Benefits
- microorganisms known as gut flora
help us digest food and regulalte the
production of vitamins and nutrients
essential to keeping our bodies strong anad
healthy.
Examples: protozoa and viruses. Only tha archaea and
E. coli – a bacterium that resides in the that algae are lacking pathogens and are called
helps in the digestion of food. non-pathogens.

IV. Medical Benefis Examples:

-we regularly aid the microorganisms
in pur bodies by adding more. Though
certain species of microorganisms can make
you sick – strep throat, flu and measles are
nothing to laugh at- modern medicines
would not exist if not for the careful study of
microorganisms.
 Antibiotics- substances produced by
microorganisms that kill or inhibit
microbes which are used in the
treatment of infectious disease. e.g.
Penicillum, Streptomyces and
Bacillus.
 Vaccines – are substances derived
from microorganisms used to
immunize against disease. The
microbes that are the cause of
infectious disease are usually the
ultimate source of vaccines.
Examples:
Diphtheria toxin (toxoid)- used to immunize
against diphtheria.
Bordetella pertussis- cells used vaccinate
against pertussis (whooping cough).
Rhinovirus- (virus) causes cold
Varicella zoster- (virus) causes chicken pox.
Rubella- (virus) causes german measles
Bordatella pertussis-(bacteria) causes
whooping cough
Yersinia pestis- (bacteria) causes bubonic
plague.
Mycobacterim tuberculosis- (bacteria)
causes TB.
Plasmodium falciparum- (protozoan) causes
malaria.
Trichophyton rubum- (fungus) ringworm.
Tichophyton mentagrophytes – (fungus)
causes athlete’s foot.
Salmonella- major cause of food poisoning.
Mycobacterium leprae- causes leprosy.
Leptospira- causes leptospirosis.

V. Biotechnology
- this is an area of science that applies
microbial genetics to biological processes
for the production of useful substances.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF
MICROORGANISMS
Microbes Cause Infectious Disease
- a microbe which is capable of
causing imfectious disease in an animal or
plant is called pathogen. Four groups of
microbes contain pathogens: bacteria, fungi,
 BIOTECHNIQUES
- The principles in the preparation,
development and improvisation of biological
specimens and instruments for field and
laboratory purposes.
Terminologies:
Herbarium- is a collection of dried plant
specimens which are properly classified. It is
a tool in classifying plant specimens in
future collection. Plant must be properly
catalogued.
Aquarium- is a representation of an aquatic
biome.
Terrarium- is a representation of a
terrestrial biome.
Taxidermy- comes from the Greek words
taxis meaning movement and derma
meaning skin. In taxidermy, the skin of an
animal is removed and placed to an artificial
body. This preserves the skin of different
animals for study or exhibition e.g. stuffing
Culture medium- is any material designed
for controlled growth of microorganisms.
Microbes placed in the culture medium are
called inoculum. The microbes growing in
this setup is called culture.
Modern Biological Tools and Techniques
Microscope
- most popular tool in Biology which used to
examine objects too small to be seen with the
naked eyed.
- developed by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in
1670s.
Types of Microscope
 Compound Microscope
-used to examine cells and section of tissues
with the used of light to illuminate an object
being examined.
 Light Field Microscope
-produces dark image against a brighter
background.
 Dark Field Microscope
-produces an image with a dark background.
 Stereo Microscope
-used to examine the external structure of a
specimen.
  Phase-contrast Microscope
-used to examine highly transparent objects,
such as unstained cells.
 Electron Microscope
-uses beam of electrons to enlarge object.
 Transmission Electron Microscope
-used to study internal structures of cells
through sectioned specimens.
 Scanning Electron Microscope
-used to examine the surfaces or shapes of
objects.
 Fluorescent Microscope
-illuminates objects stained with fluorescent
dyes.
 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope
-laser beam is used to illuminate spots on
specimen.
Microscopic Techniques (microtechniques)
- prepare materials for miscroscopic observation
and study.
Steps in Microscopic Techniques:
o Anesthetization
-reduce or eliminate pain of specimens in
dissection
o Dissection and subdivision
-careful exposition of desired animal part
o Fixation
-for preservation of tissues and its
components; improves staining potential of
specimens
o Washing
-removal of excess fixative agents
o Dehydration
-removal of water from the specimen &
replacing it by alcohol
o Clearing
-clearing agent replaces the dehydrating
agent
o Infiltration
-substance like paraffin is used to penetrate
inner layers of the tissue specimen; this
allows sectioning possible; incubator is used
to maintain the paraffin in liquid form.
o Embedding
-substance like paraffin is allowed to
solidify around the specimen
o Sectioning
-cutting to desired thickness; uses
microtome; improvised materials may
include scalpel
o Deceration
-removal of paraffin from the specimen
o Staining
Coloring of the specimen using stains
o Mounting
-placing the specimen on the slide &
covering with glass slide.
o Drying, Cleaning and Labeling
-letting the mounting medium to dry;
cleaning with solvent of the mounting
medium; identifying the specimen prepared
Cell and Tissue Culture
- with the use of a medium containing
all the food requirements for a cell to
survive, grow, and multiply.
Centrifugation
- used to separate cells or cell
organelles using centrifugal force.
Spectrophotometry
- used to measure how a chemical
substance absorbs light by measuring the
intensity of light as a beam of light passes
through sample solution.
Chromatography
- used to purify biological molecules,
such as proteins and nucleic acids.
DNA Extraction
- used to isolate DNA in a biological
sample.
Electrophoresis
- used to separate molecules, like
DNA, according to size.
 Blotting
- are techniques for transferring DNA,
RNA, and proteins onto a carrier so they can
be separated, and often follow the use of a
gel electrophoresis.
 Southern Blot - used for transferring DNA
 Northern Blot - used for transferring RNA
 Western Blot - used for transferring protein

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

- used to amplify a particular piece of
DNA.

Cloning
- use of DNA manipulation procedures
to produce multiple copies of a single gene
or segment of DNA.

Immunoassay
- refers to a wide variety of techniques
that use antibodies to recognize a very
specific substance called antigen.