CHAPTER 1:

BIODIVERSITY
 Species
Genetic diversity
diversity

BIODIVERSITY
(variety and complexity
of all life on earth)

Ecosystem
diversity
 Taxonomy – science of classifying organisms
Linnaean taxonomic system – to group and
categorise organisms
Father of taxonomy- Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)
Linnaeus developed binomial nomenclature
system in naming organisms

Binomial Nomenclature

Species name Scientific name

Genus name +
a) Each organism has two part name
b) First part, the genus
c) Second part, the species
d) First letter in the genus is capitalized Homo sapiens
e) All the letters in the species name are lowercase
f) Both the genus and species name:
underlined (if handwritten) or italicized (if type)

Examples:

Panthera tigris
Hierarchical
system of
classification
- 8 levels
Five Kingdom System of Classification
Bacteria

•\
 Prokaryotes
unicellular, range in size from 1 to 10 µm in length, lack of nucleus
Aerobes (require oxygen to carry out
cellular respiration)
Oxygen requirement obligate anaerobes (unable to grow in
the presence of oxygen)
facultative anaerobes (unable to grow either
in the presence or absence of oxygen)

Autotrophs- obtain carbon source from inorganic carbon dioxide

Heterotrophs- obtain carbon source from organic molecules
Photoheterotrophs- obtain energy from sunlight
Chemoautotrophs –harvest energy by oxidizing inorganic
substances- ammonia or nitrate
Domain - Bacteria & Archaea
 Domain Bacteria
a) Bacteria

-including cyanobacteria Gram positive Gram negative

Position of the bacterial flagella

Shapes of bacteria
 Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
 Phototrophic prokaryotes with no nuclear membrane and membrane bound
organelles
 Habitat: nature in terrestrial, freshwater and marine.
 Type: Unicellular/ filamentous
 Filaments called trichomes, surrounded by gelatinous sheath
 Have symbiotic relationship with fungi- compose lichens

Mucilagenous sheath
Vegetative cells
Akinetes

Heterocyst

Gas vesicle: common in species - live in open
waters (planktonic species)
Akinetes/resting spores – formed during
periods of unfavourable environmental
conditions- darkness, drying, freezing
- thick-serve to protect organism
- Elliptical shape
Heterocyst-specialized nitrogen fixing cells
-Arise from vegetative cells
-Thick cell wall-impervious to oxygen, create
anaerobic environment inside
-Anaerobic environment important- because
oxygen inhibits enzyme nitrogenase.
-Have intracellular connection with adjacent
vegetative cells for exchange of materials
between cells
 Domain Archaea
Known as extremophiles
Live in harsh environments- hotsprings, thermal vents and salt basins

Methagons Halophiles Thermoacidophiles

 Found in swamps,  Aerobic  Resistant to high

marshes and intestinal microorganism temperatures (70 -80) &
tracts of animals  Found in extreme high acid concentration
 Obligate anaerobes, saline environments – (pH 2 and 3)
survive only in oxygen- Great Salt Lake, US &  Have plasma membrane-
free environment the Dead Sea contains high amounts of
 Chemoautotrophs-use  Use osmotic pressure saturated fats and its
H2 as source of electrons and chemical enzymes-able to
for reducing CO2 to substances-control withstand extreme
obtain energy ,methane salt inside cell conditions without
(by –product) denaturation
 Found in hot & acidic
Classification of archae environment- Yellowstone
based on habitats National Park, US.
 Differences
Bacteria Archae
Cell wall compose of Cell do not contain
peptidoglycan peptidolygan
Lipids in plasma Lipids in plasma
Important of bacteria
membrane –composed membrane –composed 1. Recycling of
of unbranched of branched chemical elements
hydrocarbon chains hydrocarbon chains in the ecosystem
connected to glycerol by connected to glycerol by 2. Symbiotics
ester linkages ester linkages
3. Pathogenic
Ribosomal protein and Ribosomal protein and 4. Research &
RNA polymerase – RNA Polymerase very
different form similar technology
eukaryotes
Genes are not Present introns
interrupted by introns
E.g. Escherichia coli, Example: Sulfolobus,
Bacillus subtilis Methanococcus
 Protist
Algae
 Contain chlorophyll and carry
photosynthesis
 Unicellular/colonial
 arranged end-end -filamentous
algae: branched/ unbranched
 Found in salt/ fresh water /moist
soil /rocks
 presence of cell walls and
vacuoles
 Lack true stem, leaves, roots
Phylum Chlorophyta
Phylum Phaeophyta
Protozoa
 Unicellular, eukaryotic microorganism
- exhibit – like characteristics
 Colourless and motile
 Heterotroph- obtain food by ingesting
other organism
 Found in freshwater and marine
habitats, soil, human, aerial habitats
Phylum Euglenophyta - Euglena
Phylum Rhizopoda - Ameoba
Phylum Ciliophora - Paramecium
Phylum Apicomlexa - Plasmodium
 Chlorophyta
 Green algae
 Most aquatic, some terrestrial, found
in moist soils
 Unicellular, multicellular, coenocytic
or colonial
 Contains chlorophylls a and b
 Store food as starch in plastids

Chlamydomonas
 microscopic, green in colour round-
shaped, two flagella at anterior end,
eyespot-receive light –help direct its
swimming, cup-shaped chloroplast
containing pyrenoid –starch
synthesized.
 Phaeophyta
 Brown algae, familiar seaweeds
 Contains chlorophylls a, c and
carotenoids- fucoxanthin in
chloroplast
Fucus
Plant body – thallus- lacks true roots,
stem and leaves
Leaf-like blade- dichotomously
branched-provide surface for
photosynthesis
Stem-like stripe –supports the blades &
withstand wave action
Root like holdfast anchors – to maintain
a firm foothold
Have air bladders-provide buoyancy-
keep afloat - photosynthetic tissue
exposed to sunlight
Receptacles contains conceptacles-
gametes are formed
 Euglenophyta

Genus-Euglena
-small, freshwater organisms
Have chloroplast-able to synthesize food by
photosynthesis, lack ones ingest /absorb
food
Reservoir-2 flagella attached base of flask-
shaped opening
Stigma (eyespot) –sensitive to light and aids
organism towards light.
Contains chloroplast with chlorophyll a, b,
carotoids
Pellicle-able to change its shape
Contractile vacuole- to rid body of excess
water
 Rhizopoda

Move by pseudopodia –greek word: ‘false

feet’-extensions of cytoplasm- use to
capture prey & locomotion
Heterotrophic, feed on wide range of
bacteria, algae and other protists

Amoeba proteus
-freshwater habitats
Feed on other protozoans
Have 3 types of vacuole:
a) Digestive vacuole- helps in digesting food
particles
b) Food vacuole-digest food
c) Contractile vacuole- to rid body of excess
water-does not burst (osmoregulation)
 Ciliophora
Ciliates –complex protozoans
Paramecium
Fixed body shape-slipper
Cilia –swimming through freshwater &
marine habitats- beat in synchronized
pattern over body surface
Pellicle- protects & maintain shape of
organism
Trichocysts-discharge filaments- aid in
trapping prey
Holozoic- ingests bacteria / other small
protists
Has 2 types nucleic:
i) Macronucleus- control in cell metabolism
& growth
ii) Micronucleus- generating genetic
variation during sexual reproduction
Contractile vacuole- expel excess water
 Apicomplexa

 Sporozoans- large group of parasitic; spore

forming protest
 Lack specific structures for locomotion, they
move by flexing
 Named after their apical complex of
microtubules –enable to penetrate & attach
to the tissues of their host.
 Have complex life cycles – involve asexual &
sexual phases involving multiple species as
hosts
 E.g. Plasmodium sp.
 Important of Protozoans
1. Roles in biosphere (CO2 fixation)
o fixes carbon in sunlit surface waters via photosynthesis
o Carbon enter planktonic food web –respired to provide metabolic
energy/accumulates as biomass or detritus

2. Food source
o seaweed (kelps) – edible & used to overcome shortage of food in the world.
o Japan & Korea- brown algae, Laminaria in soups & red algae, Porphyra –to wrap
sushi
o Spirulina – good protein source
o Chlorella high in protein & packed with calories, fats & vitamins- growth & repair
body‘s tissue

3. Eutrophication
o Process- water bodies such as lakes, estuaries / slow –moving streams receive
excess nutrients –stimulate excessive growth of algae. Enhanced algal growth -Algal
bloom
o Excess nutrients from fertilizer, erosion of soil containing nutrients, sewage
treatment plant discharges
o Algae bloom reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant material
decomposes & cause death of other aquatic organisms.
4. Red tide
o Common name for estuarine / marine algal bloom
o Caused by dinoflagelllates of red algae-turn waters into deep reddish –brown hue
o Some produce neutrotoxin –attacks nervous system and kills fish
o Human eat shellfish that eats diniflagellates –suffer paralytic shellfish poisoning in
respiratory muscles become paralysed. Death from respiratory failure.
5. Human health
o Apicomplexans
o Plasmodium – causes malaria, transmitted to host through bite of infected female
Anopheles mosquito
Fungi
 Kingdom Fungi

 Lack chloroplast
 Heterotrophs-depend on other
organism for carbon source
 Storage carbohydrates- glycogen
 Most multicellular, some unicellular-
yeast

Septate hyphae Coenocytic hyphae

 Classified into 3 major phyla :

i) Phylum Zygomycota- Rhizopus Septum has pores- Hyphae without septa-
ii) Phylum Ascomycota- Penicillium , allow movement of consist of continuous
Saccharomyces cytoplasm & cytoplasmic mass with
iii) Phylum Basidiomycota- Agaricus organelles from hundreds /thousands
segment to segment of nucleic
 Zygomycota

 Sporangium fungi/ common molds

 Hyphae- non-septate & coenocytic
 Reproduce asexually- producing
sporangiospores within sac- sporangium
 Born on stalks- sporangiosphores
 Sexual reproduction –sexual spores-
zygospores-contained within
zygosporangium
 Ascomycota

 Sac fungi- include yeast, cup fungi truffles &

morrels
 Vegetative hyphae-septate with perforated
walls ; haploid nucleus per cell.
 Reproduce asexually, sexually
 Asexually- formation of conidia-produce fro
conidiophores, multinucleate spores
 Yeast –unicellular ascomycete-reproduce
asexually – budding /cell fission
 Sexual reproduction – formation of ascus,
sac-like structure , formed within ascocarp,
contain 8 haploid spores
 E.g. Penicillium & Saccharomyces
 Basidiomycota
 Mushrooms, shelf life, puffballs, rust & smuts.
E.g. Agaricus
 Club fungi –produce small like reproductive
structure –basidia.
 Mushrooms-filamentous fungi-form fruiting
bodies.
 Seldom reproduce asexually
 Reproduce sexually-forming spores in
basidium found in lining gills inside
basidiocarp
 Basidiocarp-consist of stem called a stalk and
flattened structure known as cap/pileus
 Each gills is lined with thousands of dikaryotic
basidia- a cell that contain 2 nuclei
 2 nuclei fuse to form zygote undergoes
meiosis to form 4 haploid nuclei-develop into
4 basidiospores –released into air
 Under favourable conditions germinate &
grow new hyphae & mycelia.
 Commercial importance
Symbionts Pathogens in food production
Pharmaceutical
Decomposer (Penicillin)
THE IMPORTANCE OF
FUNGI
Plantae
Plants classified into 4 major divisions:
• Bryophytes
• Pteridophytes
• Gymnosperms
• Angiosperms
All plants share the common ancestor of green algae

Characteristics:
i) The same photosynthetic pigments in similar chloroplasts
ii) Cell wall with cellulose
iii) Food stored as starch

Plants adapted to live on land

i) Have vascular tissues for transport of water & nutrients
throughout plant body
ii) To protect against dessication, covered by waxy cuticle
iii) Leaves have stomata-gaseous exchange; hot dry
weather stomata closed to prevent water loss
iv) Protected reproductive structures & retention of
embryonic sporophyte within female gametophyte
Have multicellular sex organs –gametangia
Archegonium-female organ –produces a single egg
Antheridium-male organ – produces sperm
Fertilised egg develops in female gametangium
Gametophyte
generation (haploid
n) –produces
gametes (sex cells)

FERTILISATION

MITOSIS

Sporophyte
sporophyte generation=
(diploid 2n) –
produces spores by
meiosis
Alternation of generations in plants
Bryophytes
Include liverworts, hornworts & mosses
Found in moist environment
Small or low growing plants due to lack
vascular tissue and do not have lignified
tissues for support.
Classified into 3 phyla
a) Phylum bryophyta- Polytrichum sp
b) Phylum hepatophyta – Marchantia sp.
c) Phylum Anthocerophyta – Anthoceros sp.
 Phylum Bryophyta

Mosses-largest group, grow in damp &

shaded habitats
Borne on gametophytes
Consist
i) seta (elongated stalk -connect
sporangium to gametophyte)
ii) foot (base of seta-transfer nutrients &
water from gametophyte to capsule)
iii) capsule (main body of sporophyte-
produce spores)
Sporangium consists of sporogenous
layer, columella, peristome teeth &
operculum
Calyptra- protect developing
sporangium (except Sphagnum)
Peristome teeth-hygroscopic & aid in
spore dispersal
Spores give rise to protonema –then
give rise to several gametophytes
Hydroids (water – conducting tissue)
Leptoids (food – conducting tissue)
 Phylum Hepatophyta

Liverworts
Small, 2-20 mm wide less than 10 cm
long
Flattened thallus/ leafy appearance-
exhibits apical growth
 lobed thallus more familiar
Lack stomata, only air pores
Have gametophyte-dominant life cycle,
sporophyte dependent on gametophyte
Plant cells haploid
Sporophytes –short lived –withering
away after releasing spores
E.g. Marchantia sp.
 Phylum Anthocerophyta

Hornworts
Grow in moist ,shaded habitats in
subtropical & warm temperate regions
Thallus –rosette-like & less than 2 cm in
diameter.
E.g Anthoceros sp. – unisexual & other
bisexual
Antheridia & archegonia –embedded
deep in gametophyte
Numerous sporophyte-develop on same
gametophyte-gain their nutrition
Sporophyte –photosynthetic & provide
energy –growth & reproduction
 Pteridophytes
Ferns-largest group of seedless, vascular plants –found in tropical & subtropical region

Have true roots , leave & stems

Contain vascular tissue – transport of water & food
Alternation of generation – sporophyte generation is dominant
Reproductive system – dependent on water for fertilization
Ferns reproduce sexually by producing spores

Homosporous (producing only 1 type of spores), produce bisexual gametophytes;

E.g. Locopodium
Sporophyte One type of spore Bisexual gametophyte Egg & sperm
Heterosporous (producing 2 different types of spores; microspores & megaspores), produce
unisexual gametophytes; Selaginella (spike moss)

Sporophyte Megaspore Female gametophyte Egg

Microspore Male gametophyte Sperm

Classified into 2 phyla:

a) Phylum Lycopodophyta; E.g. Lycopodium sp., Selaginella sp.
b) Phylum Pteridophyta; E.g. Dryopteris sp,
 Phylum Lycopodophyta

Club mosses/ ground pines, fern allies

Sporophytes have upright stems with
small,scale like leaves- microphylls with Lcyopodium sp.
single mid-vein
Lycopodium sp.- homosporous plant
Selaginella sp (spike moss)-small club
moss- heterosporous

Selaginella sp.
 Phylum Pteridophyta

Dryopteris sp.
Sporophyte stage – consist of true stem,
leaves & roots
Roots- fibrous , similar to roots of seed
plants
Stem – underground creeping rhizome/
above-ground creeping stolon/ above –
ground erect semi-woody trunk
Fern leaf- frond. One/ more fronds –
megaphylls- attached to rhizome by stalk-
stripe
Frond develop from fiddlehead/crozier
(coiled leaf bud); pattern of coiled leaf
arrangement in bud- circinate vernation
Gametophyte stage –prothallus & rhizoids
Reproduce sexually –making spores
 Gymnosperms

Produce seed –totally exposed /borne on

scales of cones (naked seed)
- pine, spruce, fir & ginkgo
- Reproductive structure- cones & strobili
- Heterosporous

Classified into 4 phyla:

a) Phylum Coniferophyta; E.g. Pinus sp.
b) Phylum Cycadophyta; E.g. Cycas sp,
c) Phylum Gingkophyta; E.g. Gingko sp.
d) Phylum Gnetophyta; E.g Gnetum sp.
 Phylum Coniferophyta

Conifers- pines, spruce & firs

Pinus –largest genus in confers
Woody trees & shrubs,; exhibit
secondary growth by producing wood &
bark needle like leaves; thick cuticle,
sunken stomata & no air spaces within
mesophyll to conserve water
Produce resin-protects the plant from
attack of fungi/ insects
Monoecious-have separate male &
female reproductive parts in different
locations on same plant
Borne in strobili/cones
Heterosporous
Sporophyte generation –dominant &
gametophyte generation –microscopic
structure in cones
Air current , wind carries pine pollen
grains to female cones & non-motile
sperm cells –fertilization by moving
pollen tube to egg.
 Male cones
 smaller than female cones
 Found lower branches of the tree
 Consists of sporophylls; leaf –like structures-bear
microsporangia on underside.
 Microsporangia contain microsporocyte/
microspore mother cell.
 Microsporocyte undergo meiosis to form haploid
microspores- develop male gametophyte, pollen
grain- carry by wind to female cones. Staminate/ male cones/
pollen cones

Female cones
 Found on upper branches of tree & bear seeds
after reproduction
 Each cone scale bear 2 ovules/ megasporangia on
its upper surface- undergo meiosis to produce 4
haploid megaspores; only one megaspore will
develop into female gametophyte with archegonia
containing egg
 Ovule is ready to receive pollen –produces sticky Ovulate / female cones/
droplets at opening – pollen grains land seed cones
 Phylum Cycadophyta

Most species now extinct

Tropical & subtropical plants with stout,
trunk-like stems & compound leaves
resemble palms/ferns
Dioecious – seed cones- on female plants &
pollen cones –on male plants
Have motile sperm cells (hair -like flagella)
Pollen grains carries by air /insects to seed
cones on female plants
During pollination, pollen grains develop
pollen tubes & release flagellated sperms-
swim to egg.
 Phylum Ginkgophyta

Ginkgo biloba- maidenhair

tree
Dioecious- separate male &
female trees
Fan-like leaves –turn gold &
deciduous in autumn
 Phylum Gnetophyta
Seed bearing plants-grow as shrubs, trees/
vines
3 genera- Gnetum, Ephedra & Welwitschia-
distinctive morphology & architecture of
sporophyte
Share numerous characters with angiosperm:
a) leaves- reticulate venation- resembles leaves
of dicot angiosperm
b) Xylem possesses both tracheids & vessel
elements
c) Reproductive structure (cluster of cones) are
flower-like
d) Double fertilization- 2 eggs cells produced-
fertilized; one become embryo-other
does not complete development into embryo &
no provide nutrition to developing embryo as
does endosperm of angiosperm
 Angiosperms

- Grouped in phylum Anthophyta/

Angiosperm
Magnoliophyta
- Flowering plants & successful of all plant
group Simple fruits Aggregate fruits
- Refinement in vascular tissue-xylem xylem -(arise from -(arise from
tracheids, vessel elements & fibre cells. one ovary in several ovaries
- Tracheid-long , tapered cells –functioning one flower) in one flower)
both mechanical support & water transport E.g. E.g. raspberry,
- Vessel elements-shorter & wider than cucumber, strawberry
tracheid-arranged end-to-end into tomato, apple
continuous tubes as xylem vessels-more
efficient in transporting water Multiple fruits
- Fibre cells- support -(arise from ovaries
- Ovules- enclosed within ovary in several , tightly –
- Seeds- enclosed in fruits-develop from clustered flowers –
ovary grow together into
- Body of angiosperm-sporophyte 1 fruit)
E.g. pineapple,
- Gametophyte –confined to flower, male &
female together mulberry
 Monocots/ Dicots /
Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
1 cotyledon in seeds 2 cotyledon in seeds

Flower parts in 3 Flower parts in 4 / 5/

/multiples of 3 multiples of 4 / 5

herbaceous Woody /herbaceous

Leave veins parallel with Leave veins branch out
each other from a central vein

Vascular bundle –scattered Vascular bundle –arranged

throughout stem but a ring in a ring around stem but in
pattern in root root they are centrally
located
Fibrous root taproot
Animalia
No true tissue

Notochord,
Segmentation,
Jointed
No body cavity appendages

Jointed
segmentation appendages,
endoskeleton
 Phylum Porifera

Parazoa –Sponges- only surviving & most

primitive of all animals
Porifera means pore-bearing’
Multicellular
Loosely associated & do not form
tissues/organ
Aquatic animal; marine, fresh water.
Lack body symmetry (asymmetrical)
E.g. Leucosolenia
Are sessile filter feeders
 sexual reproduction: hermaphroditic
(have both sexes)/ gonochoristic (separate
sexes)
Asexual reproduction: budding &
fragmentation.
 Phylum Cnidaria

Live in marine environments, some in

fresh water.
Radial symmetry
Organised as 2 - layered, hollow sac with
mouth & surrounding tentacles at one end
2 basic body forms (dimorphism): polyp &
medusa.
Stinging cell (cnidocytes) to capture prey
Diploblastic –have 2 definite tissue layers;
ectoderm & endoterm
Carnivores –feeding on live prey-use
tentacles to capture prey & push it into
mouth-leads to gastrovascular cavity-
digestion take place
Nerve net –simple nervous system
 Cnidarian
Hydrozoa Anthozoa

 Hydra & Obelia Scyphozoa  Sea anemones &

 Freshwater ponds & corals
 Jellyfish
streams  No medusa stage
 Poly form  Medusa –main in their
 Reproduce stage
development
 Asexual-budding when  Have no poly stage  Have either
favourable or much reduced individual
environment polyp stage /colonial polyps
 Unfavorable condition only
reproduce sexually &
form resistant zygotes –
remain dormant until
conditions improve
 Hermaphrodites
 Phylum Platyhelminthes

Flatworms
 Soft, unsegmented & flattened dorso-
ventrally, with mouth & genital pore located
in ventral position
Triploblastic animals- 3 cell layers (ectoderm,
endoderm & mesoderm)
Bilaterally symmetrical
No internal body cavity-acoelomate
Exhibit cephalization
Ladder –type nervous system
Digestive system –incomplete
Asexually – transversal bipartition sexually
Hemaphrodites
Excretion & Osmoregulation-controlled by
ciliated flame cells located in protonephridia
 Platyhelminthes
Cestoda Turbellaria
 Tapeworm; Taenia
Trematoda  Planarians; free-
saginata
 Leaf –like living Dugesia
 Gut of human
parasitic flukes  Carnivorous found
 Endoparasitic
in freshwater near
 Lack cephalization but  Simple digestive stones, leaves/
carries hooks / sucker system with
debris
for attachment to host mouth at anterior
end  Head is blunt &
 Obtain nutrients from
arrow-shaped
host  Fasciola hepatica-  Ingest food using
 Bodies covered with common liver
tube-like pharynx
tegument-resistant to fluke/ sheep liver
fluke located in centre of
host digestive juices
ventral surface of
 Cause disease - body
fascioliasis
 Phylum Nematoda

Nematodes-roundworms
Numerous animals –found anywhere in sea,
fresh water & soil
Parasites
Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented worms
Body –elongated ,cylindrical & tapered at
both ends.
Triploblastic pseudocoelomates
First animal phylum exhibit complete
digestive system with mouth & anus
No organs for circulation/ excretion.
Dissolved gas diffuse directly through body
wall.
Sexual –miniature adults hatching directly
from egg & moulting 4 times before reach
size of adults.
 Phylum Annelida

Earthworms, polychaete worms & leeches

Habitats: moist environment, moist soil,
freshwater &marine water
 metamerically segmented
Have parapodia & chitinous setae –used for
locomotion
Triploblastic with bilateral symmetry and
well-developed true coelom
Internal organs: well-developed
Nephridia -Excretion of metabolic wastes &
osmoregulation
Closed circulatory system
Monoecious/dioecious
Development- direct with no larval stages
 Annelida
Hirudinea

Oligochaeta  Leeches-most
Polychaeta
specialized
 Free-living marine  freshwater & marine
 Earthworm; Pheretima
worms water, many found in
 No parapodia- only 8
small setae per body  Ragworms/clam tropical region
segment worms- Nereis  Dorso-ventrally
 Complex digestive system  Polychaetes – ‘many flattened annelids
 No well-developed head. setae/ chaetae with suckers at both
Simple brain & nerve ends.
 Well-developed
cord head, sense organs ,  Have setae nor
 No respiratory organ. eye, antennae & parapodia
Oxygen & carbon dioxide sensory palps  Fixed number of
diffuse directly through segments- 34
 Fertilisation –
its skin external &  Coelom -not divided
 Hemaphrodites-have development by septa & filled with
both testes & ovaries proceeds indirectly muscle & connective
 Require 2 worms to through trochophore tissues
mate & reproduce larva  Carnivorous / parasitic
 Phylum Arthropoda

 Largest phylum
triploblastic, coelomate & bilaterally
symmetrical
Exhibit metameric segmentation
Covered by chitinous exoskeleton-provides
support & protection
Have paired jointed appendages
Growth by ecdysis/moulting
Have complete digestive tract with
specialized mouth parts Factors contributing to the
success of arthropods:
Body divided into head, thorax & abdomen
Segmentation/metamerism
Open circulatory system with dorsal heart Exoskeleton
& arteries Paired & jointed appendages
Respiration –body surface, gills ( aquatic), Well-developed sense organs
trachea/ lungs Variety of respiratory organs
Well developed central nervous system metamorphosis
 Arthropoda
Diplopoda
Chilopoda
Crustacea  Millipedes
 Centipede (hundred-  Lack poisonous fangs
 Decapods-familiar & leggers) & do not bite
numerous  Dorso-ventrally  Most -herbivores/
 Shrimp, lobsters, crayfish flattened & fast scavengers
& crabs moving terrestrial  Habitats: decaying
 Respiratory system – gills predators plant & animal matter
 Have 10-14 legs  Divided into 2 in moist microhabitats
 Have 2 body region: regions : head &  Long bodies
cephalothorax & trunk composed of 50
abdomen  First pair of legs segments-each has 2
 Have 2 pair of antennae modified as pair of legs
 E.g. Macrobrachium venomous fangs-
capture prey
 Long bodies
composed of 14-20
segments
 E.g. Scolopendra
 Arthropoda
Merostomata
Insecta Arachnida
 Merostomes –extinct
 8 legged
 Great majority &  Horseshoe crabs
 Scorpions, spiders, ticks Tachypleus sp.
successful group
& mites  Body covered by
 Head, thorax & abdomen
 Nervous system complex:  Have 2 body regions: carapace
ganglia, ventral, double cephalothorax  Divided into 2 regions:
(prosoma) & abdomen cephalothorax &
nerve cord
(opisthosoma) abdomen
 Dioecious & mostly
internal fertilization  Has 6 pairs of  First pair-feeding legs
 Undergo complete & appendages-first pair of (pedipalps)
appendages modified  Have book gills-
incomplete
into pincer-like/ fang- exchange of gaseous
metamorphosis like structure
 Respiratory system –  Telson –long, spike-
(chelicerae)
system of internal tubes like tail –locomotion.
& sac  Respire –trachea/ book
lungs)
 Malpighian- Excretion of
nitrogenous waste  No antennae/ wings
 Carnivorous
 Phylum Mollusca
Molluscs
Triploblastic & bilaterally symmetrical,
coelomate animals
Complete digestive tract and ciliated with
mouth , anus & complex stomach
Complex nervous system
Open circulatory system
Soft body-protected by hard shell-calcium
carbonate
Squids, slugs ,octopuses
Head-foot / muscular foot, visceral mass &
mantle
Toothed tongue (radula)
Pass through one or more larval stages.
 Mollusca
Bivalvia
Cephalopoda
Gastropoda  Clams, oysters,
 Head foot ; squid & mussels & scallops
 Largest group octopus  Shell consisting of 2
 Snails, whelks & slugs  Has complex brain rounded plates- valves
 Well-developed head  Completely merged & joined at one edge by
region, eyes & tentacles foot ,with ring of arms flexible ligament -
project from coiled shell /tentacles hinge
 Gills in mantle cavity of surrounding head  No head, very little
aquatic gastropods,  Arm ,tentacles & cephalization & no
mantle functions as lungs funnel –derivatives of radula
in terrestrial foot  Foot is present but
 Single, spirally-coiled laterally compressed
 Horny beak by walls of
shell-can withdrawn but buccal cavity & radula  Large mantle cavity
the shell is lost /reduced within buccal cavity with ciliated gills
in some groups; slugs  Filter feeders
 Sac-release a black
fluid when they are
threatened /excited
 Phylum Echinodermata
Marine organisms
Triploblastic, coelomate & unsegmented
Simple animals, lacking brain & complex
sense organs
Start off as bilaterally symmetrical larvae
but later come radially symmetrical adults
Presence of internal skeleton covered with
spines & skins
Water vascular system, ending in tube feet
Extend /contract its tube feet for
locomotion ,food collection & respiration.
Some –carnivorous & scavenge the ocean
floor, others –filter feeders
Reproduction-usually sexual but several
reproduce asexually
 Echinodermata
Echinoidea
Holothuroidea
Asteroidea  Sea urchins
 no  Radially symmentry
 Sea stars- starfish  Radial symmetry body with external
 Five arm radiating from chitinous skeleton
 Bilateral symmetry
central disc with mouth with dorsal & ventral  Mouth –underside of
on underside sides body
 Water vascular system-  Anus –upperside of
 Sea cucumbers
locomotion animal
 Made of embedded  Elongated, muscular &  Aristotle’s lantern-
ossicles-form internal flexible body with consist of 5 strong
framework to support mouth at one end & teeth –allow to scrape
anus at the other
connective tissues algae off rocks
 Reproduce : asexually- by  Tentacles- feeding  Skeleton –test-rigid
regeneration & sexually  Tube feet- locomotion shell made of flat &
fused calcareous
ossicles
 Echinodermata

Ophiuroidea Crinoidea
 Feather star
 Brittle stars
 Most mobile, fragile &
inconspicuous group
 Have distinct central disc
 Tube feet lack suckers
 Have no anus, waste
eliminated through
mouth-underside centre
 Skeleton made of
calcareous plates
(ossicles) embedded
beneath their skin
 Phylum Chordata
Well known vertebrates: fishes, reptiles,
amphibians , birds and mammals
A dorsal supporting rod- notochord
- Located just below nerve cord
Dorsal tubular nerve cord
Pharyngeal pouches or slits
A post-anal tail
Myotomes

Chondrichthyes
 Cartilaginous fish- sharks,
skates & rays
 Have cartilage skeleton
rather than bones
 Lack swim bladder –helps
stay buoyant in water
 Have lateral line system-
detects differences in
water pressure.
 Lack gill cover
(operculum)-found in
bony fish
 Pectoral fins –enlarged
into large, wing –like fins
 Sharks & rays reproduce
by passing sperm from
male to female using
claspers.
Vertebrates
Amphibia
Osteichthyes
 Lives in both water &
 Bony fish, most land
numerous  Newts, salamanders,
 Habitat: salt & frogs, toads & caecilians
freshwater  Tetrapods (4 limbs) –
 Fish-gills covered by able to move on land
operculum  Thin, soft , moist & lack
scales except in
 Few have lungs
caecilians
 Swim bladder-air sac –  Ectothermic (cold-
control buoyancy blooded)
 Sharks, bony fish-hold  Gills (larvae stage) &
still at any depth & lungs (adult stage
not sink  3 chambered heart-2
atria & 1 ventricles
 Complex
metamorphosis as grow
into adulthood

Reptilia
 Turtles, snakes, lizards &
crocodiles.
 Amniotes
 Horny epidermal scales –
protect them from
abrasion & loss of body
moisture.
 Breathe-lungs , many
turtles –use moist
surface of their cloaca for
gas exchange
Vertebrates
Mammalia
Aves
 Bird-ability to fly & lay  3 middle ear bones,
eggs hair & production of
milk (not found in
 Endothermic
other animals)
 Skin covered with  Differentiate teeth &
feathers developed brain
 Feathers used in  Endothermic &
flight, temperature homeothermic with
regulation & separate sexes
colouration (display &  Live in terrestrial &
camouflage) aquatic habitats
 Four-chambered heart  Monotremes (egg-
 Their bones – laying mammals)
lightweight & hollow  Marsupials (mammals
with pouches)
 Forelimbs-modified as
wings  Eutherian (placenta
mammals)