Paper 2

Q1.FIB:

1. Fertile cresent
2. Osiris
3. Cuneiform
4. Babylon
5. Paleolithic
6. Khufu
7. Obsidian
8. Papyrus

Q2.

1. Hypostyle hall, in architecture, interior space whose roof rests on pillars or columns. The

word means literally “under pillars,” and the design allows for the construction of large
spaces—as in temples, palaces, or public buildings—without the need for arches. It was used
extensively in ancient Egypt—where the Temple of Amon at Karnak provides a good example
—and in Persia—where the ruins at Persepolis give evidence of outstanding examples of
hypostyle construction.

2. The Doric capital consists of a square abacus surmounting a round form with an egg-

shaped profile called the echinus, below which are several narrow, ridgelike mouldings
linking the capital with the column.
The Ionic capital—probably related to the volute capitals of western Asia—has a tripartite
design consisting of a pair of horizontally connected volutes inserted between the abacus and
echinus.
The Corinthian capital is basically an abacus supported on an inverted bell surrounded by
rows of stylized acanthus leaves.

3. A compact settlement is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available in
a scattered settlement dwelling are spaced over an extensive area. This type of settlement is
mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme climate.

4. The first civilizations formed on the banks of rivers. 

a.) Rivers were attractive locations for the first civilizations because they provided a steady
supply of drinking water.
b.) The river banks made the land fertile for growing crops.

5. Indus, Nile and Yellow river.

Q3.
a. Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based
on socioeconomic factors
like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, 
social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social
position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit.
In modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social
classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class; in turn, each class can be
subdivided into the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum. Moreover, a social
stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship, clan, tribe, or caste, or all four.
The categorization of people by social stratum occurs most clearly in complex state-
based, polycentric, or feudal societies, the latter being based upon socio-economic relations
among classes of nobility and classes of peasants. Historically, whether or not hunter-
gatherer, tribal, and band societies can be defined as socially stratified, or if social stratification
otherwise began with agriculture and large-scale means of social exchange, remains a debated
matter in the social sciences. Determining the structures of social stratification arises from
inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of social inequality determines a
person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social
stratification exists, by way of social differentiation.
Role theory:
Role theory is a concept in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday
activity to be the acting-out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher).
Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms, and behaviours that a person has to face
and fulfil. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and
that an individual's behaviour is context specific, based on social position and other factors. The
theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory.
Although the word role (or roll) has existed in European languages for centuries, as a
sociological concept, the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. It became more
prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical works of George Herbert Mead, Jacob
L. Moreno, Talcott Parsons, and Ralph Linton, Georg Simmel. Two of Mead's concepts—the
mind and the self—are the precursors to role theory.
The theory posits the following propositions about social behaviour:

1. The division of labour in society takes the form of the interaction

among heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles;
2. Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of behaviour, guided by
social norms, which are commonly known and hence determine expectations;
3. Roles are occupied by individuals, or "actors";
4. When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role "legitimate"
and "constructive"), they will incur costs to conform to role norms, and will also
incur costs to punish those who violate role norms;
5. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which
case social pressures are likely to lead to role change;
6. The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of
behaving in a prosocial way, account for why agents conform to role
requirements.

b. Types of families:

Family Structures

The following types of families exist today, with some families naturally falling into multiple
categories. For example, a single parent family who lives in a larger, extended family. While
these types of families are distinct in definition, in practice the lines are less clear. As laws
and norms change, so do family structures. For example, the 2020 U.S. Census will be the
first to give respondents the chance to indicate that they are part of a same-sex couple, either
married or unmarried.

Nuclear Family:
The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure. This family type consists of two
parents and children. The nuclear family was long held in esteem by society as being the
ideal in which to raise children. Children in nuclear families receive strength and stability
from the two-parent structure and generally have more opportunities due to the financial
ease of two adults. According to 2010 U.S. Census data, almost 70 percent of children live in
a nuclear family unit.

Single Parent Family

The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children on his own. This
family may include a single mother with her children, a single dad with his kids, or a single
person with their kids. The single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in
terms of the changes in family structures. One in four children is born to a single mother.
Single parent families are generally close and find ways to work together to solve problems,
such as dividing up household chores. When only one parent is at home, it may be a struggle
to find childcare, as there is only one parent working. This limits income and opportunities
in many cases, although many single parent families have support from relatives and friends.

Extended Family
The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either by blood
or marriage, living in the same home. This family includes many relatives living together and
working toward common goals, such as raising the children and keeping up with the
household duties. Many extended families include cousins, aunts or uncles and grandparents
living together. This type of family structure may form due to financial difficulties or because
older relatives are unable to care for themselves alone. Extended families are becoming
increasingly common all over the world.

Childless Family
While most people think of family as including children, there are couples who either cannot
or choose not to have children. The childless family is sometimes the "forgotten family," as it
does not meet the traditional standards set by society. Childless families consist of two
partners living and working together. Many childless families take on the responsibility of
pet ownership or have extensive contact with their nieces and nephews.

Step Family
Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and many of these individuals choose to get
remarried. This creates the step or blended family which involves two separate families
merging into one new unit. It consists of a new husband, wife, or spouse and their children
from previous marriages or relationships. Step families are about as common as the nuclear
family, although they tend to have more problems, such as adjustment periods and discipline
issues. Step families need to learn to work together and also work with their exes to ensure
these family units run smoothly.

Grandparent Family
Many grandparents today are raising their grandchildren for a variety of reasons. One in
fourteen children is raised by his grandparents, and the parents are not present in the child's
life. This could be due to parents' death, addiction, abandonment or being unfit parents.
Many grandparents need to go back to work or find additional sources of income to help
raise their grandchildren.
Q4.

1. Town planning in Indus valley:

Town planning is the unique feature of Indus valley civilization. Their town planning proves
that they lived a highly civilized and developed life. Indus people were the first to build
planned cities with scientific drainage system. The Indus cities were built on a uniform plan.
Town planning was amazing in nature. A few cities have citadels to the West built on higher
platform and to the east of which is the hub of residential area. Both of them are surrounded
by a massive brick wall. The cities without citadel are found on high mounds.

Streets
The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They were 13 to 34 feet wide and were
well lined. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks. Archaeologists have
discovered the lamp posts at intervals. This suggests the existence of street lights. Dustbins were also
provided on the streets. These prove the presence of good municipal administration.

Drainage System 
One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is that the city was provided with
an excellent closed drainage system. Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was
connected to the public drainage. Brick laid channels flowed through every street. They were covered
and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes. Large brick culverts with corbelled
roofs were constructed on the outskirts of the city to carry excess water. Thus, Indus people had a
perfect underground drainage system. No other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to
cleanliness.

The Great Bath

The most striking feature in Mohenjo-Daro is the Great Bath. It consists of a large quadrangle.
In the centre, there is a huge swimming pool (approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8ft
deep) with the remains of galleries and rooms on all four sides. It has a flight of steps at either
end and is fed by a well, situated in one of the adjoining rooms. The water was discharged by
a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth. The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer
walls. This solid construction has successfully withstood the natural ravages for 5000 years.
There were arrangements for hot water bath in some rooms.

Granaries
The largest building in Mohenjo-Daro is granary which is 45.71 metres long and 15.23 metres wide. In
Harappa there are a series of brick platforms which formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each.
In the Southern part of Kalibangan brick platforms have also been found. These granaries safely
stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue or store houses to be used in
emergencies.

Buildings
People of Indus valley civilization-built houses and other buildings by the side of roads. They built
terraced houses of burnt bricks. Every house had two or more rooms. There were also more than one
storied house. The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained pillared halls,
bath rooms, paved floors, kitchen, well etc. Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures have
also been found. One of these buildings has got the biggest hall measuring 80 ft long and 80 ft wide. It
might have been a palace, or temple or hall for holding meetings. The workmen quarters are also
found. There was an excellent system of water supply. There were public wells by the side of streets.
Every big house had its own well. They also built a dockyard at Lothal.
2. Hex signs:
Hex signs are a form of Pennsylvania Dutch folk art, related to fraktur, found in the Fancy
Dutch tradition in Pennsylvania Dutch Country. Barn paintings, usually in the form of
"stars in circles", began to appear on the landscape in the early 19th century and became
widespread decades later when commercial ready-mixed paint became readily available.
By the 1950s commercialized hex signs, aimed at the tourist market, became popular
and these often include stars, compass roses, stylized birds known
as distelfinks, hearts, tulips, or a tree of life. Two schools of thought exist on the meaning
of hex signs. One school ascribes a talismanic nature to the signs; the other sees them
as purely decorative. Both schools recognize that there are sometimes superstitions
associated with certain hex sign themes and neither ascribes strong magical power to
them. The Amish do not use hex signs.
Cross motifs:
 Connection between motifs and architecture:

In art and iconography, a motif is an element of an image. The term can be used both of
figurative and narrative art, and ornament and geometrical art. A motif may be repeated in
a pattern or design, often many times, or may just occur once in a work.
A motif may be an element in the iconography of a particular subject or type of subject that is
seen in other works, or may form the main subject, as the Master of Animals motif in ancient art
typically does. The related motif of confronted animals is often seen alone, but may also be
repeated, for example in Byzantine silk and other ancient textiles. Where the main subject of an
artistic work such as a painting is a specific person, group, or moment in a narrative, that should
be referred to as the "subject" of the work, not a motif, though the same thing may be a "motif"
when part of another subject, or part of a work of decorative art such as a painting on a vase.

Ornamental or decorative art can usually be analysed into a number of different elements, which

can be called motifs. These may often, as in textile art, be repeated many times in a pattern.
Important examples in Western art include acanthus, egg and dart, and various types
of scrollwork.

3. (nathi mailu)

4. Having no easy access to stone or wood for building hamstrung the Sumerians. Sun-
dried mud bricks were their main building material, and this required some ingenuity.
They were the first to employ the arch, vault, and dome. Their cities were completely
enclosed by brick walls. Their most important buildings were temples, built as large
mounds called ziggurats. Through cycles of attack, destruction, and restoration, the
temples were rebuilt again and again at the same site, gradually getting larger with each
incarnation. Mud bricks eroded and crumbled much more quickly than stone, however,
and little Sumerian architecture survives.

5. Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed
an integral part of ancient Egyptian culture. It cantered on the Egyptians' interactions with
many deities believed to be present in, and in control of the world. Rituals such as prayer and
offerings were provided to the gods to gain their favour. Formal religious practice cantered on
the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt, believed to possess divine powers by virtue of their positions.
They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods, and were obligated to sustain
the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain Ma'at, the order of the cosmos,
and repel Isfet, which was chaos. The state dedicated enormous resources to religious rituals
and to the construction of temples.

The ancient Egyptians were a polytheistic people who believed that gods and goddesses
controlled the forces of the human, natural, and supernatural world. In traditional Egyptian belief,
the fundamental governing principle was the abstract concept of maat (represented by the
goddess Maat) which is often translated as truth, justice, and cosmic order. To maintain maat,
the living had to constantly worship and make sacrifices to the gods to pacify the deities and
spirits of the afterlife.
Ancient Egyptians believed that if a person were properly prepared for the afterlife, his/her soul
was immortal. The soul, known as ka, accompanies an individual throughout life, and then after
death it leaves the body to enter into the realm of the dead. An individual's ka could not exist
without his or her body. Extensive rituals and preparation of the body for death, which included
tomb building, mummification, and funerary ceremonies, was meant to protect the body and the
soul for the afterlife.
The Egyptian pantheon was composed of many gods and goddesses often arranged in family
groups of three consisting of a mother, father, and child. Each god or goddess was linked to one
or more places where monumental temples were built to house their images. Gods and
goddesses in Egypt took many different forms. Many were portrayed in Egyptian art with both
human and animal features. Horus, god of the sky, war, and protection often appears with the
body of a man and the head of a falcon. Others were portrayed as divine humans. For instance,
Osiris, who judges the dead in the afterlife, was portrayed as a man with a face that is either
black (referring to the rich Nile soil) or green (representing new life). Many Egyptian gods were
also associated with attributes, or objects with which they perform their divine duties. Isis,
goddess of magic and motherhood, for instance, was often shown holding an ankh or a lotus.
In Egyptian society, the highest position was occupied by the pharaoh who was believed to be
semi-divine and who was credited with mediating between humans and the gods.