A Project Report on

PRODUCTION OF ACETALDEHYDE

SUBMITTED IN PARTI AL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted By:
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................ i

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... iv

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................................... v

List of Symbols and abbreviations used ........................................................................................................ vi

Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................. viii

Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 1

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Occurrence ........................................................................................................................................ 1

1.3 Environmental Aspect....................................................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................................................. 3

2 Market Survey ............................................................................................................................................ 3

2.1 Global Consumption and demand of Acetaldehyde: ............................................................. 3

2.2 Demand for acetaldehyde in Western Europe and China ...................................................... 5

2.3 Demand for acetaldehyde in Japan.................................................................................................. 7

2.4 Indian market for acetaldehyde .................................................................................................... 8

2.5 Present and future condition of demand for acetaldehyde ................................................... 8

Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................................... 11

3 Literature Survey ...................................................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................................... 12

4 Physical Properties and Uses ................................................................................................................. 12

4.1 Properties................................................................................................................................................. 12

4.2 Uses........................................................................................................................................................... 19
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Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................................... 20

5 Different Manufacturing Processes ...................................................................................................... 20

5.1 Oxidation of Ethylene ..................................................................................................................... 20

5.1.1 Two stage process developed by Wacker Chemie......................................................... 21

5.1.2 One stage process developed by Farbwerke Hoechst .................................................. 21

5.2 By Oxidation of ethyl alcohol ........................................................................................................ 22

5.3 By Dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol ......................................................................................... 22

5.4 Preparation method of acetaldehyde from acetylene .......................................................... 23

5.5 From synthesis Gas........................................................................................................................... 23

5.6 From acetic acid ............................................................................................................................. 24

5.7 From Saturated Hydrocarbons:..................................................................................................... 25

6 Selection of Process with Justification ................................................................................................. 26

7 Description of the Process ..................................................................................................................... 27

8 Material and Energy Balance ............................................................................................................... 29

Chapter 9 ........................................................................................................................................................... 49

9 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT........................................................................................................................... 49

9.1 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN: .............................................................................................. 49

9.2 Design of Heat exchanger........................................................................................................... 100

9.3 Design of Reactor .......................................................................................................................... 115

9.4 Design of Condenser .................................................................................................................... 122

Chapter 10....................................................................................................................................................... 126

10 COST ESTIMATION .................................................................................................................................. 126

10.1 Estimation of Total Capital Investment: ................................................................................. 126

10.2 Estimation of Total Product cost: ............................................................................................ 130

11 Profitability Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 136

11.1 Gross Earnings/Income:............................................................................................................ 136

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 11.2 Rate of Return: ........................................................................................................................... 136

11.3 Payback Period ......................................................................................................................... 136

11.4 Break-Even Analysis ................................................................................................................... 137

12 Chapter ................................................................................................................................................... 139

PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT ................................................................................................................... 139

Chapter 13....................................................................................................................................................... 148

13 Pollution and Safety in Process Industries ......................................................................................... 148

References....................................................................................................................................................... 151

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 The following Pie chart shows the Global Consumption in the year 2012 ............................ 4

Figure 2.2 China's Demand for Acetaldehyde Since 2002 ........................................................................ 5

Figure 2.3 Western Europe's Demand for Acetaldehyde Since 2003....................................................... 6

Figure 2.4 Graph of Japan's Annual import of Acetaldehyde.................................................................. 7

Figure 2.5 India's Acetaldehyde Trade Statistics ( demand and supply) ................................................ 8

Figure 2.6 Chart Showing Major Importers of Acetaldehyde .................................................................. 10

Figure 7.1 Flowsheet ......................................................................................................................................... 28

Figure 12.1 Plant Layout ................................................................................................................................ 147

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List of Tables

Table 2-1 Consumption of Acetaldehyde in Kg ........................................................................................... 9

Table 2-2 Some Leading Producers of Acetaldehyde and their Production Capacities .................. 10

Table 4-1 Physical Properties of Acetaldehyde.......................................................................................... 13

8-1 Values of constants for calculating Cp.................................................................................................. 31

8-2 Values of CP for different temperature range (kcal/Kg.C) ............................................................... 31

8-3 Mass Balance Table for Vaporizer .......................................................................................................... 33

8-4 Energy Balance Table for Vaporizer....................................................................................................... 33

8-5 Mass Balance Table for Reactor ............................................................................................................. 34

8-6 Energy Balance Table for Reactor ......................................................................................................... 36

8-7 Mass Balance Table for Heat Exchanger .............................................................................................. 37

8-8 Energy Balance Table for Heat Exchanger .......................................................................................... 37

8-9 Mass Balance Table for Condenser 1 .................................................................................................... 40

8-10 Energy Balance for Condenser 1.......................................................................................................... 40

8-11 Mass Balance Table for Condenser 2 .................................................................................................. 42

8-12 Energy Balance for Condenser 2.......................................................................................................... 43

8-13 Mass Balance for Preheater .................................................................................................................. 44

8-14 Energy Balance Table for Preheater .................................................................................................... 44

9-1 T-x-y data for ethanol-acetaldehyde .................................................................................................... 50

9-2 List of Parameters used in calculation ................................................................................................... 54

9-9-3 Conditions of fluidization ..................................................................................................................... 119

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 List of Symbols and abbreviations used
M steam Mass flow rate of steam.

∆H steam Enthalpy of steam.

E Mass flow rate of ethanol.

A Mass flow rate of acetaldehyde.

H Mass flow rate of hydrogen.

Cp Specific heat capacity.

λ Latent heat of vaporization.

F Molar flow rate of Feed, kmol/hr.

D Molar flow rate of Distillate, kmol/hr.

W Molar flow rate of Residue, kmol/hr.

XF Mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in liquid/Feed.

YD Mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in Distillate.

XW Mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in Residue.

MF Average Molecular weight of Feed, kg/kmol

MD Average Molecular weight of Distillate, kg/kmol

MW Average Molecular weight of Residue, kg/kmol

Rm Minimum Reflux ratio

R Actual Reflux ratio

L Molar flow rate of Liquid in the Enriching Section, kmol/hr.

G Molar flow rate of Vapor in the Enriching Section, kmol/hr.

L Molar flow rate of Liquid in Stripping Section, kmol/hr.

G Molar flow rate of Vapor in Stripping Section, kmol/hr.

Q Thermal condition of Feed

ρL Density of Liquid, kg/m3.

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ρV Density of Vapor, kg/m3.

qL Volumetric flow rate of Liquid, m3/s

qV Volumetric flow rate of Vapor, m3/s

μL Viscosity of Liquid, cP.

TL Temperature of Liquid, K.

TV Temperature of Vapor, K

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 Abstract

The present work illustrates the production of acetaldehyde by different production methods, market
survey, literature survey and selection of an appropriate method. The method of production we have
chosen is dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol. In this process, hydrogen is taken out as a by-product
which can be used elsewhere or which can be used to generate heat. In dehydrogenation process
more conversion-taking place compared to other processes. The mass balance is being performed
for the various units involved in the production of acetaldehyde by dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol
method. We have also done energy balance for each unit to find out heat utility and amount of
auxiliary fluids required for the heat supply. In design section we have designed a distillation column,
heat exchanger, condenser and packed bed reactor which matches the design specifications
required for given plant. Cost estimation is also done along with profitability studies to show the
investment required, rate of return and payback period. The last sections consist of plant layout,
pollution control and safety measures which are very much essential for and process industry.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

OVERVI EW

Acetaldehyde, CH3CHO is an important intermediate in industrial organic synthesis with IUPAC

name ethanal. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and
being produced on a large scale in industry . In acetaldehyde carbon atom shares a double
bond with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single bond with
another atom of carbon. The double bond between carbon and oxygen is characteristic of all
aldehydes and is known as the carbonyl group.

OCCURRENCE

Acetaldehyde is used in the production of perfumes, polyester resins, and basic

dyes. Acetaldehyde is also used as a fruit and fish preservative, as a flavouring agent, and as a
denaturant for alcohol, in fuel compositions, for hardening gelatin, and as a solvent in the rubber,
tanning, and paper industries. Acetaldehyde is a normal intermediate product in the respiration
of higher plants. It occurs in traces in all ripe fruits that have a tart taste before ripening; the
aldehyde content of the volatiles has been suggested as a chemical index of ripening during
cold storage of apples. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate product of alcoholic fermentation but it
is reduced almost immediately to ethanol. It may form in wine and other alcoholic beverages
after exposure to air, and imparts an unpleasant taste; the aldehyde ordinarily reacts to form
diethyl acetal and ethyl acetate. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate product in the
decomposition of sugars in the body and, hence, occurs in traces in blood. Acetaldehyde is a
product of most hydrocarbon oxidations.

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ENVI RONMENTAL ASPECT

Acetaldehyde is toxic when applied externally for prolonged periods, an irritant, and a probable
carcinogen. It is an air pollutant resulting from combustion, such as automotive exhaust
and tobacco smoke. Acetaldehyde is an important intermediate in the production of acetic
acid, acetic anhydride, ethyl acetate, peracetic acid, pentaerythritol, chloral, glyoxal, alkyl
amines, and pyridines. Acetaldehyde was first used extensively during World War I as an
intermediate for making acetone from acetic acid.

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CHAPTER 2
MARKET SURVEY

GLOBAL CONSUMPTI ON AND DE MAND OF ACETALDEHYDE:

The global market for acetaldehyde has been trending downward for the past twenty years as a
result of the commercialization of more efficient technologies to produce those products formerly
based on acetaldehyde. For example, the production of plasticizer alcohols has totally switched
from N-butyraldehyde based on acetaldehyde to the oxidation of propylene, while acetic acid
is now made predominantly by the lower-cost methanol carbonylation process.

With acetic acid manufacturing processes migrating from acetaldehyde based production

techniques towards carbonylation-of-methanol, the world acetaldehyde market are projected

to witness a steady deterioration in consumption. But acetic acid facilities based on
acetaldehyde continue to operate in Asia and South America, although these will eventually be
phased out in favour of methanol carbonylation. In addition to these structural changes,
acetaldehyde demand has also declined in the last few years because of mature end-use
markets and the effects of the economic downturn on these acetaldehyde-derived products.

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Figure 0.1 The following Pie chart shows the Global Consumption in the year 2012

Sales

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr

Production of pyridine and pyridine bases, pentaerythritol, and acetate esters accounted for
16%, 16%, and 14%, respectively, of 2012 global acetaldehyde consumption. Pyridine and
pyridine bases are important raw materials in the production of agricultural chemicals.
Pentaerythritol and acetate esters (mainly ethyl acetate, but also some isobutyl acetate) are
both used heavily in surface coatings. The other uses of acetaldehyde accounted for the
remaining global consumption of acetaldehyde in 2012. This category includes 1, 3-butylene
glycol, crotonaldehyde and glyoxal, along with some smaller-volume derivatives.

As the chart shows, China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world, accounting for
almost half of global consumption in 2012. Chinese consumption is heavily weighted toward the
production of acetic acid. However, the growth of acetaldehyde in this end use will be limited in
the future because any new acetic acid plants will be based on the methanol carbonylation
process. Other uses such as pyridines and pentaerythritol will grow faster than acetic acid, but
the volumes are not large enough to offset the decline in acetic acid. Consequently, overall
Chinese acetaldehyde consumption will grow only slightly at 1.6% per year through 2018.

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DEMAND FOR ACETALDEH YDE I N WESTERN EUROPE AND CHI NA

Western Europe is the second-largest consumer of acetaldehyde worldwide after China,

accounting for 20% of world consumption in 2012. As with China, the Western European
acetaldehyde market is expected to increase only very slightly at 1% per year during 2012 to
2018.

China’s acetaldehyde imports decreased gradually from 2003 and there is a sudden increase in
the value in the year 2010

Figure 0.2 China's Demand for Acetaldehyde Since 2002

Year

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Figure 0.3 Western Europe's Demand for Acetaldehyde Since 2003

We can see France and Germany are the leading importers of acetaldehyde which shows that
they have a huge demand since 2003.

The US acetaldehyde market will also rise only minimally, at 1–2% per year during 2012–2018.
Acetaldehyde is not consumed for acetic acid and the rest of the markets will experience GDP-
like growth in the next five years.

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2.3 DE MAND FOR ACETALDEHYDE IN JAPAN

In contrast, Japan could very well be the brightest spot for acetaldehyde consumption in the
next five years and this hinges upon the on-purpose production of butadiene from
acetaldehyde. The supply of butadiene has been volatile in Japan and the rest of Asia because
of the limited availability of naphtha feedstock. Typically, butadiene and other C 4hydrocarbons
are coproduced when naphtha is used as a feedstock for ethylene manufacture. However, the
increased production of natural gas from shale gas, particularly in the United States, has caused
many ethylene crackers to switch feedstock from naphtha to ethane, which yields lower volumes
of co product butadiene and other C4hydrocarbons. This has spurred the revival of on-purpose
production for butadiene and Japan certainly has enough sources of acetaldehyde to support
such a project. This new end use should provide a much needed boost to an otherwise flat
acetaldehyde market. If Showa Denko starts up its butadiene plant as scheduled, acetaldehyde
consumption in Japan should exhibit close to 4% per year growth through 2018.

.
Figure 0.4 Graph of Japan's Annual import of Acetaldehyde

Year

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1.4 INDI AN MARKET FOR ACETALDE HYDE

Indian consumption is anticipated to have moderate growth rate of nearly 3% for the next
several years and demand for acetaldehyde use in acetic acid production will grow 3-4%
annually.

Figure 0.5 India's Acetaldehyde Trade Statistics (demand and supply)

PRESENT AND FUTURE CONDITION OF DEMAND FOR ACETALDEHYDE

Overall, the global market for acetaldehyde has grown 2-3% annually during 2009-2014.
However, some of this growth is actually a recovery from the significant decline experienced in
2009(for example, China’s use in acetic acid market). Major regions including Western Europe,
United States of America will have low growth than that of global consumption’s rate. However,
the demand for acetaldehyde worldwide has continued to decrease primarily as a result of less
consumption for acetic acid manufacture, as the industry continues to move toward more

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efficient methanol carbonylation process. Its production in North America and Western Europe
has decreased but its manufacture in Asia continues and new acetaldehyde capacity has been
installed in China, but this is the only area where new capacity has been added.

Traditionally, acetaldehyde was mainly used as a precursor to acetic acid. In terms of

condensation reactions, acetaldehyde is an important precursor to pyridine derivatives,
pentaerythritol, and crotonaldehyde. Urea and acetaldehyde combine to give a useful resin.
Acetic anhydride reacts with acetaldehyde to give ethylidene diacetate, a precursor to vinyl
acetate, which is used to produce polyvinyl acetate.

China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world, accounting for almost half of global
consumption in 2012. Major use has been the production of acetic acid. Other uses such
as pyridines and pentaerythritol are expected to grow faster than acetic acid, but the volumes
are not large enough to offset the decline in acetic acid. As a consequence, overall
acetaldehyde consumption in China may grow slightly at 1.6% per year through 2018. Western
Europe is the second-largest consumer of acetaldehyde worldwide, accounting for 20% of world
consumption in 2012. As with China, the Western European acetaldehyde market is expected to
increase only very slightly at 1% per year during 2012–2018. However, Japan could emerge as a
potential consumer for acetaldehyde in next five years due to newfound use in commercial
production of butadiene. The supply of butadiene has been volatile in Japan and the rest of
Asia. This should provide the much needed boost to the flat market, as of 2013

Table 0-1 Consumption of Acetaldehyde in Kg

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Table 0-2 Some Leading Producers of Acetaldehyde and their Production
Capacities

COMPANY Production ( in 103 t)

Celanese Chemicals Europe, Germany 120

Eastman chemical company 225

ECROS,SA, Spain 90

Japan aldehyde company Ltd, Japan 69

Jilin chemical industrial company, China 180

Kyowa Yuka Company Ltd, Japan 61

Wacker chemie AG, Germany 65

Figure 0.6 Pie Chart Showing Major Importers of Acetaldehyde

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Chapter 3
LITERATURE SURVEY

Acetaldehyde was first prepared by Scheele in 1774, by the action of manganese dioxide and
sulphuric acid on ethanol. Liebig established the structure of acetaldehyde in 1835 when he
prepared a pure sample by oxidizing ethyl alcohol with chromic acid. Liebig named the
compound “aldehyde” from the Latin words translated as alcohol dehydrogenated. Kutscherow
observed the formation of acetaldehyde by the addition of water to acetylene in 1881
Commercial processes for the production of acetaldehyde include: the oxidation or
dehydrogenation of ethanol, the addition of water to acetylene, partial oxidation of
hydrocarbons, and the direct oxidation of ethylene. It is estimated that in 1976, 29 companies
with more than 82% of the world’s 2.3 megaton per year plant capacity use the Wacker Hoechst
processes for the direct oxidation of ethylene

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Chapter 4

PHY SICAL PROPERTIES AND USES

4.1 PROPERTI ES

Chemical name: Acetaldehyde

Other name: Ethanal

Chemical formula CH3CHO

Molecular mass 44.05 g/mol

Appearance: Colorless liquid and Etherial odour

Structure:

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Physical properties

Acetaldehyde is a colourless, mobile liquid having a pungent suffocating odour that is somewhat
fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations. Some physical properties of acetaldehyde are given
in Table 4.1.

The freezing points of aqueous solutions of acetaldehyde are as follows: 4.8 wt %, -2.50C; 13.5 wt
%, - 7.80 C, and 31.0 wt %, - 23.00 C. Acetaldehyde is miscible in all proportions with water and
most common organic solvents: acetone, benzene, ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether, gasoline,
paraldehyde, toluene, xylenes, turpentine, and acetic acid.

Table 0-1 Physical Properties of Acetaldehyde

Properties Values

Formula weight g/mol 44.053

Melting point °C -123.5

Boiling point at 101.3 kPa (1 atm), °C 20.16

Specific Density 0.8045

Coefficient of expansion per °C (0-30 °C) 0.00169

Refractive index 1.33113

Vapor density (air = 1 ) 1.52

Absolute viscosity at 15 °CmPa.s b 0.02456

Specific heat at 0 °C,J/(g.K) 2.18

At 25 °C 1.41

α = Cp / Cv at 30 °C and 101.3 kPa 1.145

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 Latent heat of fusion, kJ/mol 3.24

Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/mol 25.71

Heat of solution in water at 0 °C, kJ/mol - 8.20

At 25 °C - 6.82

Heat of combustion of liquid at constant 11867.9

pressure, kJ/mol

Heat of formation at 273 K, kJ/mol -165.48

Free energy of formation at 273 K, kJ/mol -136.40

Critical temperature, °C 181.5

Critical pressure, MΡa (atm) 6.40(63.2)

Dipole moment, C-m (debyes ) 9.04 x 10 – 30

(2.69)

Ionization potential, Ev 10.50

Dissociation constant at 0 °C, K 0.7 x 10 – 14

Flash point, closed cup, °C -38

Ignition temperature in air, °C 165

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Chemical Properties

Acetaldehyde is a highly reactive compound exhibiting the general reactions of aldehydes;

under suitable conditions, the oxygen or any hydrogen can be replaced. Acetaldehyde
undergoes numerous condensation, addition, and polymerization reactions.

Decomposition Reaction of Acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde decomposes at temperatures above 400°C, forming principally methane and

carbon monoxide. The activation energy of the pyrolysis reaction is 97.7 kJ/mol
(408.8kcal/mol).

The Hydrate and Enol Form of Acetaldehyde

In aqueous solutions, acetaldehyde exists in equilibrium with the hydrate, CH3CH(OH)2. The

degree of hydration can be computed from an equation derived by Bell and Clunie. The
mean heat of hydration is –21.34 kJ/mol (89.29kcal/mol); hydration has been attributed to

hyper conjugation. The enol form, vinyl alcohol (CH 2 = CHOH) exists in equilibrium with

acetaldehyde to the extent of approximately one molecule per 30,000. Acetaldehyde enol
has been acetylated with ketene to form vinyl acetate.

Reduction Reaction of Acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is readily reduced to ethanol. Suitable catalysts for vapor-phase hydrogenation

are supported nickel and copper oxide.

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Oxidation Reactions of Acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is readily oxidized with oxygen or air to acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and
peracetic acid. The principal product isolated depends on reaction conditions. Acetic acid is
produced commercially by the liquid – phase oxidation of acetaldehyde at 65°C with cobalt
or manganese acetate dissolved in acetic acid as a catalyst. Liquid – phase oxidation of
acetaldehyde in the presence of mixed acetates of copper and cobalt yields acetic
anhydride. Peroxyacetic acid or a perester is believed to be the precursor of acetic acid and
acetic anhydride. There are two commercial processes for the production of peracetic acid.
Low temperature oxidation of acetaldehyde in the presence of metal salts, ultraviolet
irradiation, or ozone yields acetaldehyde monoperacetate, which can be decomposed to
peracetic acid and acetaldehyde. Peracetic acid can also be formed directly by liquid phase
oxidation at 5 - 50°C with a cobalt salt catalyst. The nitric acid oxidation of acetaldehyde
yields glyoxal. Oxidations of para xylene to terephthalic acid and of ethanol to acetic acid are
activated by acetaldehyde.

Polymerization Reactions of Acetaldehyde

Paraldehyde, 2, 4, 6- trimethyl–1,3,5–trioxan, a cyclic trimer of acetaldehyde is formed when a

mineral acid, such as sulfuric, phosphoric, or hydrochloric acid, is added to acetaldehyde.
Paraldehyde can also be formed continuously by feeding acetaldehyde as a liquid at 15 -
20°C over an acid ion – exchange resin. Depolymerization of paraldehyde occurs in the
presence of acid catalysts.

Metaldehyde, a cyclic tetramer of acetaldehyde, is formed at temperatures below 0°C in the

presence of dry hydrogen chloride or pyridine hydrogen bromide. The metaldehyde crystallizes
from solution and is separated from the paraldehyde by filtration. Metaldehyde melts in a
sealed tube at 246.2°C and sublimes at 115 °C with partial depolymerization.

More recently, it has been shown that white, nontacky, and highly elastic polymer can be
formed by cationic polymerization with BF3 in liquid ethylene. At temperatures below

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-75°C with anionic initiators, such as metal alkyls in a hydrocarbon solvent, a crystalline,
isotactic polymer is obtained.

This polymer also has an acetal structure [poly (oxymethylene) structure]. Molecular weights in
the range of 800,000 – 3,000,000 have been reported.

Reactions with aldehydes and ketones

The base catalyzed condensation of acetaldehyde leads to the dimmer, acetaldol, which can
be hydrogenated to form 1,3 butandiol or dehydrated to form crotonaldehyde.
Crotonaldehyde can also be made directly by the vapor-phase condensation of
acetaldehyde over a catalyst. Crotonaldehyde was formerly an important intermediate in the
production of butyraldehyde, butanol, and 2-ethylhexanol.

Acetaldehyde forms aldols with other carbonyl compounds containing active hydrogen
atoms. Kinetic studies of the aldol condensation of acetaldehyde and deuterated
acetaldehydes have shown that only the hydrogen atoms bound to the carbon adjacent to
the –CHO group takes part in the condensation reactions and hydrogen exchange. A hexyl
alcohol, 2-ethyl-1 butanol, is produced, industrially by the condensation of acetaldehyde and
butaraldehyde in dilute caustic solution followed by hydrogenation of the acrolein
intermediate. condensation of acetaldehyde in the presence of dimethylamine hydrochloride
yields polyenals which can be hydrogenated to a mixture of alcohols containing from 4 to 22
carbon atoms.

The base catalyzed reaction of acetaldehyde with excess formaldehyde is the commercial
route to pentaerythritol. The aldol condensation of three moles of form aldehyde with one
mole of acetaldehyde is followed by a crossed cannizzaro reaction between pentaerythrose,
the intermediate product, and formaldehyde to give pentaerythritol. The process proceeds to
completion without isolation of the intermediate. Pantaerythrose has been made by
condensing acetaldehyde and formaldehyde at 450 C using magnesium oxide as a catalyst.
The vapor-phase reaction of acetaldehyde and formaldehyde at 450C over a catalyst
composed of lanthanum oxide on silica gel gives acrolein. Ethyl acetate is produced
commercially by the Tischenko condensation of acetaldehyde with an aluminum ethoxide
catalyst. The Tischenko reaction of acetaldehyde with isobutyraldehyde yields a mixture of
ethyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, and isobutyl isobutyrate.

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Reactions with Ammonia and Amines

Acetaldehyde readily adds ammonia to form acetaldehyde ammonia. Diethyl amine is

obtained when acetaldehyde is added to a saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution of

ammonia and the mixture is heated to 50-750C in the presence of a nickel catalyst and

hydrogen at 1.2 MPa (12atm). Pyridine and pyridine derivates are made from paraldehyde

and aqueous ammonia in the presence of a catalyst at elevated temperatures;

acetaldehyde may also be used by the yields of pyridine are generally lower than when
paraldehyde is the staring material.

Reactions with Alcohols and Phenols

Alcohols add readily to acetaldehyde in the presence of a trace of mineral acid to form
acetals; eg, ethanol and acetaldehyde form diethyl acetal. Similarly, cyclic acetals are
formed by the reactions with glycols and other polyhydroxy compounds; eg, the reaction of
ethylene glycol and acetaldehyde gives 2 – methyl – 1,3 – dioxolane.

Mercaptals, CH3CH(SR)2, are formed in a like manner by the addition of mercaptans. The
formation of acetals by a noncatalytic vapor – phase reactions of acetaldehyde and various

alcohols at 3500C has been reported. Butadiene can be made by the reaction of

acetaldehyde and ethyl alcohol at temperature s above 3000C over a tantala – silica catalyst.
Aldol and crotonaldehyde are believed to be intermediates. Butyl acetate has been prepared

by the catalytic reaction of acetaldehyde with butanol at 300 0C.

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Reactions with Halogens and Halogen compounds

Halogens readily replace the hydrogen atoms of the methyl group. eg, chlorine reacts with
acetaldehyde or paraldehyde at room temperature to give chloroacetaldehyde; increasing

the temperature to 700-800C gives dichloroacetaldehyde; and at a temperature of 80-900C

chloral is formed.

4.2 USES

The manufacturers use about 95% of the acetaldehyde produced internally as an

intermediate for the production of other organic chemicals. Acetic acid and acetic anhydride
are the derivatives of acetaldehyde followed by n-butanol and 2-ethylhexanol. Twenty
percent of the acetaldehyde is consumed in variety of other products, the most important
being pentaerythritol, trimethylolpropane, pyridines, peraceticacid, crotonaldehyde, chloral,
lactic acid. Acetaldehyde is used in the production of perfumes, polyester resins, and basic
dyes. Acetaldehyde is also used as a fruit and fish preservative, as a flavoring agent, and as a
denaturant for alcohol, in fuel compositions, for hardening gelatin, and as a solvent in the
rubber, tanning, and paper industries.

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Chapter 5

DIFFERENT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The economics of the various processes for the manufacture of acetaldehyde are strongly
dependent on the price of the feedstock used.

OXIDATI ON OF ETHYLENE

Reactions:

C2H4+PdCl2 + H2O CH3CHO +Pd +2HCl

Pd + 2CuCl2 PdCl2 +2CuCl

2CuCl+1/2 O2 + 2HCl 2CuCl2 + H2O

The catalyst is an aqueous solution of PdCl 2 and CuCl2. In 1894, F.C. Phillips observed the
reaction of ethylene with an aqueous palladium chloride solution to form acetaldehyde. The
net result is a process in which ethylene is oxidized continuously through a series of oxidation –
reduction reactions.

Overall Reaction:

C2H4 + ½ O2 CH3CHO

There are two processes for the production of acetaldehyde by the oxidation of Ethylene.

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TWO STAGE PROCESS DEVELOPED BY WACKER CHEMI E

In the two – stage process ethylene and oxygen (air) react in the liquid phase in two stages. In
the first stage ethylene is almost completely converted to acetaldehyde in one pass in a
tubular plug-flow reactor made of titanium. The reaction is conducted at 125-1300C and 1.13
Mpa (150 psig) palladium and cupric chloride catalysts. Acetaldehyde produced in the first
reactor is removed from the reaction loop by adiabatic flashing in a tower. The flash step also
removes the heat of reaction. The catalyst solution is recycled from the flash – tower base to
the second stage (or oxidation) reactor where the cuprous salt is oxidized to the cupric state
with air. The high pressure off – gas from the oxidation reactor, mostly nitrogen, is separated
from the liquid – catalyst solution and scrubbed to remove acetaldehyde before venting. The
flasher overhead is fed to a distillation system where water is removed for recycle to the
reactor system and organic impurities, including chlorinated aldehydes, are separated from
the purified acetaldehyde product.

ONE STAGE PROCESS DE VELOPED BY FARBWERKE HOECHST

In the one-stage process ethylene, oxygen, and recycle gas are directed to a vertical reactor
for contact with the catalyst solution under slight pressure. The water evaporated during the
reaction absorbs the heat evolved, and make – up water is fed as necessary to maintain the
catalytic solution concentration. The gases are water –scrubbed and the resulting
acetaldehyde solution is fed to a distillation column and thus acetaldehyde is obtained.

21 | P a g e
BY OXI DATI ON OF ETHYL ALCOHOL

Reaction:

CH3CH2OH + ½ O2 CH3CHO + H2O, ΔH = 242 kJ/mol (57.84 kcal / mol)

Temperature: 4800C

Catalyst: silver

Passing alcohol vapours and preheated air over a silver catalyst at 4800C carries out the
oxidation. With a multi tubular reactor, conversions of 74-82% per pass can be obtained while
generating steam which can be used elsewhere in the process.

BY DEHYDROGENATI ON O F ETHYL ALCOHOL

Reaction:

C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Catalyst: Cu -Co-Cr2O3

Temperature: 280 – 350 0C.

Process description

The raw material i.e., ethanol is vaporized and the vapours so generated are heated in a heat
exchanger to the reaction temperature by hot product stream. The product stream is cooled
to –100C and in doing it; all unreacted ethanol and acetaldehyde are condensed. The
outgoing gaseous stream, containing hydrogen mainly, is scrubbed with dilute alcohol (alcohol
+ water) to remove uncondensed products and the undissolved gas. The remaining pure
hydrogen (98%) is burnt in stack. Ethanol is vaporized in vaporizer and heated to the reactor
temperature in heat exchanger. The heated vapours are passed through the converter. The

22 | P a g e
product stream is first cooled in heat exchanger and then in condensers using water and liquid
ammonia. This condenses most of the unreacted ethanol and the acetaldehyde formed in
reactor.

The escaping gas, which is almost pure hydrogen, is scrubbed by ethanol to remove all the
traces of the product. The liquid stream consisting of mainly ethanol and acetaldehyde is
distilled in distillation column to get acetaldehyde.

PREPARATION METHOD O F ACETALDEHYDE FROM ACETYLENE

Reaction:

H2C = CH2 + H2O CH3CHO

Temperature: 70-900C

Pressure: 103.4 KPa

Process description
Fresh catalyst is fed to the reactor periodically; the catalyst may be added in the mercurous
form. The excess acetylene sweeps out the dissolved acetaldehyde which is condensed by
water and refrigerated brine and scrubbed with water; the crude acetaldehyde is purified by
distillation and the unreacted acetylene is recycled. The catalytic mercuric ion is reduced to
catalytically inactive mercurous sulfate and metallic mercury; this sludge, consisting of
reduced catalyst and tars, is drained from the reactor at intervals and resulfated. Adding ferric
or other salts to the reaction solution can reduce the rate of catalyst depletion. In one
variation, acetylene is completely hydrated with water in a single operation at 68-730C using
the mercuric iron salt catalyst. The acetaldehyde is partially removed by vacuum distillation
and the mother liquor recycled to the reactor. The aldehyde vapors are cooled to about 35 0C,
compressed to 253 KPa and condensed. It is claimed that this combination of vacuum and
pressure operations substantially reduces heating and refrigeration costs

FROM SYNTHESI S GAS

23 | P a g e
Reaction:

CO + H2 → CH3CHO + other products

Catalyst: Rhodium

Temperature: 3000C

The process is a single step comprises passing synthesis gas over 5% rhodium on SiO2 at 3000C
and 2.0 Mpa (20 atm). The principal co products are acetaldehyde, 24% acetic acid, 20%; and
ethanol, 16%.

FROM ACETI C ACI D

Reaction:

CH3 COOH + H2 → CH3 CHO + H2 O ΔG300° C. = +0.8 kcal/mole

Catalyst: Iron oxide containing 2.5-90 wt% Pd

Temperature: 250-400 0C

Procedure:

Hydrogen and acetic acid are fed to a reactor in hydrogen to acetic acid ratio of 2:1 to 25:1.
The hydrogenation of acetic acid produces a partially gaseous product, and acetaldehyde is
absorbed from the partially gaseous product with a solvent containing acetic acid. The gas
remaining after the absorption step contains hydrogen, and this gas is recycled for the
hydrogenation of acetic acid. The absorbed acetaldehyde is distilled. After acetaldehyde is
isolated from unreacted acetic acid and the other products via distillation, the unreacted
acetic acid is separated from the other products using azeotropic distillation. Water is
contained in the other products, and the azeotrope is an azeotrope of ethyl acetate and
water. The unreacted acetic acid is separated in a column, and the column is controlled to
contain an ethyl acetate rich azeotrope of ethyl acetate and water.

24 | P a g e
FROM SATURATED HYDRO CARBONS:

Acetaldehyde is formed as a co product in the vapour – phase oxidation of saturated

hydrocarbons, such as butane or mixtures containing butane, with air or in higher yield oxygen.
Oxidation of butane yields acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, methanol, acetone, and mixed
solvents as major products; other aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, glycols, acetals, epoxides, and
organic acids are formed in smaller concentrations. It has almost no chance to be used as a
major process

25 | P a g e
Chapter 6

SELECTION OF PROCESS WITH JUSTIFICATION

Here, ethyl alcohol dehydrogenation is selected for the production of acetaldehyde. Because,
in this process, hydrogen is taken out as a by-product which can be used elsewhere or which
can be used to generate heat. In dehydrogenation process more conversion-taking place
compared to other processes. The dehydrogenation catalyst has a life of several years but
requires periodic reactivation. In dehydrogenation process, number of products is less, so
separation of acetaldehyde from other product is not a difficult problem.

26 | P a g e
Chapter 7

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS

Production of Acetaldehyde by Dehydrogenation of Ethyl

alcohol

Reaction:

C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Catalyst : Cu -Co-Cr2O3

Temperature: 280 – 350 0C.

Process description:

The raw material i.e., ethanol is vaporized and the vapours so generated are heated in a
heat exchanger to the reaction temperature by hot product stream. The product stream
is cooled to –100C and in doing it; all unreacted ethanol and acetaldehyde are
condensed. The outgoing gaseous stream, containing hydrogen mainly, is scrubbed with
dilute alcohol (alcohol + water) to remove uncondensed products and the undissolved
gas. The remaining pure hydrogen (98%) is burnt in stack. Ethanol is vaporized in vaporizer
and heated to the reactor temperature in heat exchanger. The heated vapours are
passed through the converter. The product stream is first cooled in heat exchanger and
then in condensers using water and liquid ammonia. This condenses most of the
unreacted ethanol and the acetaldehyde formed in reactor. The escaping gas, which is
almost pure hydrogen, is scrubbed by ethanol to remove all the traces of the product.
27 | P a g e
The liquid stream consisting of mainly ethanol and acetaldehyde is distilled in distillation
column to get acetaldehyde.

Figure 0.1 Flowsheet

28 | P a g e
Chapter 8

MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

8.1 Reaction

C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Catalyst : Cu -Co-Cr2O3

Temperature: 280 – 3500 C.

Process
The raw material i.e., ethanol is vaporized and the vapors, so generated, are heated in a
heat exchanger to the reaction temperature by hot product stream. The product stream

is cooled to –100 C and in doing it, all unreacted ethanol and acetaldehyde are

condensed. The outgoing gaseous stream, containing hydrogen mainly, is scrubbed with
dilute alcohol (alcohol + water) to remove uncondensed products and the undissolved
gas. The remaining pure hydrogen (98%) is burnt in stack.

The material and energy balance in a plant design is necessary because this fixes the
relative flow rates of different flow streams and temperatures in the flow sheet.

29 | P a g e
Notations used

Msteam = Mass flow rate of steam.

∆Hsteam = enthalpy of steam.

E = Mass flow rate of ethanol.

A = Mass flow rate of acetaldehyde.

H = Mass flow rate of hydrogen.

Cp = specific heat capacity.

λ = Latent heat of vaporization.

Assumptions :

Let us assume an annual production of acetaldehyde 54000 tons per year.

It is assumed that the plant works for 300 days in a year.

Amount of acetaldehyde produced per day =180 tons per day

Basis: One hour of operation.

Amount of acetaldehyde to be produced = 180 TPD = 7500kg/h.

Molecular weight of ethanol = 46 kg/kmol.

Molecular weight of acetaldehyde = 44 kg/kmol.

Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2 kg/kmol.

Therefore, amount of acetaldehyde to be produced = 170.45kmol/h.

Let conversion be 90%.

Taking into account the losses let, the acetaldehyde produced to be some extra.

30 | P a g e
Let acetaldehyde to be produced = 8000 kg/h.

Amount of ethanol required for 100% conversion = 8363.63 kg/h.

Therefore, ethanol required for 90% conversion = 9292.92 kg/h.

Temperature dependency of Cp with temperature is given as

𝑇
𝐶𝑝 𝑇 2 − 𝑇02 𝑇 3 − 𝑇03 𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 𝑇 5 − 𝑇05
∫ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) + 𝐵 +𝐶 +𝐷 +𝐸
𝑅 2 3 4 5
𝑇0

0-1 Values of constants for calculating Cp[22]

Component A B*103 C*106 D*10-5

Ethanol 3.518 20.001 -6.002 0

Hydrogen 3.249 0.422 0 0.083

Acetaldehyde 1.693 17.978 -6.158 0

Water 3.470 1.450 0 0.121

0-2 Values of CP for different temperature range (kcal/Kg.C)

Component -25 to 25 to 78.4 to 100 to 200 to 40 to 310

40 oC 100 oC 200 oC 310 oC 232.36
78.4 oC oC
oC

Ethanol 0.616 0.587 0.4382 0.471 0.539 0.5415 0.549

Acetaldehyde 0.347 ----- ------ ----- ------ 0.417 0.528

Hydrogen 3.399 ----- ----- ----- ------ 2.485 2.485

Water --- ------ ----- ----- ------ ------ ----

31 | P a g e
8.2 Vaporizer

As shown in the figure,

Ethanol liquid inlet temperature = Ti=25oC.

Ethanol leaves as superheated steam at 1000C = To

Heating fluid is assumed to be saturated steam here and to provide sufficient

temperature gradient; it is taken to be at about 3 atmospheric pressure. At this pressure it
condenses at 133.890 C and because process streams are normally available at this
pressure.

Condensing temperature of water = 133.890 C.

From steam table enthalpy of steam at this temperature = ∆H steam =514.9kcal/kg. [6]

Boiling point of ethanol = Tb = 78.40 C. [6]

Latent heat of vaporization of ethanol= λ ethanol = 200.6 kcal/kg [6]

From heat balance we have,

Msteam = E*[Cpi*(Tb-Ti) + λ ethanol + Cpo*(To-Tb)]

Msteam = 9292.92* [0.5876 * (78.4 – 25) + 200.6 + 0.4382 * (100 – 78.4)]/514.9

32 | P a g e
 = 4357.56 kg.

0-3 Mass Balance Table for Vaporizer

Component Input Feed Stream Output Feed Stream

(Kg) (Kg)

Ethanol 9292.92 9292.92

Water 4357.56 4357.56

Total 13650.48 13650.48

For Water
𝑇
Heat in = (𝑚 ∫𝑇 𝐷 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇) + m ∗ λ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2714324.124kcal
𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where To=298.15 K and TD=406.15K

406.15
Heat out=(𝑚 ∫298.15 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇) =2714324.124 kcal
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

For ethanol (Tref= 298.15 K)

Heat in= 0 kcal Heat out=470616.48kcal

0-4 Energy Balance Table for Vaporizer

Component Stream In kcal Stream Out kcal

Ethanol 0 2243710.112

Water 2714324.124 470616.48

Total 2714324.124 2714326.592

8.3 Reactor

33 | P a g e
The reaction in the reactor:

C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Optimum reaction temperature = 3100C.

Conversion = 90%.

From material balance we have,

Amount of acetaldehyde produced = .90 * 44* 9292.92 / 46 =8000 kg.

=181.81kmol

Amount of hydrogen produced = .90 * 2* 9292.92 / 46 = 363.63 kg.

Amount of ethanol unreacted = 9292.92 – (8000 + 363.63)

= 929.28kg =20.20 kmol

0-5 Mass Balance Table for Reactor

Component Input Feed stream (Kg) Output feed stream (kg)

Ethanol 9292.92 929.28

34 | P a g e
 Acetaldehyde 0 8000

Hydrogen 0 363.64

Dowtherm 32447.6042 32447.6042

Total 41740.5252 41740.5252

It is decided to use saturated vapours of dowtherm, at 3200 C, for cooling purposes

λ dowtherm = 56.5 kcal / kg.

Heat of reaction = ∆Hrxn = 332.64 kcal / kg. [6]

Assuming ethanol vapors enter the reactor at 2000 C.

From heat balance we can found amount of dowtherm required = Md.

Specific heat capacity of ethanol = 0.549 kcal / kg 0C.

Energy in by ethanol =929.28*[0.5876*(98.2-25)+200.6+0.549*(310-98.2)]

=334439.0624 kcal/kg

Energy in by hydrogen=363.63*2.485*(310-25)=257531.8568 kcal/kg

Energy in by acetaldehyde =8000*0.528*(310-25)

=1203840 kcal/kg

Energy required for the reaction =0.90*9292.92*332.64

=2782077.218 kcal/kg

Q= Amount of heat supplied by dowtherm

Q={Energy out from the reactor+ Heat of reaction }-{Energy entering into the reactor}

= 1833289.639 kcal

Md *λdowtherm=Q

Md=1833289.639 /56.5=32447.6042Kg

35 | P a g e
0-6 Energy Balance Table for Reactor

Component Stream In (kcal) Stream Out(kcal)

Ethanol 2744598.5 334439.0624

Hydrogen 0 257531.8568

Acetaldehyde 0 1203840

Heat Exchanger

This is used only for heat recovery. Since it is assumed vapor is heated up to 200 0 C by

the product stream of the reactor at 3100 C.

Let outlet temperature = T0 C.

Cp of ethanol at 3100 C = 0.549 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp of acetaldehyde at 3100 C = 0.528 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp of hydrogen at 3100 C = 2.485 kcal / kg 0C.

36 | P a g e
0-7 Mass Balance Table for Heat Exchanger

Component Shell in (kg) Tube in (kg) Shell out (Kg) Tube out (kg)

Ethanol 929.28 9292.92 929.28 9292.92

Acetaldehyde 8000 - 8000 -

Water 363.63 - 363.63 -

Total 9292.91 9292.92 9292.91 9292.92

From heat balance we can find the outlet temperature.

E*Cp,ethanol*(200–100)=E*Cp,ethanol*(310–T) +H*Cp,hydrogen*(310–T)+

A*Cp,acet*(310-T)

9292.92*0.471*(200-100)=929.92*0.549*(310-T)+363.63*2.485*(310T)+8000*0.528*(310-T)

Therefore, T = 232.360 C.

0-8 Energy Balance Table for Heat Exchanger

Component Shell side(kcal) Tube side(kcal)

Ethanol 437696 39637.24

Hydrogen - 70157.099

Acetaldehyde - 327951.36

Total 437696 437745.699

37 | P a g e
8.4 Condenser C1

In condenser 1 it is decided to use cooling water at 300 C. the outlet temperature of

cooling water is not allowed to go above 500C, because above this temperature, there is
a problem of vaporization. Normally the approach temp difference is about 10 0C. Since
the product can at best be cooled to 400C, at this temperature the product stream
would be a two-phase mixture and the mixture composition can be found out from VLE
data.

We make an approximate that; the information given at 699 mmHg is taken.

At 4000C, ethanol in vapor phase = 4.1 mol%.[6]

Ethanol in liquid phase = 55 mol%.[6]

Let, ml = moles of liquid consisting of ethanol and acetaldehyde.

mv = moles of vapor consisting of ethanol and acetaldehyde.

Therefore from mole balance we

have

0.55 * ml + 0.041 * mv = 20.20

0.45 * ml + 0.959 * mv = 181.81

On solving above two equations we get, ml = 23.413 kmol.

mv = 178.596 kmol.

Vapor phase composition,

Acetaldehyde = 171.27 kmol = 7536.03 kg.

Ethanol = 7.32 kmol = 336.83 kg.

Liquid phase composition,

Acetaldehyde = 10.535 kmol = 463.57 kg.

Ethanol = 12.977 kmol = 592.348 kg

38 | P a g e
Heat Balance

At 232.690C,

Cp, hydrogen = 2.485 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp, acetaldehyde = 0.417 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp, ethanol = 0.5415 kcal / kg 0C.

λ acetaldehyde = 139.5 kcal / kg.

λ ethanol = 200.6 kcal / kg.

Heat given out by hydrogen = 363.636 * 2.485 * (232.69 – 40) = 173.823 * 103
kcal.

Heat given out by acetaldehyde = 8000* 0.417 * (232.69 – 40) + 463.57 * 139.5

= 706.38 * 103 kcal.

Heat given out by ethanol = 929.92* 0.5415 * (232.69 – 40) + 592.348 *200.6

= 215.621 * 103 kcal.

Total heat given out = 1095.82 * 103 kcal.

Let, Mw = mass flow rate of cooling water

Cp of water = 1 kcal / kg 0C.

39 | P a g e
Therefore, Mw = 1095.8 * 103 / (1 * (5030)). = 54.79 * 103 kg.

0-9 Mass Balance Table for Condenser 1

Component In (Kg) Vapor Phase Out Liquid phase out (Kg)

(Kg)

Ethanol 929.28 336.83 592.348

Acetaldehyde 8000 7536.03 463.57

Hydrogen 363.64 363.636 --------

Water 54791.29 ---------- 54791.29

Total 64084.21 64083.704

0-10 Energy Balance for Condenser 1

Component Tube side (kcal) Shell side (kcal)

Ethanol 215621 ------

Hydrogen 173823 ------

Acetaldehyde 706380 ------

Water -------- 1095800

Total 1095824 1095800

40 | P a g e
Condenser C2

In condenser c2, it is desired to condense all ethanol and acetaldehyde. If the working

pressure is 1 atm. From the equilibrium data it is seen that for temperatures below 30 0C,
there is going to be no ethanol in vapor phase and acetaldehyde would exert its vapor
pressure at that temperature. If it is desired to achieve about 97% recovery of

acetaldehyde, the outlet temperature of the product stream should be about –250C.This

is because at –22.60C, its vapor pressure is 100 mmHg and the vapor phase will consists of

13.15 mol%. In view of this, the cooling fluid chosen is saturated NH 3 at 1 atm. At which it

boils at –33.60C[6].

Heat balance:

At 400C,

Cp, hydrogen = 3.399 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp, acetaldehyde = 0.347 kcal / kg 0C.

41 | P a g e
 Cp, ethanol = 0.616 kcal / kg 0C.

λ acetaldehyde = 139.5 kcal / kg.

λ ethanol = 200.6 kcal / kg.

λ ammonia = 590 kcal / kg.

Heat given out by hydrogen = 363.64 * 3.399 * (40 + 25) = 80.339 * 103 kcal.

Heat given out by acetaldehyde = 7536.03* 0.347 * (40+ 25) + 7309.95 * 139.5

= 1189.182 * 103 kcal.

Heat given out by ethanol = 336.83* 0.616 * (40+25) + 336.83 * 200.6

= 81.054 * 103 kcal.

Total heat given out = 1350.575 * 103 kcal.

Let Mammonia = mass flow rate of ammonia.

Therefore, Mammonia = 1350.575 * 103 / 590.= 2289.11 kg.

0-11 Mass Balance Table for Condenser 2

Component Feed In (Kg) Vapor Phase Out (Kg) Liquid Phase out (Kg)

Ethanol 336.83 -------- 336.83

Acetaldehyde 7536.03 226.10 7309.95

42 | P a g e
 Hydrogen 363.64 363.64 ----------

NH 2289.11 2289.11 ----------

3

Total 10525.61 10525.63

0-12 Energy Balance for Condenser 2

Component Tube side (kcal) Shell side (kcal)

Ethanol 81.054*103 ------

Hydrogen 80.339*103 ------

Acetaldehyde 1189.182*103 ------

Ammonia -------- 1350574.9

Total 1350.575*103 1350.5749*103

Preheater
The preheater to the distillation column is necessary because the feed plate will

be completely chilled if the feed is not heated. The water stream from condenser c 1 is

available at 500C and is used in the preheater. If the maximum approach temperature

difference is 100C, the product stream can at best be heated to 400C. the distillation

column pressure is chosen to be 1158 mmHg so that pure acetaldehyde is obtained as

liquid product at 400C. In view of this, the stream coming out of the preheater is liquid.

Heat balance

At 40 oC

Cp, acetaldehyde = 0.347 kcal / kg 0C.

Cp, ethanol = 0.616 kcal / kg 0C.

43 | P a g e
Let, Mw = mass flow rate of cooling water.

Mw * (50-30) = 929.178 * (40 + 14.54872)* 0.616 + 7773.52*(40+14.54872)*0.347

Therefore, Mw = 8918.1296 kg

0-13 Mass Balance for Preheater

Component Input (Kg) Out(Kg)

Ethanol 929.178 929.178

Acetaldehyde 7773.52 7773.52

Water 10626.80 10626.80

Total 19329.498 19329.498

0-14 Energy Balance Table for Preheater

component Tube side (kcal) Shell side (kcal)

Ethanol 31222.249 0

Acetaldehyde 147140.3414 0

Water 0 178362.59

Total 178362.5904 178362.59

8.7 Distillation column

In distillation column acetaldehyde condenses at 400C. since vapor pressure data’s of
pure gas is not available, it is estimated using Antoine’s equation.

ln P = A + B/T

Where, A and B are constants, they can be determined from boiling point data

44 | P a g e
at, Pressures 760 mmHg and 400 mmHg.

At 760 mmHg T = 20.20C= 293.20K. [6]

400 mmHg T = 4.90C = 277.90K. [6]

Therefore, ln 760 = A + B/293.2 ln

760 = A + B/277.9

On solving above two equations we get,

A = 18.29 and B = -3418.2[6]

Therefore, ln P = 18.29 – 3418.2/T

Therefore at 400C, P = 1586.41 mmHg.

Assume 99% acetaldehyde recovery in overhead product and ethanol

recovery as 10%.

In overhead:

Acetaldehyde = 7695.78 kg.

Ethanol = 92.917 kg.

Total D = 7788.69 kg.

45 | P a g e
In bottom:

Acetaldehyde = 77.73 kg. Ethanol = 836.26 kg. Total W = 913.99 kg.

F=D+W

xd = .989

F * xf = D * xd + W * xw

Therefore, xw = F * xf – D * xd

Therefore, xw = .0815

Assume reflux ratio = 0.3

Therefore L / D = 0.3

L = 0.3 * 7788.69 = 2336.60 kg.

Vapor going to the condenser = L + D = 2336.60 + 7788.69

46 | P a g e
 =10125.30 kg.

Of this 98.9% is acetylaldehyde

Therefore, vapor composition going to the condenser:

Acetaldehyde = 10013.92 kg, Ethanol = 111.37 kg.

Heat load to condenser

Let L/D=0.3

L=2336.60 kg

Vapor going to condenser = L+D =10125.30 kg

Out of this 98.9% is acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde=10013.92 kg

Ethanol= 111.37 kg.

Heat load to the condenser = Methanol*λethanol + Macetaldehyde*λacetaldehyde

=111.37*200.6+10013.92*139.5 =1419282.662 Kcal

Reboiler load

Let “m” be the amount of liquid vaporized.

Let “L” be liquid going into the reboiler.

Let L/W = 10

L= 9139.9 kg

Therefore, m= L-W

m=9139.9-913.99=8225.91 kg

we know xw = .0815, so

Acetaldehyde=8225.91/45.976*.0815=14.581 kg
47 | P a g e
Ethanol=8211.32 kg

Heat load to the reboiler = Methanol*λethanol + Macetaldehyde*λacetaldehyde

=8211.32*200.6+14.581*139.5

=1649226.492 kcal.

48 | P a g e
 Chapter 9

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF DI STI LLATI ON COLUMN:

Glossary of notations used:

F = molar flow rate of Feed, kmol/hr.

D = molar flow rate of Distillate, kmol/hr.

W = molar flow rate of Residue, kmol/hr.

XF = mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in liquid/Feed.

YD = mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in Distillate.

XW = mole fraction of Acetaldehyde in Residue.

MF = Average Molecular weight of Feed, kg/kmol

MD = Average Molecular weight of Distillate, kg/kmol

MW = Average Molecular weight of Residue, kg/kmol

Rm = Minimum Reflux ratio

R = Actual Reflux ratio

L = Molar flow rate of Liquid in the Enriching Section, kmol/hr.

G = Molar flow rate of Vapor in the Enriching Section, kmol/hr.

L = Molar flow rate of Liquid in Stripping Section, kmol/hr.

G = Molar flow rate of Vapor in Stripping Section, kmol/hr.

q = Thermal condition of Feed

ρL = Density of Liquid, kg/m3.

ρV = Density of Vapor, kg/m3.

49 | P a g e
qL = Volumetric flow rate of Liquid, m3/s

qV = Volumetric flow rate of Vapor, m3/s

μL = Viscosity of Liquid, cP.

TL = Temperature of Liquid, 0K.

TV = Temperature of Vapor, 0K

T – x- y data:

0-1 T-x-y data for ethanol-acetaldehyde

T 0C 98.5 89.9 80 71 60.5 50 39

X 0.000 0.069 0.164 0.286 0.445 0.664 1.000

Y 0.000 0.317 0.578 0.761 0.879 0.954 1.000

Preliminary calculations:

F = 196.867 kmol/hr, XF = 0.897, MF = 44.123 kg/kmol.

D = 177.574 kmol/hr, XD = 0.989, MD = 44.022 kg/kmol.

W = 19.293 kmol/hr, XW = 0.082, MW = 45.976 kg/kmol.

Distillation column temperature = 40 0C.

Distillation column pressure = 2.08 atm. = 1586.41 mm Hg.

Basis: One-hour operation.

50 | P a g e
From graph

Figure 8: Calculating number of stages using Mc Cabe Thiele Method[9]

Number of stages = 5 (including the reboiler).

Reboiler is the last tray.

Feed tray = 3

Number of trays in Enriching Section = 3

Number of trays in Stripping Section = 2

Minimum Reflux ratio = ( xD-yF)/(yF-xF)=(.989-.976)/(.99-.897)=0.096643

51 | P a g e
Actual Reflux ratio =1.5*.096643=.145

Now, we know that,

R = Lo/ D

=> Lo = R*D

i.e., Lo= .145*177.574

i.e., Lo =25.748 kmol/hr.

Therefore, Lo = 25.748 kmol/hr.

L= Liquid flow rate on the Top tray = 25.748 kmol/hr.

Since feed is Liquid, entering at bubble point,

q= (HV-HF) / (HV-HL) = 1

Now,

Slope of q-line = q/ (q-1)

= 1/ (1-1) = 1/0 = ∞

Now we know that,

(L̅ -L)/F = q = 1

(̅L - L) = F

L̅ = F + L

i.e., L̅ = 25.748 + 196.867

i.e., L̅ = 222.615 kmol/hr.

Therefore, liquid flow rate in the Stripping Section = 222.615 kmol/hr.

Also, we know that,

G̅ = [(q-1) ×F] + G

i.e., G̅ = [(1-1) ×F] + G

i.e., G̅ = [0×F] +G

i.e., G̅ = 0 +G

G̅ = G

52 | P a g e
Now, we know that,

G=L+D

i.e., G = Lo +D

i.e., G= 25.748 + 177.574

i.e., G= 203.322 kmol/hr.

Thus, the flow rate of Vapor in the Enriching Section = 203.322 kmol/hr.

Since G̅ =G

G̅ = G = 203.322 kmol/hr.

Therefore, the flow rate of Vapor in the Stripping Section = 203.322kmol/hr.

List of parameters used in calculation:

SECTION ENRICHING SECTION STRIPING SECTION

PROPERTY TOP BOTTOM TOP BOTTOM

X .983 .719 .719 .102

Y .999 .966 .966 .415

Liquid L(kmol/hr) 25.748 25.748 222.615 222.615

Vapour G(kmol/hr) 203.322 203.322 203.322 203.322

Tliquid 0C 41.93 51.56 51.56 85.70

Mavg Liquid(kg/kmol) 44.02 44.56 44.56 45.79

Mavg Vapour(kg/kmol) 44.01 44.07 44.07 44.17

Liquid, L kg/hr. 1133.427 1147.331 9919.724 10193.541

Vapor, G kg/hr 8948.201 8960.401 8960.401 8980.733

Density ρ1(kg/m3) 784.69 774.50 774.50 747.87

Density ρg(kg/m3) 3.4376 3.425 3.425 3.391

53 | P a g e
 (L/G)( ρ1/ ρg).5 .008 .008 .073 .074

0-2 List of Parameters used in calculation

Design Specification

a) Design of Enriching Section:

Tray Hydraulics,

The design of a sieve plate tower is described below. The equations and correlations are

borrowed from the 6th and 7th editions of Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.

1. Tray Spacing, (ts) :

Let ts = 18” = 457 mm. (range 0.15 – 1.0 m).

2. Hole Diameter, (dh):

Let dh = 5 mm. (range 2.5 – 12 mm).

3. Hole Pitch (lp):

Let lp = 3* dh (range 2.5 to 4.0 times dh).

i.e., lp = 3*5 = 15 mm.

4. Tray thickness (tT):

Let tT = 0.6* dh (range 0.4 to 0.7 times dh).

i.e., tT = 0.6*5 = 3 mm.

5. Ratio of hole area to perforated area (Ah/Ap):

Now, for a triangular pitch, we know that,

Ratio of hole area to perforated area (Ah/Ap) = ½ (π/4*dh2)/ [(√3/4) *lp2]

54 | P a g e
 i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.90* (dh/lp)2

i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.90* (5/15)2

i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.1

Thus,

(Ah/Ap) = 0.1

6. Plate Diameter (Dc):

The plate diameter is calculated based on entrainment flooding considerations

L/G {ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.008 ---------- (maximum value)

Now for,

L/G {ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.008 and for a tray spacing of 500 mm.

We have,

From the flooding curve, ---------- (fig.18.10, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry.)

Flooding parameter, Csb, flood = 0.29 ft/s .

Now,

Unf = Csb, flood * (σ / 20) 0.2 [(ρl - ρg) / ρg]0.5

---- {eqn. 18.2, page 18.6, 6th edition Perry.}

Where,

Unf = gas velocity through the net area at flood, m/s (ft/s)

Csb, flood = capacity parameter, m/s (ft/s, as in fig.18.10)

σ = liquid surface tension, mN/m (dyne/cm.)

ρl = liquid density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

ρg = gas density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Now, we have,

σ = 19.325 mN/m = 19.325 dyne/cm.

ρl = 774.50kg/m3.

ρg = 3.425 kg/m3.

55 | P a g e
 Therefore,

Unf = 0.29*(19.325/20)0.2*[(774.50-3.4250)/ 3.4250]0.5

i.e.,Unf = 4.321 ft/s = 1.317 m/s.

Let,

Actual velocity, Un= 0.8*Unf

i.e., Un = 0.8∗1.317

i.e., Un = 1.054 m/s

It is desired to design with volumetric flow rate maximum (therefore, actual is less than
the maximum).

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the bottom of the Enriching Section

= qo = 8960.401/ (3600*3.4250) = 0.727 m3/s.

Now,

Net area available for gas flow (An)

Net area = (Column cross sectional area) - (Down comer area.)
An = Ac - Ad

Thus,

Net Active area, An = qo/ Un = 0.727/ 1.054 = 0.690 m2.

Let Lw / Dc = 0.77 (range 0.6 to 0.85 times Dc ).

Where, Lw = weir length, m

Dc = Column diameter, m

Now,

θc = 2*sin-1(Lw / Dc) = 2*sin-1 (0.77) = 100.70

Now,

Ac=(π /4)*Dc2= 0.785*Dc2 , m2

Ad = [(π/4) * Dc2 * (θc/3600)] - [(Lw /2) * (Dc/2) *cos (θc/2)]

i.e., Ad = [0.785*Dc2 *(100.70/3600)]-[(1/4)* (Lw / Dc) * Dc2 * cos(100.70)]

i.e., Ad = (0.2196* Dc2) - (0.1288* Dc2)

56 | P a g e
 i.e., Ad = 0.0968*Dc2, m2

Since An = Ac -Ad

0.690 = (0.785*Dc2) - (0.0968* Dc2)

i.e., 0.6882* Dc2 = 0.690

⇒ Dc2 = 0.690/ 0.6882 = 1.003

⇒ Dc = √ 1.003

Dc = 1.001 m

Since Lw / Dc = 0.77,

⇒ Lw = 0.77* Dc = 0.77*1.001 = 0.771 m.

Therefore, Lw = 0.771 m.

Now,

Ac = 0.785*1.003 = 0.787 m2

Ad = 0.0968*Dc2 = 0.0968*1.003 = 0.097 m2

Aa = Ac –2* Ad

i.e., Aa = 0.787- 2*0.097 ⇒ Aa= 0.593 m2

7. Perforated plate area (Ap):

Now,

Lw / Dc = 0.771/ 1.001 = 0.7701

θc = 100.73 0

α = 180 0- θc

⇒ α = 79.27 0

Now,

Acz = 2* Lw* (thickness of distribution)

Where, Acz = area of calming zone, m2 (5 to 20% of Ac )

Acz = 2*0.771* (30×10-3) = 0.046 m2 -------- (which is 6.76% of Ac)

Also,

57 | P a g e
 Awz= 2*{(π/4)*Dc2*(θc/3600)- (π/4)*(Dc-30*10-3)2*(θc/3600)}

Where, Awz = area of waste periphery, m2 (range 2 to 5% of Ac)

i.e., Awz = 2*{(π/4)*1.0012*(100.730/3600)- (π/4)*(1.001-30*10-3)2*(100.730/3600)}

i.e., Awz = 0.026 m2 --------- (which is 3.8% of Ac)

Now,

Ap = Ac - (2*Ad) - Acz - Awz

i.e., Ap = 0.787- (2*0.097) - 0.046 - 0.026

Thus, Ap = 0.521 m2.

8. Total Hole Area (Ah):

Since,

Ah / Ap = 0.1

⇒ Ah = 0.1* Ap

i.e., Ah = 0.1*0.521

⇒ Ah = 0.0521 m2

Thus, Total Hole Area = 0.0521 m2

Now we know that,

Ah = nh*(π/4)*dh2

Where, nh = number of holes.

⇒ nh = (4*Ah)/ (π*dh2) =2654(Aprox)

Therefore, Number of holes = 2654.

9. Weir Height (hw):

Let hw = 50 mm.

10. Weeping Check

The static pressure below the tray should be capable enough to hold the liquid

58 | P a g e
 above the tray so that no liquid sweeps through the holes.

All the pressure drops calculated in this section are represented as mm head of

liquid on the plate. This serves as a common basis for evaluating the pressure

drops.

Notations used and their units:

hd = Pressure drop through the dry plate, mm of liquid on the plate

uh = Vapor velocity based on the hole area, m/s

how = Height of liquid over weir, mm of liquid on the plate

hσ = Pressure drop due to bubble formation, mm of liquid

hds= Dynamic seal of liquid, mm of liquid

hl = Pressure drop due to foaming, mm of liquid

hf = Pressure drop due to foaming, actual, mm of liquid

Df = Average flow length of the liquid, m

Rh = Hydraulic radius of liquid flow, m

uf = Velocity of foam, m/s

(NRe) = Reynolds number of flow

f = Friction factor

hhg = Hydraulic gradient, mm of liquid

hda = Loss under down comer apron, mm of liquid

Ads = Area under the down comer apron, m2

c = Down comer clearance, m

hdc = Down comer backup, mm of liquid

59 | P a g e
Calculations:

Head loss through dry hole

hd = head loss across the dry hole

hd = k1 + [k2* (ρg/ρl) *Uh2] --------- (eqn. 18.6, page 18.9, 6th edition Perry)

Where, Uh =gas velocity through hole area

k1, k2 are constants

For sieve plates,

k1 = 0 and

k2 = 50.8 / (Cv )2

Where, Cv=discharge coefficient, taken from fig 18.14, page 18.9 6th edition Perry.

Now,

(Ah /Aa) = 0.0521/ 0.593 = 0.088

Also, tT/dh = 3/5 = 0.60

Thus for (Ah/Aa) = 0.088 and tT/dh = 0.60

We have from fig. edition 18.14, page 18.9 6th Perry.

Cv = 0.74

⇒ k2 = 50.8 / 0.742 = 92.77

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the top of the Enriching Section

=qt = 8948.201/ (3.4376*3600) = 0.723 m3/s -------- (minimum at top)

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the bottom of the Enriching Section

= qo = 8960.401/(3.425*3600) = 0.727 m3/s. ---- (maximum at bottom)

Velocity through the hole area (U h):

Now,

Velocity through the hole area at the top = U h, top = qt /Ah

60 | P a g e
 = 0.723/0.0521= 13.877 m/s

Also, Velocity through the hole area at the bottom= U h, bottom = qo /Ah

= 0.727/0.0521 = 13.954 m/s

Now,

hd, top = k2 [ρg/ρl] (Uh,top)2

= 92.77∗(3.4376/784.69) ∗13.8772

⇒ hd, top = 78.263 mm clear liquid. -------- (minimum at top)

Also,

hd, bottom = k2 [ρg/ρl] (Uh, bottom)2

= 92.77∗(3.425/774.50)×13.9542

⇒ hd, bottom = 79.881 mm clear liquid ----- (maximum at bottom)

Head Loss Due to Bubble Formation

hσ = 409 [σ / ( ρL∗dh) ]

where σ =surface tension, mN/m (dyne/cm) = 19.325 dyne/cm.

dh =Hole diameter, mm

ρl = density of liquid in the section, kg/m3

= 784.69 kg/m3

hσ = 409 [ 19.325/(784.69 *5)]

hσ= 2.014 mm clear liquid

Height of Liquid Crest over Weir:

how = 664∗Fw [(q/Lw )2/3]

q = liquid flow rate at top, m3/s

= 1133.427/60* (784.69)

= 0.024 m3/min.

61 | P a g e
Thus, q’ = 6.339 gal/min.

Lw = weir length = 0.771 m = 2.530 ft

Now,

q’/Lw 2.5 = 6.339/ (2.530)2.5 = 0.623

Now for q’/Lw 2.5 = 0.623 and Lw /Dc =0.77

We have from fig.18.16, page 18.11, 6th edition Perry

Fw= correction factor =1.03

Thus, how = 1.03∗664∗ [0.024/60*0.771] 2/3

⇒ how = 4.416 mm clear liquid.

Now,

(hd + hσ) = 78.263 + 2.014 = 80.227 mm ------ Design value

(hw + how ) = 50 + 4.416 = 54.416 mm

For, Ah/Aa = 0.088 and (hw + how ) = 54.416 mm

The minimum value of (hd + hσ) required is calculated from a graph given in Perry,

plotted against Ah/Aa.

i.e., we have from fig. 18.11, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry

(hd + hσ)min = 13.0 mm ------- Theoretical value.

The minimum value as found is 13.0 mm.

Since the design value is greater than the minimum value, there is no
problem of

weeping.

Down comer Flooding:

hds =hw + how + (hhg /2) ------- (eqn 18.10, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where,

hw = weir height, mm

62 | P a g e
 hds = static slot seal (weir height minus height of top of slot above plate floor,

height equivalent clear liquid, mm)

how = height of crest over weir, equivalent clear liquid, mm

hhg = hydraulic gradient across the plate, height of equivalent clear liquid, mm.

Hydraulic gradient, hhg

Let hhg = 0.5 mm.

hds = hw + how + hhg/2

= 50 + 4.416 + 0.5/2 = 54.666 mm.

Now, Fga = Ua ∗ρg0.5

Where Fga = gas-phase kinetic energy factor,

Ua = superficial gas velocity, m/s (ft/s),

ρg = gas density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Here Ua is calculated at the bottom of the section.

Thus, Ua = (Gb/ρg)/ Aa = 8960.401/(3600*3.425 * 0.593) = 1.225 m/s

Thus, Ua = 4.019 ft/s

ρg = 3.4250 kg/m3 = 0.209 lb/ft3

Therefore, Fga = 4.019∗(0.209) 0.5

Fga = 1.837

Now for Fga = 1.837, we have from fig. 18.15, page 18.10 6th edition Perry

Aeration factor = β = 0.6

Relative Froth Density = φt = 0.2

Now hl’= β∗hds ---- (eqn. 18.8, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where, hl’= pressure drop through the aerated mass over and around the disperser,

mm liquid,

⇒ hl’= 0.6∗54.666 = 32.800 mm.

63 | P a g e
Now,

hf = hl’/φt ------- (eqn. 18.9, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

⇒ hf = 32.8/ 0.2 = 164.0 mm.

Average width of liquid flow path, Df = (Dc + Lw )/2

= (1.001 + 0.771)/2 = 0.886 m.

Hydraulic radius of aerated mass Rh = hf * Df /(2*hf + 1000*Df) (from eq. 18.23, page

18.12 6th edition Perry)

Rh = 164*.886/(2*164 + 1000*0.886)

= 0.120 m.

Velocity of aerated mass, Uf = 1000*q/ (hl’ * Df )

Volumetric flow rate(liquid at bottom), q = 4.167*10-4 m3/s.

Uf = 1000* 4.167*10-4 / (32.8* 0.886)

= 0.014 m/s.

Reynolds modulus NRe = Rh * Uf * ρl / μliq

= 0.12 * 0.014 * 774.5 /(1.03 * 10-3)

= 1263.26

hhg = 1000* f* Uf2 *Lf/(g * Rh)

f = 0.6 for hw = 1.97” and NRe = 1871.373

Lf = 2 * Dc/2 cos(θc/ 2) = 1.569 m

hhg = 1000* 0.6 *0.0142*1.569/(9.81* 0.12)

= 0.157 mm.

Head loss over down comer apron:

hda = 165.2 {q/ Ada}2 ----- (eqn. 18.19, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where, hda = head loss under the down comer apron, as millimeters of liquid,

64 | P a g e
 q = liquid flow rate calculated at the bottom of section, m3/s

And Ada = minimum area of flow under the down comer apron, m2

Now,

q = 4.167∗10-4 m3/s

Take clearance, C = 1” = 25.4 mm

hap = hds - C = 54.666 - 25.4 = 29.266 mm

Ada = Lw * hap = 0.771∗29.266∗10-3 = 0.023 m2

hda = 165.2[(4.167* 10-4)/ (0.023)] 2

hda = 0.054 mm

Now,

ht = hd + hl`

Here hd and hl’ are calculated at bottom of the enriching section.

Now we have,

hd, bottom = 79.881 mm

hl, bottom = 32.8 mm

ht = hd + hl`

= 79.881+32.8

ht = 112.681 mm

Down comer Backup:

hdc = ht + hw + how + hda +hhg ---- (eqn 18.3, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry)

ht = total pressure drop across the plate (mm liquid)

= hd + hl`

hdc = height in down comer, mm liquid,

hw = height of weir at the plate outlet, mm liquid,

how =height of crest over the weir, mm liquid,

hda = head loss due to liquid flow under the down comer apron, mm liquid,

65 | P a g e
 hhg = liquid gradient across the plate, mm liquid.

hdc = 112.681 +50 +4.416 + 0.054 + 0.157

hdc = 167.308 mm.

Let φdc = average relative froth density (ratio of froth density to liquid density)

=0.5

h`dc = hdc / φdc = 167.308/ 0.5

h`dc = 334.616 mm.

which is less than the tray spacing, ts= 457 mm.

Hence no flooding in the enriching section and hence the design calculations are

acceptable.

b). Design of Stripping Section:

Tray Hydraulics,

The design of a sieve plate tower is described below. The equations and correlations are

borrowed from the 6th and 7th editions of Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.

1. Tray Spacing, (ts) :

Let ts = 18” = 457 mm. (range 0.15 – 1.0 m).

2. Hole Diameter, (dh):

Let dh = 5 mm. (range 2.5 – 12 mm).

3. Hole Pitch (lp):

Let lp = 3* dh (range 2.5 to 4.0 times dh).

i.e., lp = 3*5 = 15 mm.

4. Tray thickness (tT):

Let tT = 0.6* dh (range 0.4 to 0.7 times dh).

i.e., tT = 0.6*5 = 3 mm.

66 | P a g e
5. Ratio of hole area to perforated area (Ah/Ap):

Now, for a triangular pitch, we know that,

Ratio of hole area to perforated area (Ah/Ap) = ½ (π/4*dh2)/ [(√3/4) *lp2]

i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.90* (dh/lp)2

i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.90* (5/15)2

i.e., (Ah/Ap) = 0.1

Thus,

(Ah/Ap) = 0.1

6. Plate Diameter (Dc):

The plate diameter is calculated based on entrainment flooding considerations

L/G {ρg/ρl} 0.5 = 0.0705 ---------- (maximum value)

Now for,

L/G {ρg/ρl} 0.5 = 0.0705 and for a tray spacing of 457 mm.

We have,

From the flooding curve, ---------- (fig.18.10, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry.)

Flooding parameter, Csb, flood = 0.27 ft/s .

Now,

Unf = Csb, flood * (σ / 20) 0.2 [(ρl - ρg) / ρg]0.5

---- {eqn. 18.2, page 18.6, 6th edition Perry.}

Where,

Unf = gas velocity through the net area at flood, m/s (ft/s)

Csb, flood = capacity parameter, m/s (ft/s, as in fig.18.10)

σ = liquid surface tension, mN/m (dyne/cm.)

ρl = liquid density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

ρg = gas density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Now, we have,

67 | P a g e
 σ = 18.330 mN/m = 18.330 dyne/cm.

ρl = 747.87kg/m3.

ρg = 3.391 kg/m3.

Therefore,

Unf = 0.27*(18.33/20)0.2*[(747.87-3.391)/ 3.391]0.5

i.e.,Unf = 3.931 ft/s

Let,

Actual velocity, Un= 0.8*Unf

i.e., Un = 0.8∗3.931 ft/s

i.e., Un = 3.145 ft/s = .959 m/s

It is desired to design with volumetric flow rate maximum (therefore, actual is less than
the maximum).

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the bottom of the Stripping Section

= qo = 8980.733/ (3600*3.391) = 0.736 m3/s.

Now,

Net area available for gas flow (An)

Net area = (Column cross sectional area) - (Down comer area.)
An = Ac - Ad

Thus,

Net Active area, An = qo/ Un = 0.736/.959 = 0.767 m2.

Let Lw / Dc = 0.77 (range 0.6 to 0.85 times Dc ).

Where, Lw = weir length, m

Dc = Column diameter, m

Now,

θc = 2*sin-1(Lw / Dc) = 2*sin-1 (0.77) = 100.70

Now,

Ac=(π /4)*Dc2= 0.785*Dc2 , m2

68 | P a g e
 Ad = [(π/4) * Dc2 * (θc/3600)] - [(Lw /2) * (Dc/2) *cos (θc/2)]

i.e., Ad = [0.785*Dc2 *(100.70/3600)]-[(1/4)* (Lw / Dc) * Dc2 * cos(100.70)]

i.e., Ad = (0.2196* Dc2) - (0.1288* Dc2)

i.e., Ad = 0.0968*Dc2, m2

Since An = Ac -Ad

0.767 = (0.785*Dc2) - (0.0968* Dc2)

i.e., 0.6882* Dc2 = 0.767

⇒ Dc2 = 0.767/ 0.6882 = 1.115

⇒ Dc = √ 1.115

Dc = 1.056 m

Since Lw / Dc = 0.77,

⇒ Lw = 0.77* Dc = 0.77*1.056 = 0.813 m.

Therefore, Lw = 0.813 m.

Now,

Ac = 0.785*1.0562 = 0.875 m2

Ad = 0.0968*Dc2 = 0.0968*1.0562= 0.108 m2

Aa = Ac –2* Ad

i.e., Aa = 0.875- 2*0.108 ⇒ Aa= 0.659 m2

7. Perforated plate area (Ap):

Now,

Lw / Dc = 0.813/ 1.056 = 0.77

θc = 100.73 0

α = 180 0- θc

⇒ α = 79.27 0

Now,

Acz = 2* Lw* (thickness of distribution)

69 | P a g e
Where, Acz = area of calming zone, m2 (5 to 20% of Ac )

Acz = 2*0.813* (30×10-3) = 0.043 m2 -------- (which is 6.76% of Ac)

Also,

Awz= 2*{(π/4)*Dc2*(θc/3600)- (π/4)*(Dc-30*10-3)2*(θc/3600)}

Where, Awz = area of waste periphery, m2 (range 2 to 5% of Ac)

i.e., Awz = 2*{(π/4)*1.0562*(100.730/3600)- (π/4)*(1.056-30*10-3)2*(100.730/3600)}

i.e., Awz = 0.027 m2 --------- (which is 3.8% of Ac)

Now,

Ap = Ac - (2*Ad) - Acz - Awz

i.e., Ap = 0.813- (2*.108) - 0.043 - 0.027

Thus, Ap = 0.590 m2.

8. Total Hole Area (Ah):

Since,

Ah / Ap = 0.1

⇒ Ah = 0.1* Ap

i.e., Ah = 0.1*0.590

⇒ Ah = 0.0590 m2

Thus, Total Hole Area = 0.059 m2

Now we know that,

Ah = nh*(π/4)*dh2

Where, nh = number of holes.

⇒ nh = (4*Ah)/ (π*dh2) =3005(Aprox)

Therefore, Number of holes = 3005.

9. Weir Height (hw):

70 | P a g e
 Let hw = 50 mm.

10. Weeping Check

All the pressure drops calculated in this section are represented as mm head of

liquid on the plate. This serves as a common basis for evaluating the pressure

drops.

Notations used and their units:

hd = Pressure drop through the dry plate, mm of liquid on the plate

uh = Vapor velocity based on the hole area, m/s

how = Height of liquid over weir, mm of liquid on the plate

hσ = Pressure drop due to bubble formation, mm of liquid

hds= Dynamic seal of liquid, mm of liquid

hl = Pressure drop due to foaming, mm of liquid

hf = Pressure drop due to foaming, actual, mm of liquid

Df = Average flow length of the liquid, m

Rh = Hydraulic radius of liquid flow, m

uf = Velocity of foam, m/s

(NRe) = Reynolds number of flow

f = Friction factor

hhg = Hydraulic gradient, mm of liquid

hda = Loss under down comer apron, mm of liquid

Ads = Area under the down comer apron, m2

c = Down comer clearance, m

hdc = Down comer backup, mm of liquid

71 | P a g e
Calculations:

Head loss through dry hole

hd = head loss across the dry hole

hd = k1 + [k2* (ρg/ρl) *Uh2] --------- (eqn. 18.6, page 18.9, 6th edition Perry)

Where, Uh =gas velocity through hole area

k1, k2 are constants

For sieve plates,

k1 = 0 and

k2 = 50.8 / (Cv )2

Where, Cv=discharge coefficient, taken from fig 18.14, page 18.9 6th edition Perry.

Now,

(Ah /Aa) = 0.059/ 0.659 = 0.090

Also, tT/dh = 3/5 = 0.60

Thus for (Ah/Aa) = 0.09 and tT/dh = 0.60

We have from fig. edition 18.14, page 18.9 6th Perry.

Cv = 0.75

⇒ k2 = 50.8 / 0.752 = 90.311

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the top of the Stripping Section

=qt = 8960.401/ (3.425*3600) = 0.727 m3/s -------- (minimum at top)

Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the bottom of the Stripping Section

= qo = 8980.733/(3.391*3600) = 0.736 m3/s. ---- (maximum at bottom)

Velocity through the hole area (U h):

Now,

Velocity through the hole area at the top = U h, top = qt /Ah

72 | P a g e
 = 0.727/0.059= 12.322 m/s

Also, Velocity through the hole area at the bottom= U h, bottom = qo /Ah

= 0.736/0.059 = 12.475 m/s

Now,

hd, top = k2 [ρg/ρl] (Uh,top)2

= 90.311∗(3.425/774.50) ∗12.4752

⇒ hd, top = 62.153 mm clear liquid. -------- (minimum at top)

Also,

hd, bottom = k2 [ρg/ρl] (Uh, bottom)2

= 90.311∗(3.391/747.87)×12.4752

⇒ hd, bottom = 63.727 mm clear liquid ----- (maximum at bottom)

Head Loss Due to Bubble Formation

hσ = 409 [σ / ( ρL∗dh) ]

where σ =surface tension, mN/m (dyne/cm) = 18.330 dyne/cm.

dh =Hole diameter, mm

ρl = density of liquid in the section, kg/m3

= 774.50 kg/m3

hσ = 409 [ 18.33/(774.50 *5)]

hσ= 1.936 mm clear liquid

Height of Liquid Crest over Weir:

how = 664∗Fw [(q/Lw )2/3]

q = liquid flow rate at top, m3/s

= 9919.724/60* (774.50)

= 0.213 m3/min.

73 | P a g e
Thus, q’ = 56.269 gal/min.

Lw = weir length = 0.813 m = 2.667 ft

Now,

q’/Lw 2.5 = 56.269/ (2.667)2.5 = 4.844

Now for q’/Lw 2.5 = 4.844 and Lw /Dc =0.77

We have from fig.18.16, page 18.11, 6th edition Perry

Fw= correction factor =1.035

Thus, how = 1.035∗664∗ [0.213/60*0.813] 2/3

⇒ how = 18.360 mm clear liquid.

Now,

(hd + hσ) = 62.153 + 1.936 = 64.089 mm ------ Design value

(hw + how ) = 50 + 18.36 = 68.360 mm

For, Ah/Aa = 0.09 and (hw + how ) = 68.360 mm

The minimum value of (hd + hσ) required is calculated from a graph given in Perry,

plotted against Ah/Aa.

i.e., we have from fig. 18.11, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry

(hd + hσ)min = 17.0 mm ------- Theoretical value.

The minimum value as found is 17.0 mm.

Since the design value is greater than the minimum value, there is no
problem of

weeping.

Down comer Flooding:

hds =hw + how + (hhg /2) ------- (eqn 18.10, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where,

hw = weir height, mm

74 | P a g e
 hds = static slot seal (weir height minus height of top of slot above plate
floor,

height equivalent clear liquid, mm)

how = height of crest over weir, equivalent clear liquid, mm

hhg = hydraulic gradient across the plate, height of equivalent clear liquid,
mm.

Hydraulic gradient, hhg

Let hhg = 0.5 mm.

hds = hw + how + hhg/2

= 50 + 18.36 + 0.5/2 = 68.610 mm.

Now, Fga = Ua ∗ρg0.5

Where Fga = gas-phase kinetic energy factor,

Ua = superficial gas velocity, m/s (ft/s),

ρg = gas density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

Here Ua is calculated at the bottom of the section.

Thus, Ua = (Gb/ρg)/ Aa = 8980.733/(3600*3.391 * 0.659) = 1.116 m/s

Thus, Ua = 3.661 ft/s

ρg = 3.391 kg/m3 = 0.207 lb/ft3

Therefore, Fga = 3.661∗(0.207) 0.5

Fga = 1.666

Now for Fga = 1.666, we have from fig. 18.15, page 18.10 6th edition Perry

Aeration factor = β = 0.61

Relative Froth Density = φt = 0.21

Now hl’= β∗hds ---- (eqn. 18.8, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where, hl’= pressure drop through the aerated mass over and around the disperser,

75 | P a g e
 mm liquid,

⇒ hl’= 0.61∗68.610 = 41.852 mm.

Now,

hf = hl’/φt ------- (eqn. 18.9, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

⇒ hf = 41.852/ 0.21 = 199.30 mm.

Average width of liquid flow path, Df = (Dc + Lw )/2

= (1.056 + 0.813)/2 = 0.935 m.

Hydraulic radius of aerated mass Rh = hf * Df /(2*hf + 1000*Df) (from eq. 18.23,

page 18.12 6th edition Perry)

Rh = 199.3*.935/(2*199.3 + 1000*0.935)

= 0.140 m.

Velocity of aerated mass, U f = 1000*q/ (hl’ * Df )

Volumetric flow rate(liquid at bottom), q = 40*10-4 m3/s.

Uf = 1000* 40*10-4 / (41.852* 0.935)

= 0.102 m/s.

Reynolds modulus NRe = Rh * Uf * ρl / μliq

= 0.14 * 0.102 * 747.87 /(.924 * 10-3)

= 11557.99

hhg = 1000* f* Uf2 *Lf/(g * Rh)

f = 0.18 for hw = 1.97” and NRe = 11557.9

Lf = 2 * Dc/2 cos(θc/ 2) = .668 m

hhg = 1000* 0.18 *0.1022*.668/(9.81* 0.14)

= 0.911 mm.

76 | P a g e
Head loss over down comer apron:

hda = 165.2 {q/ Ada}2 ----- (eqn. 18.19, page 18.10, 6th edition Perry)

Where, hda = head loss under the down comer apron, as millimeters of liquid,

q = liquid flow rate calculated at the bottom of section, m3/s

And Ada = minimum area of flow under the down comer apron, m2

Now,

q = 40∗10-4 m3/s

Take clearance, C = 1” = 25.4 mm

hap = hds - C = 68.610 - 25.4 = 43.21 mm

Ada = Lw * hap = 0.813∗43.21∗10-3 = 0.035 m2

hda = 165.2[(40* 10-4)/ (0.035)] 2

hda = 2.158 mm

Now,

ht = hd + hl`

Here hd and hl’ are calculated at bottom of the stripping section.

Now we have,

hd, bottom = 63.727 mm

hl, bottom = 41.852 mm

ht = hd + hl`

= 63.727+41.852

ht = 105.579 mm

Down comer Backup:

hdc = ht + hw + how + hda +hhg ---- (eqn 18.3, page 18.7, 6th edition Perry)

ht = total pressure drop across the plate (mm liquid)

= hd + hl`

hdc = height in down comer, mm liquid,

77 | P a g e
 hw = height of weir at the plate outlet, mm liquid,

how =height of crest over the weir, mm liquid,

hda = head loss due to liquid flow under the down comer apron, mm liquid,

hhg = liquid gradient across the plate, mm liquid.

hdc = 105.579 +50 +18.36 + 2.158 + 0.911

hdc = 177.008 mm.

Let φdc = average relative froth density (ratio of froth density to liquid density)

=0.5

h`dc = hdc / φdc = 177.008/ 0.5

h`dc = 354.016 mm.

which is less than the tray spacing, ts= 457 mm.

Hence no flooding in the enriching section and hence the design calculations are

acceptable.

Formulas used in calculation of properties:

1 VISCOSITY:

(i). Average Liquid Viscosity:

(μliq)1/3 = [x1× (μ1)1/3] + [x2 × (μ2)1/3]

2 DIFFUSIVITIES:

(i). Liquid Phase Diffusivity:

For the case of Organic solutes diffusing in Organic solvents

DAB = (1.173*10-13*(Ɵ*M)0.5*T)/[ ƞB × (VA)0.6] –(Richardson – coulson vol.6)

Where,

Ɵ=constant

M = molecular weight.

78 | P a g e
 T = absolute temperature, 0K,

ƞB = viscosity of solvent B, cP,

VA =molar volume of solute A at its normal boiling temperature, cm3/g-mol.

DAB =mutual diffusivity coefficient of solute A at very low concentration in

solvent B, cm2/s

(ii). Gas Phase Diffusivity:

DAB = 1.013*10-7×T1.75× [(MA+MB)/ (MA×MB )]1/2}/{P×[(∑VA)1/3+ (∑VB)1/3]2

------ (Richardson – coulson vol.6 ).

Where P = Pressure in atmospheres,

T = Temperature in 0K

DAB = Diffusivity, cm2/s

∑VA and ∑VB = summation of atomic diffusion volumes for

components A and B respectively.

MA and MB = Molecular weights of components A and B respectively.

3. SURFACE TENSION:

σ =[Pch *(ρ1-ρg)/M]4 ×10-12 ----- (eqn. 8.23, page 293, Coulson and Richardson

vol.6)

Where,

σ =Surface tension, dyne/cm

Pch =Sugden’s Parachor,

ρ1 = liquid density, kg/m3

ρg = density of saturated vapor, kg/m3

M = Molecular weight

σ , ρ1, ρg are evaluated at system temperature.

79 | P a g e
 σ mix =∑ (xi*σi) where i=1,2,3,……n.

4. LIQUID DENSITY:

ρ = Pc/ ( R * Tc * Zc[ 1 + ( 1 – Tr)2/7] ) (Coulson and Richardson vol.6)

Where,

Pc = critical pressure = M/(0.34 + (∑ ∆P)2 )

M = Molecular weight.

Tc = Critical temperature = Tb / (0.567 + ∑ ∆T – (∑ ∆T)2 )

Tb = Normal boiling temperature 0K.

Zc = Pc * Vc / (R * Tc)

Vc = critical volume

R = universal gas constant.

5. GAS DENSITY:

ρ = P * M /( R * T )

P = pressure

M = Molecular weight.

R = universal gas constant.

T = temperature.

Enriching section:

Column efficiency ( AIChe method )

1. Point Efficiency, (Eog):

Eog = 1-e-Nog = 1-exp (-Nog) ----- (eqn. 18.33, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

Where Nog = Overall transfer units

Nog = 1/ [(1/Ng)+(λ/ N1)] ---- (eqn. e 18.34, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

80 | P a g e
 Where Nl = Liquid phase transfer units,

Ng = Gas phase transfer units,

λ=(m*Gm)/ Lm = Stripping factor,

m = slope of Equilibrium Curve,

Gm = Gas flow rate, mol/s

Lm = Liquid flow rate, mol/s

Ng= (0.776 + (0.0045*hw ) - (0.238*Ua*ρg0.5) + (105*W))/ (NSc, g)0.5

----- (eqn. 18., page 18., 6th edition Perry)--- *

Where,

hw = weir height = 50.00 mm

Ua = Gas velocity through active area, m/s

= 1.225 m/s.

Ua = 1.225 m/s

Df = (Lw + Dc)/2 = (0.771 + 1.001)/2 = 0.886 m

q = 416.7 * 10 -6 m3/s

W = Liquid flow rate, m3/ (s.m) of width of flow path on the plate,

= q/Df = 416.7*10-6/0.886 = 270.316*10-6 m3/ (s.m)

NSc, g = Schmidt number =μg/(ρg*Dg) = 9.4*10-6/(3.425*4.433*10-6) = 0.619

Dg = Diffusivity = 4.433 * 10-6 m2/s.

Now,

Number of gas phase transfer units,

Ng=(0.776+(0.0045*50)-(0.238*1.225*3.4250.5)+(105*270.316*10-6))/ (0.619)0.5

Ng = 0.623

Also,

81 | P a g e
 Number of liquid phase transfer units,

Nl = kl* a*θl ----- (eqn 18.36a, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

Where kl = Liquid phase transfer coefficient kmol/ (m2 kmol/m3) or m/s

a = effective interfacial area for mass transfer m2/m3 froth or spray on the plate,

θl = residence time of liquid in the froth or spray, s

θl = (hl*Aa)/ (1000*q) ---- (eqn. 18.38, page 18.16, 6th edition Perry)

Now, q = liquid flow rate, m3/s

q =416.7*10 -6 m3/s

hl = hl’ = 32.8 mm

Aa = 0.593 m2

θl = 32.8*0.593/ (1000*416.7*10-6) = 46.677 s

kl *a = (3.875*108*DL)0.5* ((0.40*Ua*ρg0.5) + 0.17)

--- (eqn. 18.40a, page 18.16, 6th edition Perry)

DL= liquid phase diffusion coefficient, m2/s

kl *a = (3.875*108*2.002*10-9)0.5* ((0.40*1.225*3.4250.5) + 0.17)

kl *a = 0.948 m/s

Nl = kl* a* θl

i.e., Nl = 0.948*46.677

= 44.250

λm = mm * Gm/Lm

λE = mE * GE/LE =.125*203.322/25.748 =.987(slope calculated from property table

for enriching section)

⇒ λ = 0.987

Nog = 1/ [(1/Ng)+( λ /Nl)]

= 1/ [(1/.623) + (0.987/44.25)]

82 | P a g e
 Nog = .614

Eog = 1-e-Nog = 1-exp (-Nog)

= 1-e-.614 = 1-exp (-.614)

Eog = 0.459

Point Efficiency = Eog = 0.459

2 Murphree Plate Efficiency (Emv):

Now, Peclet number =NPe = Zl2 / (DE* ql)

Zl = length of liquid travel, m

DE = (6.675 * 10 –3* (Ua) 1.44) + (0.922 * 10 –4* hl) - 0.00562

---- (eqn. 18.45, page 18.17, 6th edition Perry)

Where DE = Eddy diffusion coefficient, m2/s

DE = (6.675 * 10 –3* (1.225) 1.44) + (0.922 * 10 –4* 32.8) - 0.00562

DE = 0.006 m2/s

Also,

Zl = Dc *cos(Ɵc/2) = 1.001* cos (100.73 0/2) = 0.639 m

NPe = Zl2 / (DE* θl)

= 0.639 2/ (0.006 * 44.25)

NPe = 1.809

λ*Eog = 0.987 * 0.459 = 0.453

Now, for λ*Eog = 0.453 and NPe = 1.809

We have from fig.18.29a, page 18.18, 6th edition Perry

Emv/ Eog = 1.17

Emv = 1.17* Eog = 1.17*0.459 = 0.537

Murphee Plate Efficiency = Emv = 0.537

3 Overall Efficiency ( EOC):

83 | P a g e
Overall Efficiency = EOC = log [1 + Eα ( λ - 1)]
log λ

----- (eqn. 18.46, page 18.17, 6th edition Perry)

Where, Eα /Emv = 1/ (1 + EMV [ψ/ (1- ψ)])

----- (eqn. 18.27, page 18.13, 6th edition Perry)

Emv = Murphee Vapor efficiency,

Eα = Murphee Vapor efficiency, corrected for recycle effect of liquid

entrainment.

(L/G)*{ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.004

Thus, for (L/G)*{ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.008 and at 80 % of the flooding value,

We have from fig.18.22, page 18.14, 6th edition Perry

ψ = fractional entrainment, moles/mole gross down flow = 0.035

⇒ Eα / Emv = 1 / (1 + Emv [ψ/ (1- ψ)]

⇒ Eα = Emv / ( 1 + Emv [ψ/ (1- ψ)] )

= 0.537/ (1+0.537[0.035/ (1-0.035)])

⇒ Eα = 0.527

Overall Efficiency = EOC = log [1 + Eα ( λ - 1)]/log λ

EOC = log [1+ 0.527(0.987-1)]/ log 0.987

Overall Efficiency = EOC = 0.525

Actual trays = Nact = NT/EOC = (ideal trays)/ (overall efficiency)

Where NT = Theoretical plates,

Nact = actual trays

Nact = 3/0.5767 = 5.714=6(aprox) _

Thus, Actual trays in the Enriching Section = 6

Thus 6th tray is the feed tray.

Total Height of Enriching section = 6*ts = 6*457 = 2742 mm = 2.742 m

84 | P a g e
Striping section:

Column efficiency ( AIChe method )

1. Point Efficiency, (Eog):

Eog = 1-e-Nog = 1-exp (-Nog) ----- (eqn. 18.33, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

Where Nog = Overall transfer units

Nog = 1/ [(1/Ng)+(λ/ N1)] ---- (eqn. 18.34, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

Where Nl = Liquid phase transfer units,

Ng = Gas phase transfer units,

λ=(m*Gm)/ Lm = Stripping factor,

m = slope of Equilibrium Curve,

Gm = Gas flow rate, mol/s

Lm = Liquid flow rate, mol/s

Ng= (0.776 + (0.0045*hw ) - (0.238*Ua*ρg0.5) + (105*W))/ (NSc, g)0.5

----- (eqn. 18., page 18., 6th edition Perry)--- *

Where,

hw = weir height = 50.00 mm

Ua = Gas velocity through active area, m/s

= 1.116 m/s.

Ua = 1.116 m/s

Df = (Lw + Dc)/2 = (0.813 + 1.056)/2 = 0.935 m

q = 3550 * 10 -6 m3/s

W = Liquid flow rate, m3/ (s.m) of width of flow path on the plate,

= q/Df = 3550*10-6/0.935 = 3796.79*10-6 m3/ (s.m)

NSc, g = Schmidt number =μg/(ρg*Dg) = 9.4*10-6/(3.361*4.433*10-6) = 0.631

Dg = Diffusivity = 4.433 * 10-6 m2/s.

85 | P a g e
 Now,

Number of gas phase transfer units,

Ng=(0.776+(0.0045*50)-(0.238*1.116*3.3610.5)+(104.6*3796.79*10-6))/ (0.631)0.5

Ng = 1.147

Also,

Number of liquid phase transfer units,

Nl = kl* a*θl ----- (eqn 18.36a, page 18.15, 6th edition Perry)

Where kl = Liquid phase transfer coefficient kmol/ (m2 kmol/m3) or m/s

a = effective interfacial area for mass transfer m2/m3 froth or spray on the plate,

θl = residence time of liquid in the froth or spray, s

θl = (hl*Aa)/ (1000*q) ---- (eqn. 18.38, page 18.16, 6th edition Perry)

Now, q = liquid flow rate, m3/s

q =3796.79*10 -6 m3/s

hl = hl’ = 41.852 mm

Aa = 0.659 m2

θl = 41.852 *0.659/ (1000*3796.79*10-6) = 7.266 s

kl *a = (3.875*108*DL)0.5* ((0.40*Ua*ρg0.5) + 0.17)

--- (eqn. 18.40a, page 18.16, 6th edition Perry)

DL= liquid phase diffusion coefficient, m2/s

kl *a = (3.875*108*2.002*10-9)0.5* ((0.40*1.116*3.3610.5) + 0.17)

kl *a = 0.891 m/s

Nl = kl* a* θl

i.e., Nl = 0.891*7.266

= 6.474

λm = mm * Gm/Lm

86 | P a g e
 λE = mS * GS/LS =.893*203.322/222.615 =.816(slope calculated from property table
for enriching section)

⇒ λ = 0.816

Nog = 1/ [(1/Ng)+( λ /Nl)]

= 1/ [(1/1.147) + (0.816/7.266)]

Nog = 1.016

Eog = 1-e-Nog = 1-exp (-Nog)

= 1-e-1.016 = 1-exp (-1.016)

Eog = 0.638

Point Efficiency = Eog = 0.638

2 Murphree Plate Efficiency (Emv):

Now, Peclet number =NPe = Zl2 / (DE* ql)

Zl = length of liquid travel, m

DE = (6.675 * 10 –3* (Ua) 1.44) + (0.922 * 10 –4* hl) - 0.00562

---- (eqn. 18.45, page 18.17, 6th edition Perry)

Where DE = Eddy diffusion coefficient, m2/s

DE = (6.675 * 10 –3* (1.116) 1.44) + (0.922 * 10 –4* 41.852) - 0.00562

DE = 0.0061 m2/s

Also,

Zl = Dc *cos(Ɵc/2) = 1.056* cos (100.73 0/2) = 0.674 m

NPe = Zl2 / (DE* θl)

= 0.674 2/ (0.0061 * 7.266)

NPe = 10.25

λ*Eog = 0.816 * 0.638 = 0.521

87 | P a g e
 Now, for λ*Eog = 0.521 and NPe = 10.25

We have from fig.18.29a, page 18.18, 6th edition Perry

Emv/ Eog = 1.45

Emv = 1.45* Eog = 1.45*0.638 = 0.925

Murphee Plate Efficiency = Emv = 0.925

3 Overall Efficiency ( EOC):

Overall Efficiency = EOC = log [1 + Eα ( λ - 1)]

log λ

----- (eqn. 18.46, page 18.17, 6th edition Perry)

Where, Eα /Emv = 1/ (1 + EMV [ψ/ (1- ψ)])

----- (eqn. 18.27, page 18.13, 6th edition Perry)

Emv = Murphee Vapor efficiency,

Eα = Murphee Vapor efficiency, corrected for recycle effect of liquid

entrainment.

(L/G)*{ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.074

Thus, for (L/G)*{ρg/ρl}0.5 = 0.008 and at 80 % of the flooding value,

We have from fig.18.22, page 18.14, 6th edition Perry

ψ = fractional entrainment, moles/mole gross down flow = 0.04

⇒ Eα / Emv = 1 / (1 + Emv [ψ/ (1- ψ)]

⇒ Eα = Emv / ( 1 + Emv [ψ/ (1- ψ)] )

= 0.925/ (1+0.925[0.04/ (1-0.04)])

⇒ Eα = 0.891

Overall Efficiency = EOC = log [1 + Eα ( λ - 1)]

log λ

88 | P a g e
 EOC = log [1+ 0.891(0.816-1)]/ log 0.816

Overall Efficiency = EOC = 0.881

Actual trays = Nact = NT/EOC = (ideal trays)/ (overall efficiency)

Where NT = Theoretical plates,

Nact = actual trays

Nact = 2/0.881 = 2.27=3(aprox) _

Thus, Actual trays in the Stripping Section = 3

Total Height of Stripping section = 3*ts = 3*457 = 1371 mm = 1.371 m

SUMMARY OF THE DISTILLATION COLUMN:

A) Enriching section

Tray spacing = 457 mm

Column diameter = 1.001 m

Weir length = 0.771 m

Weir height = 50 mm

Hole diameter = 5 mm

Hole pitch = 15 mm, triangular

Tray thickness = 3 mm

Number of holes = 2654

Flooding % = 80%

B) Stripping section

Tray spacing = 457 mm

Column diameter = 1.056 m

Weir length = 0.813 m

Weir height = 50 mm

Hole diameter = 5 mm

89 | P a g e
Hole pitch = 15 mm, triangular

Tray thickness = 3 mm

Number of holes = 3005,

Flooding % = 80%

5.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN:

a) Shell:

Diameter of the tower =Di = 1060 mm =1.06 m

Working/Operating Pressure = 2.087 atmosphere = 2.1558 kg/cm2

Design pressure = 1.1*Operating Pressure = 1.1*2.1558 = 2.37138 kg/cm2

Working temperature = 95 0C = 368 0K

Design temperature = 104.5 0C = 377.5 0K

Shell material - IS: 2002-1962 Carbon steel (specific gravity 7.7)

Permissible tensile stress (ft) = 95 MN/m2 = 970 kg/cm2

Insulation material - asbestos

Insulation thickness = 2”= 50.8 mm

Density of insulation = 2700 kg/m3

Top disengaging space = 0.3 m

Bottom separator space = 0.4 m

Weir height = 50 mm

Down comer clearance = 1” = 25.4 mm

b) Head - torispherical dished head:

Material - IS: 2002-1962 Carbon steel

Allowable tensile stress = 95 MN/m2 = 970 kg/cm2

c) Support skirt:

Height of support = 1000 mm = 1.0 m

Material - Carbon Steel

90 | P a g e
d) Trays-sieve type:

Number of trays = 9

Hole Diameter = 5 mm

Number of holes:

Enriching section = 2654

Stripping section = 3005

Tray spacing:

Enriching section: 18” = 457 mm

Stripping section: 18” = 457 mm

Thickness = 3 mm

e) Support for tray:

Purlins - Channels and Angles

Material - Carbon Steel

Permissible Stress = 127.5 MN/m2 =1299.7 kg/cm2

1. Shell minimum thickness:

Considering the vessel as an internal pressure vessel.

ts = ((P*Di)/ ((2*ft*J)- P)) + C

where ts = thickness of shell, mm

P = design pressure, kg/cm2

Di = diameter of shell, mm

ft = permissible/allowable tensile stress, kg/cm2

C = Corrosion allowance, mm

J = Joint factor

Considering double welded butt joint with backing strip

J= 85% = 0.85

Thus, ts = ((2.37138*1060)/ ((2*970*0.85)- 2.37138)) + 3 = 4.527 mm

91 | P a g e
Taking the thickness of the shell = 6 mm (standard)

2. Head Design- Shallow dished and Torispherical head:

Thickness of head = th = (P*Rc*W)/ (2*f*J)

P =internal design pressure, kg/cm2

Rc = crown radius = diameter of shell, mm

W= stress intensification factor or stress concentration factor for torispherical

head,

W= ¼ * (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rk = knuckle radius, which is at least 6% of crown radius, mm

Now, Rc = 1060 mm

Rk = 6% of Rc = 0.06*1060 = 63.6 mm

W= ¼ * (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5) = ¼ * (3 + (1060/63.6)0.5) = 1.7706 mm

th = (2.37138*1060*1.7706)/ (2*970*0.85) = 2.70 mm

Including corrosion allowance take the thickness of head = 6 mm

Weight of Head:

Diameter = O.D + (O.D/24) + (2*sf) + (2*icr/3) --- (eqn. 5.12 Brownell and Young)

Where O.D. = Outer diameter of the dish, inch

icr = inside cover radius, inch

sf = straight flange length, inch

From table 5.7 and 5.8 of Brownell and Young

sf =1.5”

icr = 2.31”

Also, O.D.= 1060 mm = 41.73”

Diameter = 41.73+ (41.73/24) + (2*1.5)+(2/3*2.31)

d = 48.01” = 1219.45mm.

Weight of Head = ((π*d2*t)/4)*(ρ/1728)

92 | P a g e
 =(( π *48.012 *0.2362)/4) * (7700/1728) = 1905.37 lb

= 864.26 kg

3. Shell thickness at different heights

At a distance ‘X’m from the top of the shell the stresses are:

3.1 Axial Tensile Stress due to Pressure:

fap =(P*Di)/ 4(ts -c) = 2.37138*1060/4(6 - 3)= 209.47 kgf/cm2 .

This is the same through out the column height.

3.2 Circumferential stress

2 * fap = 2*209.47 = 418.94 kgf/cm2

3.3 Compressive stress due Dead Loads:

3.3.1 Compressive stress due to Weight of shell up to a distance ‘X’ meter from top.

fds = weight of shell/cross-section of shell

= (π/4)*(Do2-Di2)*ρs*X = weight of shell per unit height X

(π /4)* (Do2-Di2) (π*Dm*(ts-c))

Where Do and Di are external and internal diameter of shell.

ρs = density of shell material, kg/m3

Dm = mean diameter of shell,

ts = thickness of shell,

c = corrosion allowance

Now ρs = 7700 kg/m3 =0.0077 kg/cm3

Fds=ρs* X = (7700*X) kg/m2 = (0.77*X) kg/cm2

The vessel contains manholes, nozzles etc., additional weight may be estimated 20% of

the weight of the shell.

fT,ds = 1.2 * .77*X = 0.924* (X) kg/cm2

93 | P a g e
3.3.2 Compressive stress due to weight of insulation at a height X meter:

fd(ins) = π *Dins* tins* ρins *X/( π *Dm* (ts - c) )

= weight of insulation per unit height (X)/( π*Dm* (ts - c))

where Dins, tins, ρins are diameter, thickness and density of insulation respectively.

Dm = (Dc+ (Dc+2ts))/2

Assuming asbestos is to be used as insulation material.

ρins = 2700 kg/m3

tins = 2” = 5.08 cm.

Dins =Dc+2ts+2tins = 106+ (2*0.6) + (2*5.08) = 117.36 cm.

Dm = (106+ (106+ (2*0.6)))/2 = 106.60 cm.

fd(ins) = π *117.36* 5.08*2700*X

( π *106.6* (0.6 - 0.3))

= 50334.89 *X kg/m2

= 5.033489*X kg/cm3

3.3.3 Stress due to the weight of the liquid and tray in the column up to a height X

meter.

fd, liq. = ∑weight of liquid and tray per unit height X

(π*Dm* (ts - c))
The top chamber height is 0.3 m and it does not contain any liquid or tray. Tray

spacing is 457 mm.

Average liquid density in column = 770.39 kg/m3

Liquid and tray weight for X meter

Fliq-tray = [(X-.03)/0.5+1]*(π*Di2/4) ×ρl

= [(X-.03)/0.5+1]*(π*1.062/4) ×770.39

= [2X + 0.4] * 679.85 kg

fd (liq) = Fliq-tray *10/ (π*Dm* (ts - c))

= [2X + 0.4] * 679.85 *10/ (π*1066* (6 - 3))

94 | P a g e
 = [2X + 0.4] * 0.677

= 1.354*X + 0.271 kg/cm2

3.3.4 Compressive stress due to attachments such as internals, top head, platforms

and ladder up to height X meter.

fd (attch.) =∑weight of attachments per unit height X

( π*Dm* (ts - c))

Now total weight up to height X meter = weight of top head + pipes +ladder, etc.,

Taking the weight of pipes, ladder and platforms as 25 kg/m = 0.25 kg/cm

Total weight up to height X meter = (864.26 +25X) kg

fd (attch.) = (864.26 +25X) * 10/ π*1060* (6 - 3) = 0.865 + 0.025X kg/cm2

Total compressive dead weight stress:

fdx = fds + fins +fd (liq) + fd (attch)

= 0.924X + 5.033X + [1.354X+0.271] + [0.865 +0.025X]

fdx = 7.336X + 1.136 kg/cm2

4. Tensile stress due to wind load in self supporting vessels:

fwx = Mw /Z

Where, Mw = bending moment due to wind load = (wind load* distance)/2

= 0.7*Pw*D*X2/2

Z = modulus for the section for the area of shell ≈ π*Dm2* (ts-c)/4

Thus, fwx =1.4*Pw*X2/ π*Dm* (ts-c)

Now Pw = 25 lb/ft2 --- (from table 9.1 Brownell and Young)

= 37.204 kg/m2
95 | P a g e
Bending moment due to wind load

Mwx = 0.7*37.204*1.06*X2/2 = 13.8(X2) kg-m

fwx= 1.4*37.204*X2 /(π*1.06* (6-3) *10-3)/10-4 = 0.5213(X2) kg/cm2

5. Stresses due to Seismic load:

fsx = Msx /(π*Dm2* (ts-c)/ 4)

Where, bending moment Msx at a distance X meter is given by

Msx = [C*W*X2/3] * [(3H-X)/H2]

Where, C = seismic coefficient,

W= total weight of column, kg

H = height of column

Total weight of column = W= Cv *π*ρm*Dm*g* (Hv+ (0.8*Dm))*ts*10-3

----- (eqn. 13.75, page 743, Coulson and Richardson 6th volume)

Where W = total weight of column, excluding the internal fittings like plates, N

Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, man ways, internal

supports, etc.

= 1.5 for distillation column with several man ways, and with plate

support rings or equivalent fittings

Hv = height or length between tangent lines (length of cylindrical section)

g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2

t = wall thickness

ρm = density of vessel material, kg/m3

Dm = mean diameter of vessel = Di + (t *10-3) = 1.06+ (6 *10-3) = 1.066 m

W=1.5*π*7700*1.066*9.81*(3+(.8*1.066))*6*10-3 =8771.74 N=894.16 kg.

Weight of plates: ------- (Coulson and Richardson 6th volume)

Plate Area = π *1.062/4 = 0.882 m2

96 | P a g e
Weight of each plate = 1.2*0.882 = 1.059 kN

Weight of 9 plates = 9*0.8328 = 9.531 kN = 971.55 kg.

Total weight of column = 894.16 + 971.55 = 1865.71 kg.

Let, C = seismic coefficient = 0.08

Msx = [0.08*1865.71*X2/3] * [((3*4.113)-X)/4.1132]

= 49.75X2 * [0.729-0.059X] kg-m

fsx = Msx*103/(π*Dm2* (ts-c))/4

=(49.75X2 * [0.729-0.059X ])* 103/(π*106.62* (6-3)/4)

= [1.354X2- 0.109X3], kg/cm2

On the up wind side:

ft,max = (fwx or fsx) + fap -fdx

Since the chances of, stresses due to wind load and seismic load, to occur together is
rare

hence it is assumed that the stresses due to wind load and earthquake load will not
occur

simultaneously and hence the maximum value of either is therefore accepted and

considered for evaluation of combined stresses.

Thus,

ft,max = 0.5213X2 + 209.47 - [7.336X + 1.136]

i.e., 0.5213X2- 7.336X + 209.47 - 1.136- 824.5 = 0

0.5213X2- 7.336X – 616.166 =0

=> X = 42.12 m

On the down side:

fc,max = (fwx or fsx) - fap +fdx

The column height is 4.113 m, for which the maximum value is

fc,max = 0.5213(4.113)2 - 209.47 + [7.336(4.113) + 1.136]

97 | P a g e
 = -169.34 kg/cm2

this shows that the stress on the down wind side is tensile.

ft,max = 85% of allowable tensile stress.

ft,max = 970 * 0.85 = 824.5 kg/cm2.

ft,max = 0.5213 (X)2 – 209.47 + [7.336X + 1.136]= 824.5

Therefore, X = 38.03 m.

Hence we see that the design value of the column height is more than 4.113 m, which is
the

actual column height. So we conclude that the design is safe and thus the design

calculations are acceptable.

Hence a thickness of 6 mm is taken throughout the length of shell.

Height of the head = Dc/4 = 1.06/4 = 0.265 m

Skirt support Height = 1.0 m

Total actual height = 4.113 + 1 + 0.265 = 5.378 m

98 | P a g e
99 | P a g e
DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchanger used is shell and tube.

The ethanol entering from vaporizer must be heated from 1000C to 2000C using ethanol,
acetaldehyde and hydrogen mixture available at 3100C.

Shell side:

Feed (mh) (ethanol) =9292.92 kg/h=20487.3573 lb/h

Inlet temperature (T1)= 1000C

Outlet temperature (T2)= 2000C

100 | P a g e
Tube side:

Inlet temperature (t1)= 3100C

Outlet temperature (t2)= 232.360C

1) Heat balance

Qh=mh Cp (T2-T1)

= 1749825.187 btu/h

2) LMTD
T1-t2 =310-200

=110 oC

T2-t1 =232.36-100

=132.36 oC

LMTD =120.835 oC

FT=LMTD correction factor.

R=0.7764 & S=0.4761

From graph of FT Vs S

FT =0.905

∆t= LMTD×Correction Factor(FT)

LMTD (corrected)

∆t = 109.3550 C.

From the table, assume UD=45 btu/hr.ft2 as the process fluids are light organics categeory.

3) Heat transfer area:

101 | P a g e
 Choose overall heat transfer coefficient= 45 btu/hr.ft2

Q = UA(LMTD)

Area= 1749825.187 / (45*109.355)

A=355.58 ft2

4) Tube selection:

Length of the tube L=16’0’’(3/4 in.OD,16BWG)-Square pitch

From the table, Flow area per tube a’t=0.302in2

Outside area per linear ft a’’=0.1963 ft2

Tube inside diameter D=0.620 in

Number of tubes= 320.026/16*0.1963=113.21

Floating head type: Nearest tube count from tube count table N T= 124

Shell inside diameter =15.25 in

2 tube passes and 1 shell pass

Corrected heat transfer area=124*16*0.1963=389.4592 ft2

Corrected over all heat transfer coefficient (U D)=41.086 btu/hr.ft2

Average properties of fluids

a) Shell side (ethanol)

Cp=0.854058Btu/lb*Fo

k=0.0856794Btu*ft/hr*ft2*F

viscosity=0.321388
cP

b) Tube side

102 | P a g e
 Cp=0.58659Btu/lb*Fo

k=0.0611937Btu*ft/hr*ft2*F

Viscosity=0.188235cP

5) Flow area, at:

a’t=0.302in2

𝑁𝑡 ∗𝑎′𝑡
at =
144𝑛

=(124*0.302)/144*2

=0.130027ft2

6) Mass velocity Gt
Gt = w/at

=20487.3573/0.13003

=157561.381b/(hr)(ft2)

7) Reynolds number(Ret):
𝐷 ∗ 𝐺𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑡 =
µ

Viscosity μ =0.188235cP

=0.188235×2.42

=0.4555287lb/ft hr

D=0.62/12=0.0517ft

Ret =0.0517*157561.38/0.4555287

=17882.350

8) Jh Factor for heat transfer curve jh:

At L/D=16/0.0517=25.8 and Reynolds number=17882.350

Jh =66 (from graph)

103 | P a g e
 9) Inside fluid heat transfer coefficient(hi)
𝐾 (𝐶µ)1/3
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑗𝐻 ∗ ∗
𝐷 (𝐾)1/3

hi=127.198 btu/hr.ft2 Fo

10) Value of hi when referred to the tube outside diameter( h io )

𝐼𝐷
ℎ𝑖𝑜 = ℎ𝑖 ∗
𝑂𝐷

hio =127.198*(0.62/0.75)

=105.1507 btu/hr.ft2 oF

Check the pressure drop.If unsatisfactory assume new pass arrangment.

Pressure drop in tube side

11) Obtain friction factor (f)

f=0.00023 ft2/in2 at Ret=17882.350

12) Tube side pressure drop (∆Pt)

𝑓𝐺𝑡2 𝐿𝑛
△ 𝑃𝑡 =
5.22 ∗ 1010 𝐷𝑠

∆Pt=6.97 psi

13) Return pressure drop(∆Pr)

At Gt=157561.38, V2/2g’=0.0033 (from graph)

4𝑛 𝑉 2
△ 𝑃𝑟 = ∗
𝑠 2𝑔′

∆Pr=2.83 psi

Total Pressure drop, △PT = △Pt +△P

∆PT=6.97+2.83

=9.80 psi

Since pressure drop is less than 10 psi therefore we can use one shell and two tube
pass.

Calculation of shell side pressure drop

104 | P a g e
 14) Flow area, as:

Assume baffle spacing B=12in.

Clearance C’ =0.25 in.

Tube pitch PT= Clearance + Tube OD=0.75+0.25=1 in

Flow area, aa= ID*C’B/144PT

as=15.25*0.25*12/144*1

as=0.3177ft2

15) Mass velocity Gs:

Mass velocity, Gs =W/as

Gs=20487.3573/0.3177

16) Reynolds number(Res):

De=0.95/12=0.0792 ft (from the graph)

𝐷 ∗ 𝐺𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑠 =
µ

Res=(0.0792*64484.797)/(0.321388*2.42)

Res=6566.55

17) Jh Factor for heat transfer curve jh:

At Reynolds number=6566.55

Jh =46 (from graph)

18) Out side fluid heat transfer coefficient(h0):

𝐾 (𝐶µ)1/3
ℎ𝑜 = 𝑗𝐻 ∗ ∗ 𝛷
𝐷 (𝐾)1/3 𝑠

ho=98.49 btu/hr.ft2 Fo

Check the pressure drop.If unsatisfactory assume new baffle spacing.

105 | P a g e
Pressure drop in shell side

19) Obtain friction factor (f)

f=0.0023 ft2/in2 at Res=6566.55(from graph)

20) No. of crosses:

N+1=12*(L/B)

=12*(16/12)

=16

Shell diameter=15.25/12=1.2708

21) Shell side pressure drop

𝑓𝐺𝑠2 𝐷𝑠 (𝑁 + 1)
△ 𝑃𝑡 =
5.22 ∗ 1010 𝐷𝑠
∆Ps=2.13 psi

22) Clean overall coefficient Uc

𝒉𝒊𝒐 𝒉𝒐
Uc=
𝒉𝒊𝒐 +𝒉𝒐

=(105.1507*98.49)/( 105.1507+98.49)

=50.855

𝑈𝐶 −𝑈𝐷
Rd=
𝑈𝐶 𝑈𝐷

Rd=(50.855-41.086)/( 50.855*41.086)

=4.675*10-3 hr*ft2*oF/Btu

Mechanical design of Heat Exchanger:

106 | P a g e
 (a) Shell side details:

Material: carbon steel

Number of shell passes: one

Diameter of shell: 388 mm

Working pressure: 0.3N/mm2

Design pressure: 0.33N/mm2

Inlet temperature: 1000C

Out let temperature:2000C

Permissible stress for carbon steel: 95N/mm2

(b) Tube side details:

Number tubes: 124

Number of passes : 2

Outside diameter: 19.05mm

Inside diameter: 15.748 mm.

Length: 4.88m

Pitch square:1 inch

Working pressure: 0.3 N/mm2

Design pressure: 0.33N/mm2

Inlet temperature: 3100C

Outlet temperature: 232.360C

Shell side:

1.Shell thickness:
ts= PD/(2fJ+P)

= 0.33*388/(2*95*0.85+0.33) = 0.791 mm

107 | P a g e
 Minimum thickness of shell must be=6.0mm

Including corrosion allowance shell thickness is 8mm

2.Head thickness:

Shallow dished and torispherical

ts = PRcW/2fJ

P =internal design pressure,kg/cm2

Rc = crown radius = diameter of shell, mm

W= stress intensification factor or stress concentration factor for torispherical head,

W= ¼ * (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rk = knuckle radius, which is at least 6% of crown radius, mm

Now,

Rc = 388 mm

Rk = 6% of Rc = 0.06*388 = 23.28 mm

W= ¼ * (3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5) = ¼ * (3 + (388/23.28)0.5) = 1.7706 mm

ts = PRcW/2fJ

= 0.33*388*1.77/(2*95*0.85)

= 1.403 mm.

Since head thickness is less than shell thickness use same thickness as of
shell.

3. Inside depth of head (hi) can be calculated as:

108 | P a g e
 1/2
𝐷𝑠 𝐷𝑠
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 − [(𝑅𝑖 − ) (𝑅𝑖 + ) + 2𝑟𝑖 ]
2 2

Ri= crown radius =(assume this is equal to diameter of shell)

Ri =Ds=388 mm

ri=6% of Ds=23.28 mm

hi=51.9128 mm

4. Effective length of heat exchanger:

Leff =Lt +2* hi
=4.88+2*0.05191
=4.983 m

5. Transverse Baffles:

Baffle spacing =0.8*Dc = 0.8*388 = 310.40 mm

Number of baffles,

Nb+1=L/LS=4.88/0.3104=16

Nb=15

Thickness of baffles, tb=6mm

6. Tie Rods and spacers

For shell diameter, 300-500mm

Diameter of Rod = 9mm

Number of rods=4

7. Flanges

Design pressure=0.33 N/mm2

109 | P a g e
 Flange material IS: 2004-1962,class 2

Bolting steel: 5% Cr-Mo steel

Gasket material: asbestos composition

Shell thickness: 8mm=go

Outside diameter of shell: 404 mm

Allowable stress of flange material: 100MN/m2

Allowable stress of bolting material = 138 MN/m2

8. Determination of gasket width:

dO/di = [(y-Pm)/(y-P(m+1))]0.5

Assume a gasket thickness of 10 mm

y = minimum design yield seating stress = 25.5MN/m2

m = gasket factor = 2.75

dO/di = [(25.5-0.33*2.75)/(25.50.33(2.75+1))]0.5

dO/di = 1.00678

Let, di of gasket equal 414 mm

do= 1.00678*di

do= 416.80692 mm

Minimum gasket width = (do-di)/2 = 1.4034 mm =0.0014034 m.

Taking gasket width of N=10 mm = 0.010m

Basic gasket seating width, bo=N/2=5 mm

Diameter of location of gasket load reaction is

110 | P a g e
 G= di + N = 0.414 + 0.01 = 0.424 m

9. Estimation of Bolt Load

Load due to design pressure

H = πG2P/4 = 3.14*0.4242*0.33/4 = 0.0465945MN

Load to keep joint tight under operation

b = 2.5 (b0)0.5 = 5.59 mm.

Hp=π*G*(2b)*m*p = 3.14*0.424*(2*0.00559)*2.75*0.33

= 0.0135077 MN

Total operating load,

Wo= H + Hp = 0.060102294 MN.

Load to seat gasket under bolting condition

Wg = π*G*b*y = 0.1809186 MN.

Wg>Wo, controlling load=0.1809186 MN

Calculation of optimum bolting area:

Am = Ag = Wg/Sg = 0.1809186 /138 = 1.1311*10-3 m2

Calculation of optimum bolt size:

Bolt size, M18 X 2

Actual number of bolts =20

Radial clearance from bolt circle to point of connection of hub or nozzle and
back of flange = R = 0.027 m

Bolt circle diameter, C

111 | P a g e
 C =ID + 2(1.415g + R) = 404 +2[11.315+0.027*103] = 480.63 mm

Bolt circle diameter = 0.48063 m.

Calculation of flange outside diameter Let, bolt diameter = 18 mm.

A=C+ bolt diameter +0.02 = 0.48063+0.018+0.02 = 0.51863 m. Check for gasket

width,

AbSG / (πGN) = 1.54*10-4*20*138/(3.14*0.424*10-2) = 39.21<2*y.

Where, SG is the Allowable stress for the gasket material.

Flange moment computation:

For operating condition Wo=W1+W2+W3

W1=∏*B2*P/4 = ∏*0.4042*0.33/4 = 0.0423025 MN

W2 = H-W1= 0.0465945-0.0423025 = 0.0042919 MN. W3= Wo-H =

Hp= 0.0135077 MN.

Mo=Total flange moment Mo=W1a1 + W2a2 + W3a3

a1=(C-B)/2=(0.48063-0.404)/2

a1=0.038315 m

a3=(C-G)/2=(0.48063-0.424)/2

a3=0.028315 m

a2=(a1 + a3)/2= (0.038315 +0.028315)/2=0.033315 m

Mo=0.0423025*0.038315+0.0042919*0.033315+0.0135077*0.028315 Mo= 2.1462*10-3

MN-m

112 | P a g e
For bolting condition

Mg=Wa3 W=(Am+Ab)*Sg/2

Ab=20*1.54*10-4 =3.08*10-3 m2 Am= 1.1311*10-03 m2 W=(1.1311*10-3 +3.08*10-

3)*138/2

W= 0.29056 MN

Mg= 0.29056 *0.028315 = 8.227773*10-3 MN-m

Mg>Mo , Hence moment under operating condition M g is controlling,

Mg=M

Calculation of flange thickness

t2 = M CF Y / (B SF),

SF is the allowable stress for the flange material

K =A/B = 0.43963/0.404 = 1.0882

For choosen bolts , A=0.43963

For K = 1.3527, Y = 10 Assuming CF

=1

t2 = 8.228*10-3 *1*10/(0.404*100)

t= 0.04512 m=45.12 mm

Actual bolt spacing BS = π*C/n = (3.14*0.48063)/(20)

= 0.075458m=75.458 mm

Bolt Pitch Correction Factor

CF = [Bs / (2d+t)]0.5 = (0.075458/(2*0.018+0.04512)1/2 = 0.96446

113 | P a g e
 √CF=0.98207

Actual flange thickness = √CF*t = 0.98207*0.04512 = 0.04431099 m

= 44.31099 mm.

Standard flange thickness available is 50 mm

Channel and channel Cover

th=Gc√(K*P/f) = 0.424*√(0.3*0.33/95) = 0.013687m =13.687mm

th=16mm including corrosion allowance

Tube sheet thickness

tts=F*G√(0.25*P/f) = 1*0.424√(0.25*0.33/95) = 0.01249m=12.49mm tts=15 mm including

corrosion allowance.

114 | P a g e
DESIGN OF REACTOR

The reactor used in our process is packed bed reactor

Reactor conversion = 90%

Temperature of the reactor = 310°C (583 K)

Catalyst used is cu-co-cr2o3

Rate expression:

-rA = k CE [15]

Where, k is rate constant

CE is the concentration of ethanol.

Basic performance equation for the Plug Flow Reactor is given by:

𝑥𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝐴
=∫
𝐹𝐴𝑂 0 −𝑟𝐴

Here FAO is the molar flow rate of ethanol

W is the weight of the catalyst

T = 583 K

From literature, Activation energy E = 17150 cal/mol [19]

Frequency factor A= 8.39*105 m3 kg-1 hr-1 [19]

Production of acetaldehyde

Rate constant k = A e-(E/RT)

= 8.39*105 e-(11510/1.987*583)

= 0.31 m3 kg-1 hr-1

Putting in above equation, we have,

0.9
𝑊 𝑑𝑥𝐴
=∫
𝐹𝐴𝑂 0 −𝐾𝐶𝐴

Now,

115 | P a g e
 𝐶𝐴𝑂 (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )
𝐶𝐴 =
(1 + Ɛ𝐴 𝑥𝐴 )

C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2

Here,
VXA=1 −VXA=0 2−1
ƐA = VXA=0
= 1
=1

CAo = FAo /Vo

CAo is the initial concentration of ethanol

Vo is the volumetric flow rate of ethanol

From,
0.9
𝑑𝑥𝐴 (1 + 𝑥𝐴 )
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐴𝑂 ∫
0 −𝐾𝐶𝐴𝑂 (1 − 𝑥𝐴 )

Putting K= 0.312 m3 kg -1hr-1

Substituting CAo = FAo /Vo

Vo= mass flow rate/density of fluid

Density of fluid (ρfluid) = 521.686 kg/m3

Vo= 9292.92/521.686 m3/hr

Vo= 17.81 m3/hr

Putting it in above equation

Weight of the catalyst required (W) = 211.5 Kg

Therefore, Volume of the catalyst = W / ρcat = 211.5/ 658 = 0.3214 m3

Volume of the catalyst = .3214 m3

Weight of the catalyst = 211.5 kg

116 | P a g e
Catalyst Dimensions

Diameter of the catalyst = 5mm

Voidage = 55% - 60%

Let the voidage be 60 % = 0.60

Density of catalyst ρ = 573 kg/m3

Volume of the vessel = VB

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝐵
= 0.6

Putting VP = 0.3214 m3, we get

VB = 0.8035 m3

Diameter of the tube = 3 in = 0.0762 m

Length of the tube = 10 ft = 3.048 m

Volume of the tube = 0.01389 m3

No. of tubes = (0.8035 / 0.01389) = 57 tubes

Pitch (square) = 1.25 * O.D = 1.25 *3.50 = 4.37 in = 111.125 mm

Now, Do = Outer diameter = 3.5 in = 0.0889 m

DB = Bundle diameter =

DO (𝑁t / 𝐾1)1/n1

For square pitch, K1 = 0.215, n1 = 2.207

DB = 1.114m

Length of the reactor = 1.2*( Length of tube)

= 1.2*3.048

= 3.6576 m

117 | P a g e
Conditions of Fluidization:

1.75ρu2 150(1 − ε)uµ

𝑔(ρp − ρ) = +
ε3 dp ε3 d2p

Average molecular weight = 46 kg/mol

ρ = density of fluid = 521.686 kg/m3

Mass flow rate (G) = 9292.2 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rate (Vo) = G/ ρ = 9292.2/521.686 =17.812 m3/hr

Area = Nt x At = 0.2599 m2

Operating velocity = Vo/area =68.52 m/hr= 0.019 m/s

Where Vom = minimum velocity of fluidization

μ (viscosity of medium) = 0.223 cP

ε = 0.6 (assumed)

ϕs (sphericity of particle) = 1

dp(diameter of the particle) = 5 mm

ρp (density of particle) = 658 kg/m3

ρ (density of fluid) = 521.686 kg/m3

Therefore, Vom = 0.0384m/s

As operating velocity is less than minimum fluidization velocity (0.0384 m/s), fluidization
does not occur.

118 | P a g e
9-0-3 Conditions of fluidization

Temperature 310oC

Volume of the catalyst .3214 m3

Weight of the catalyst 211.5 kg

Volume of the vessel 0.8035 m3

Porosity of bed 0.6

Number of tubes 57

Pitch Square

Bundle diameter 1.114 m

Length of the reactor 3.6576 m

Minimum fluidization velocity 0.0384 m/s

Operating Velocity 0.019 m/s

119 | P a g e
120 | P a g e
121 | P a g e
DESIGN OF CONDENSER

To calculate the amount of Ammonia required:

Q = mCP ΔT = mλ

m = Q/ λ = 1350.575 * 103 /590 = 2289.11 kg/hr

The Ammonia required = 2289.11 kg/hr

To find the LMTD:

(40−(−33.86))−((−25)−(−33.86))
ΔTln= 40−(−33.86)
ln((−25)−(−33.86))

LMTD = 30.650C

To Calculate the Heat Transfer Area:

From the DQ Kern table 8 page 840 assume the heat transfer coefficient = 45 W/m2 K
Q= U A ΔTln
A = Q/U ΔTln = 1.138 m2

To Calculate the Number of Tubes:

Take the pipe to be a 16 BWG pipe with 0.75”

O.D. = 0.75” , I.D. = 0.62”=0.0157m , Length = 1 m ,
a = 0.0598 m2 /m
Number of tubes Nt = A/(a*L)
Nt = (1.138/(0.0598*1) = 19

To find the dimensions of the Shell:

From the table 9 (D.Q. Kern Page 842) triangular pitch 1”,

122 | P a g e
1-2 pass Heat Exchanger
Nt = 26 , Shell ID = 8 in = 20.32 cm
Corrected Heat transfer Area = 19 x 0.0598 x 1 = 1.1362 m2
Corrected Heat transfer coefficient = Uo = 45.0717 W/m2 K

Shell Side FTC:

Properties:
ρ = 757.21 kg/m3
μ=.388x 10-3 N-s/m2

k = 0.171 W/m2K
Cp=1.42 kJ/kg K
Assumption: Shell Dia is equal to tube bundle dia.
Pitch: Equilateral Triangular Pitch is used.
P' = standard pitch = 1 in = 25.4 mm.
pp = pitch parallel to flow = √3/4 P‟ = 21.997 mm
pn = pitch normal to flow = (1 / 2 ) P' = 12.7 mm
Sm = Cross flow area at center of shell = [(P' - Do)Ls]Ds / P'
Do= outer diameter of the tube = 0.75” =0.01905
Ls = baffle spacing = Ds / 2 = 0.1016 m
Nb = number of baffles
Nb + 1 = L / Ls = 9
Nb = 8
Sm = 0.0116 m2
Equivalent Diameter:
√3 2 1
𝑃 −2𝜋𝐷𝑜2
4 𝑇
𝐷𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷𝑂 = 9.33 x 10-3 m
4
Shell side velocity vs = ms / Sm ρ
= 8236.5 / 3600*0.0116 x 757.21
= 0.26047 m/sec
Reynolds Number NRe= vs De ρ/μ

123 | P a g e
= 0.26 x 9.33 x 10-3 x 757.21/(.388 x 10-3)
= 4734.12
Prandtl Number NPr = ρCpμ/K
= 757.21 x17.2 x .388 x 10-3 / 0.171
= 29.55
Nusselt Number NNu = jH (NPr)1/3 (From DQ Kern, Fig 28, Page No: 838 )
jH = 30
NNu = 92.7
Heat transfer coefficient ho = NNu K / Do
= 834.75 W/m2 K.

Tube Side FTC:

Properties:
ρ = 605Kg/m3

μ=2.38 x 10-4 N-s/m2

k = 0.02219 W/m2K
Cp = 0.028 KJ/Kg ºC
Flow Area at = π/ 4 x Di2 x(Nt / Np )
= π/ 4*0.01572*(26/2) = 2.5167m2
Velocity vt = ( mt /ρ at) = 0.635 / 605x 2.5167 x 10-3
= 0.417 m / sec
Reynolds Number NRe = vt Di ρ/μ
= 0.417 x 605 x 0.0157/ 2.388 x 10-4
= 16586.5
Prandtl Number NPr = ρCp μ /K = 605*0.028*2.388*10-4/0.02219 =0.1823
Nusselt Number NNu = 0.023 ( NRe)0.8 (NPr)1/3 =365.295
Heat transfer coefficient hi = NNu K / Di = 51.63 W/m2K.

Overall clean Heat Transfer Coefficient:

𝒉𝒊𝒐𝒉𝒐
UC =
𝒉𝒊𝒐+𝒉𝒐
124 | P a g e
Uc = 48.622 W/m2 K
Uc > U0 assumed
Therefore the above value of shell and tube dimension can be accepted

125 | P a g e
Chapter 10

COST ESTIMATION

Cost of acetaldehyde plant of capacity 150 TPD in 1971 is Rs. 7*108 [24,7].

Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index:

Cost index in 1971 = 132 [24]

Cost index in 2014(August) = 578.9 [24]

Thus, Present cost of Plant = (original cost) * (present cost index)/ (past cost index)

= (7*108) * (578.9/132) = Rs. 30.6992*108

i.e., Fixed Capital Cost (FCI) = Rs. 30.6992*108

ESTI MATION OF TOTAL CAPI TAL I NVESTMENT:

1. Direct Costs: material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility

(70-85% of fixed-capital investment)

A) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +

Painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)

1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed-capital

investment) Consider purchased equipment cost = 25% of

Fixed-capital investment i.e., PEC = 25% of 30.6992*108 =

0.25*30.6992*108 = Rs. 7.6748*108

126 | P a g e
 2. Installation, including insulation and painting:

(25-55% of purchased equipment cost.)

Consider the Installation cost = 40% of Purchased equipment cost

40% of 7.6748*108 = 0.40 *7.6748*108 = Rs.3.0699*108

3. Instrumentation and controls, installed:

(6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.)

Consider the installation cost = 15% of Purchased equipment cost

15% of 7.6748x108 = 0.15 *7.6748*108 = Rs. 1.1512*108

4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment

cost) Consider the piping cost = 40%
Purchased equipment cost

=40% of 7.6748*108 = 0.40 *7.6748*108

=Rs. 3.0699*108

5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment

cost)
Consider Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost

= 25% of 7.6748*108 = 0.25 *7.6748*108 = Rs.1.9187*108

127 | P a g e
 Hence total cost (PEC + Installation + Instrumentation and controls+ Piping
+ Electrical) =16.8845*108 Rs= 54.99% of FCI

B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost) Consider

Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 40% of PEC

= 40% of 7.6748*108 = 0.40 *7.6748*108 = Rs. 3.0699*108

C. Service facilities and yard improvement: (40-100% of Purchased equipment cost) Consider
the cost of service facilities and yard improvement = 65% of PEC

= 65% of 7.6748*108= 0.65 *7.6748*108 = Rs. 4.9886*108

D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment

cost) Consider the cost of land = 5% of PEC = 5% of 7.6748*108 = 0.05

*7.6748*108

= Rs. 0.38374*108

Thus, Direct cost = Rs. 25.3267*108 = (82.49% of FCI)

II.Indirect costs: Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of
actual installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)

A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)

Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 15% of Direct costs

i.e., cost of engineering and supervision = 15% of 25.3267*108

=0.15*25.3267*108 = Rs. 3.7990*108

B. Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee: (6-30% of direct costs)

128 | P a g e
 Consider the construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10% of
Direct costs i.e., construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10%

of 25.3267*108

=0.1*25.3267*108 = Rs. 2.5326*108

C. Contingency: (5-15% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the contingency cost = 10% of Fixed-capital investment

i.e., Contingency cost = 10% of 30.6992*108 = 0.10 * 30.6992*108

= Rs. 3.0699*108

Thus, Indirect Costs = Rs. 9.4015*108 =30.6 % of FCI

III. Fixed Capital Investment:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs

= (25.3267*108) + (9.4015*108)
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 34.7282*108

IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital
investment

i.e., Working capital = 15% of 34.7282*108 = 0.15 * 34.7282*108

= Rs. 4.3192*108

129 | P a g e
 V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital

= (34.7282*108) + (4.3192*108)
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 39.0474*108

ESTI MATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant

overhead cost.

A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)

i) Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method

of calculation-about 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment, and
2-3% for Building Value for Buildings)

Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment, and 3% for
Building Value for Buildings)

i.e., Depreciation = (0.10*30.6992*108) + (0.03*30.6992*108)

= Rs. 3.9909*108

ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the local taxes = 4% of fixed capital

investment i.e. Local Taxes = 0.04*30.6992*108 =

Rs. 1.2279*108

iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

130 | P a g e
 Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital

investment i.e. Insurance = 0.006*30.6992*108 =

Rs. 0.1842*108

iv. Rent: (8-12% fixed capital investment )

Consider rent = 10% of fixed capital
investment

= 10% of 30.6992*108

= 0.10* 30.6992*108

Rent = Rs. 3.0699*108

Thus, Fixed Charges = Rs. 8.4729*108

B. Direct Production Cost:

Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges –(given)

Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost

Total product cost = fixed charges/15%

= 8.4729*108/15%

= 8.4729*108/0.15

Therefore, total product cost (TPC) = Rs. 56.486*108

i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of raw materials = 30% of total product cost

131 | P a g e
 Raw material cost = 30% of 56.4860*108 = 0.30*56.486*108

Raw material cost = Rs. 16.9458*108

ii. Operating Labor (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of operating labor = 15% of total product cost

Operating labor cost = 15% of 56.486*108 = 0.15*56.486*108

Operating labor cost = Rs. 8.4729*108

iii.Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL)

Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labor = 12% of
OL

Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost = 12% of 8.4729*108

= 0.12*8.4729*108

Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost = Rs. 1.01675*108

iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 15% of total product cost

Utilities cost= 15% of 56.486*108= 0.15*56.486*108

Utilities cost = Rs. 8.4729*108

iv. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital

investment i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05*30.6992*10 8 = Rs.

1.5349*108

132 | P a g e
 v. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R

Operating supplies cost = 15% of 1.5349*108 = 0.15 *1.5349*108

Operating supplies cost = Rs. 0.2302*108

vii Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL

Laboratory charges = 15% of 8.4729*108= 0.15*8.4729*108

Laboratory charges = Rs. 1.2709*108

viii. Patent and Royalties: (2-6% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 5% of total product cost

Patent and Royalties = 5% of 56.486*108 = 0.05*56.486*108

Patent and Royalties cost = Rs. 2.8243*108

Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs.40.7686*108

C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labor, supervision, and maintenance or 5-

15% of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and
overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and protection,
restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.

Consider the plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R

133 | P a g e
 Plant overhead cost = 60% of ((8.4729*108) + (1.0167*108) + (1.5349*108)) Plant

overhead cost = 0.60 * ((8.4729*108) + (1.0167*108) + (1.5349*108)) Plant overhead cost

= Rs. 6.6147*108

Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.

Manufacture cost = 40.7686*108 + (8.4729*108) + 6.6147*108

Manufacture cost = Rs. 55.8562*108

II General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and
development costs

A. Administrative costs :( 40-60% of operating labor)

Consider the Administrative costs = 50% of operating labor

Administrative costs = 0.5 * 8.4729*108

Administrative costs = Rs. 4.2365*108

B. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); Includes

costs for sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.

Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 10% of total product cost Distribution and selling

costs = 10% of 56.486*108

Distribution and selling costs = 0.1 * 56.486*108

Distribution and Selling costs = Rs. 5.6486*108

C. Research and Development costs: (about 3% of total product cost) Consider the Research
134 | P a g e
and development costs = 3% of total product cost Research and Development costs = 3% of

56.486*108

Research and development costs = 0.03 * 56.486*108

Research and Development costs = Rs. 1.6946*108

Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 11.5797*108

III. Total Production cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses

= (55.8562*108) + (11.5797*108)

Total production Cost = Rs. 67.4359*108

135 | P a g e
PROFITABILITY ANALY SIS

GROSS EARNI NGS/I NCOME:

Selling Price of acetaldehyde per kg = 3$ = 3*62= Rs. 186

Total Income = Selling price * Quantity of product manufactured

= 186 * (150*103 /day) * (300 days/year)

Total Income = Rs. 83.7 * 108

Gross income= Total Income – Total Production Cost

= (83.7*108) – (67.4359*108)

Gross Income = Rs. 16.2641*108

Let the Tax rate be 45% (common) Taxes = 45% of Gross income

= 45% of 16.2641*108 = 0.45*16.2641*108

Taxes = Rs. 7.318845*108

Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income* (1- Tax rate) Net

profit =16.2641*108*(1-0.45) = Rs. 8.945255*108

RATE OF RETURN:

Rate of return = Net profit*100/Total Capital Investment

= 8.945255*108/ (39.0474*108)

Therefore, Rate of Return = 0.229 = 22.9%

PAYBACK PERIOD

136 | P a g e
Payback period is the duration of time in which the fixed capital investment made

in the industry at the beginning is recovered through annual net profits (and depreciation

claims). All revenue made after this time gives rise to a net positive cash flow in the

industry.

Payback Period = Fixed Capital Investment / (Net Profit + Depreciation)

= 34.7282*108/ ( 8.945255*108+ 3.9909*108) = 2.68 years

BRE AK-EVEN ANALYSI S

Let plant operate at ‘x’ fraction of its capacity which is its Break-Even Point (BEP) of

Zero profit.

Revenue at BEP = ₹ 186*150,000*300*x = ₹ 83.7*108* x

Total fixed costs = fixed cost + overhead + general expenses

= ₹ 8.4729*108 + ₹ 6.6147*108 + ₹11.5797*108

= ₹ 26.6673*108

Total direct costs = ₹ 40.7686*108(at full capacity)

Direct costs at BEP = ₹ 40.7686*108 * x

At break-even point:

137 | P a g e
Revenue at BEP = Total fixed costs + Direct costs at BEP

(83.7*108 * x) = (26.6673*108) + (40.7686*108 * x)

On solving, we get, x = 0.6211 = 62.11%

In terms of quantity, BEP = 0.6211 * 45 KTA = 27.9495 KTA

Plant must operate at a minimum of 62.11% of its capacity to break-even.

138 | P a g e
CHAPTER
PLANT LOCATION AND LAY OUT

The Geographical Location of the Plant can have a crucial effect on the Profitability of a
Project and the Scope for Future Expansion. Considerable care must be exercised in
selecting the plant site and many different factors must be considered. Primarily, the
plant should be located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be
obtained, but other factors, such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for
expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding
community are also important.

A general consensus as to the plant location should be obtained before a design

project reaches the detailed estimate stage, and a firm location should be established
upon completion of the detailed-estimate design. The choice of the final site should first
be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various
geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of available
real estate. The Principal factors to be considered in selecting a plant site are:

1. Location, with respect to the Marketing Area.

2. Raw Material.

3. Transport Facilities.

4. Availability Of Labour.

5. Energy availability

6. Water supply

7. Site characteristics.

8. Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal.

139 | P a g e
9. Local Community Considerations.

10. Climate.

11. Flood and fire protection.

1. Marketing Area:

The location of markets affects the cost of product distribution and the time
required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in the
selection of a plant site , because the buyer usually finds it advantageous to purchase
from nearby sources. It should be noted that markets are needed for by-products as well
as for major final products.

2. Raw Materials:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the Site
Location. Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the
major raw material, because this permits considerable reduction in transportation and
storage charges. Attention should be given to the purchased price of the raw materials,
distance from the source of supply, freight or transportation expenses, availability and
reliability of supply, purity of the raw materials.

3. Transport:

The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. A Site should be selected that is close to at least two Major
forms of transport: Road, Rail, Waterway or a Seaport. Road Transport is being
increasingly used and is suitable for Local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail
transport will be cheaper for the Long-Distance transport of bulk chemicals.

Air Transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and

140 | P a g e
essential equipment and supplies, and the proximity of the site to a major airport should
be considered.

4. Availability of Labour:

Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. There
should be an adequate pool of skilled Labour available locally. Skilled tradesmen will be
needed for plant maintenance. Consideration should be given to prevailing pay scales,
restrictions on number of hours worked per week, competing industries that can cause
dissatisfaction or high turnover rates among the workers.

5. Energy availability:

Power and heat requirements are high in most industrial plants, and fuel is
ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be
combined as one major factor in the choice of a plant site. Electrolytic processes require
a cheap source of electricity, and plants using electrolytic processes are often located
near large hydroelectric installations. If the plant requires large quantities of coal or oil,
location near a source of fuel supply may be essential for economic operation. The local
cost of power can help determine whether power should be purchased or self-
generated.

6. Water supply:

The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing, steam
generation, and as a raw material. The plant, therefore, must be located where a
dependable supply of water is available. A large river or lake is preferable, although
deep wells may be satisfactory if the amount of water required is not too great. The
level of the existing water table can be checked by consulting the state geological
survey, and the information on the constancy of the water table and the year –
round capacity of local rivers or lakes should be obtained. If the water supply shows

141 | P a g e
 seasonal fluctuations, it may be desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several
standby wells. The temperature, material content, and cost for supply and
purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply.

7. Site characteristics:

The characteristics of the land at a proposed plant site should be examined

carefully. The topography of the tract of land and the soil structure must be considered,
since either or both may have a pronounced effect on construction costs. The cost of the
land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes
may make it desirable or necessary to expand plant facilities. Therefore, even though no
immediate expansion is planned, a new plant should be constructed at a location where
additional space is available.

8. Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal:

All Industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be
given to the difficulties and Cost of their disposal. In recent years, many legal restrictions
have been placed on the methods for disposing of materials from the process industries.
The site selected for a plant should have adequate capacity and facilities for waste
disposal. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various methods of
waste disposal should be considered carefully, and attention should be given to
potential requirements for additional waste – treatment facilities.

9. Local Community Considerations:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community.
Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not
impose a significant additional risk to the Community.

142 | P a g e
10. Climate:

Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Abnormally Low Temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and
Piping. Stronger Equipments will be needed at locations subjected to high wind loads or
Earthquakes. Special cooling towers or air – conditioning equipment may be required if
the temperatures are high. Excessive humidity or extremes of hot or cold weather can
effect on economic operation of a plant, and these factors should be examined when
selecting a plant site.

11. Flood and Fire protection:

Many industrial plants are located along rivers or large water bodies of water,
and there are risks of flood and hurricane damage. Before selecting a plant site, the
regional history of natural events of this type should be examined and the
consequences of such occurrences considered.

Protection from losses by fire is another important factor in selecting a plant location.
In case of a major fire, assistance from outside fire departments should be available.
Fire hazards in the immediate area surrounding the plant site must not be overlooked.

12. Political and Strategic Considerations:

Capital Grants, Governments often give tax concessions, and other inducements
to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high Unemployment.
The availability of Such Grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

13. Costs:

The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the
shortest run of connecting pipe between equipment, and at least amount of structural
steel work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.

143 | P a g e
14. Process requirements:

An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need
to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump or the operating head for a thermosyphon reboiler.

15. Operations:

Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient

to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at
convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.

16. Maintenance:

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent
replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large
pumps, should be places under cover.

17. Safety:

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and

confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be
provided from each level in process buildings.

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18. Plant expansion:

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any

future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and
service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.

19. Modular construction:

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.

The advantages of modular construction are:

 Improved quality control.

 Reduced construction cost.
 Less need for skilled labour on site.

Some of the disadvantages are:

 Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

 More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.

PLANT LAYOUT:

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. Since each
plant differs in many ways and no two plant sites are exactly alike, there is no one ideal
plant layout. However, proper layout in each case will include arrangement of
processing areas, storage areas, handling areas in efficient coordination and with regard
to such factors as:

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New site development or addition to previously developed site

Type and quantity of products to be produced

Type of process and product control

Operational convenience and accessibility.

Economic distribution of utilities and services.

Type of buildings and building- code requirements.

Health and safety considerations

Waste disposal requirements

Auxiliary equipment

Space available and space required.

Roads and railroads

Possible future Expansion

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 Figure 12.1 Plant
Layout

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 Chapter 13

POLLUTION AND SAFETY IN PROCESS INDUSTRI ES

Health and safety factors:

Exposure Routes: inhalation, ingestion, skin contact and eye contact.

Symptoms: irritation eyes, skin, upper respiratory system, coughing, burning sensation,
headaches, and stupefaction

First aid:

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately
flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Warm
water must be used. Get medical attention immediately.

Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention immediately.

Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin
with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention.

Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.

Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight
clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen.
If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Warning: It may be hazardous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth

resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic, infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate
medical attention.

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The main toxic effect of acetaldehyde is irritation of the skin and mucous membrane.
Anesthesia is the dominant effect of acetaldehyde. As an example, paraldehyde
(acetaldehyde trimer) is an extremely safe hypnotic, but its objectionable odour and
taste have restricted its use.

One of the main products of the photooxidation of acetaldehyde is peroxyacetyl nitrate

(PAN). Airborne acetaldehyde in the presence of nitrogen oxides can be converted to
PAN which is a strong eye irritant and plant toxicant.

The maximum allowable concentration in air has been set at 200 ppm. There have not
been any published reports of severe injury from the use of acetaldehyde, and one can
conclude that in handling acetaldehyde if logical safety precautions are taken. Mixtures
of acetaldehyde vapours with air are flammable if the concentration of acetaldehyde
and oxygen are higher than 4 and 9%, respectively.

Flammability

Flammability is determined by the flash point of a material. Flash point is the minimum
temperature at which a liquid forms a vapor above its surface in sufficient concentration
that it can be ignited. Flammable liquids have a flash point of less than 100°F.

The vapour burns, not the liquid itself. The rate at which a liquid produces flammable
vapours depends upon its vapor pressure.

The vaporization rate increases as the temperature increases. Therefore, flammable and
combustible liquids are more hazardous at elevated temperatures than at room
temperature

Acetaldehyde is very volatile, has a low flash point, oxidizes readily, and may form highly
explosive peroxides.

According to National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) hazard classifications for

flammable and combustible liquids acetaldehyde is a Class 1 Flammable Liquid

(Flash point: below 73°F (23°C) and Boiling point: below 100°F (38°C))

Handling:

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In handling acetaldehyde, one has to remember that it is an extremely reactive
compound that can easily oxidized, reduced, or polymerized, and us highly reactive with
oxygen. It has to be treated as a volatile, flammable (flashpoint <100°F), and toxic
material. The following is a list of precautions recommended when handling
acetaldehyde:

1. Nitrogen or other inert gases should be used as a blanketing material whenever

exposure to air is a possibility.

2. Safety goggles should be used.

3. Transfers should be made in open air structures or using suitable gas mask or self

contained breathing equipment if necessary.

4. Drums should be stored out of doors, avoiding direct exposure to sunlight and

5. Acetaldehyde should be chilled before transferring and a nitrogen blanket should

be used.

6. Acetaldehyde (Class 1 Flammable Liquids) must be bonded and grounded when

transferring liquids

Shipping and storage:

Acetaldehyde is shipped in 5-10, or 55-gal drums, insulated tank trucks, and insulated
tank cars. Acetaldehyde in the liquid state is noncorrosive to most metals, but it can
easily be oxidized to acetic acid, especially in the vapour phase. Suitable materials of

construction are stainless steel and aluminium. Drums coated with phenolic resins have
also been used. If a darker colour and some iron contamination are not objectionable,
carbon steel may be used. Because acetaldehyde classified has a flammable liquid, it
requires a red DOT (Department Of Transportation) shipping lable. Bulk storage held at
low temperature and pressure is recommended over storage

in pressure vessel.

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 REFERENCES

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[16]. Selective Oxidation/Dehydrogenation Reactions, Biomass Processing over Gold Catalysts ,
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[24] Cost estimation data, http://www.cheresources.com.

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