UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

COURSE CODE: CEC107

YEAR I- SE MESTER I

THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
 CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTORY FLUID MECHANICS (CEC 107)

COURSE CONTENTS

WEEK 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Elements of fluid mechanics

1.2 Fluids classification
1.3 Deformation by shearing forces
1.4 Differences between fluids and solids

PRACTICAL
Application of specific energy momentum function

WEEK 2
1.5 Behaviour of liquid and gas in a container
1.6 Molecular structure of material
1.7 Properties of fluids
1.8 Behaviour of fluids at rest

PRACTICAL
Continuation of practical in week one

WEEK 3
2.0 FLUID STATICS

2.1 Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid with

gravity
2.2 Pressure and head
2.3 Measurement of pressure using manometer

PRACTICAL
Flow over weirs

1
WEEK 4
2.4 Measurement of pressure difference
2.5 Inverted U-tube manometer
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of U-tube
Manometer

PRACTICAL
Continuation of the practical in week three

WEEK 5
2.7 Calculations of pressure

PRACTICAL
Diffusion of gas

WEEK 6 3.0 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLES

3.1 Hydraulic press

3.2 Pressure diagram
3.3 Buoyancy of floating bodies
3.4 Equilibrium of floating bodies

PRACTICAL
Applying the momentum flow on a jet of water
striking flat plate

WEEK 7 4.0 FLOW IN PIPES

4.1 Fluid in motion

4.2 Uniform and steady flow
4.3 Rate of flow
4.4 Continuity equation

PRACTICAL
Minor losses in pipes

WEEK 8 4.5 Calculations on rate of flow

PRACTICAL

2
 Site visit to Gurara Dam to see pipe laying

WEEK 9 5.0 FLOW MEASURING EQUIPMENTS

5.1 Bernoulli’s equation

5.2 Pitot tube

PRACTICAL
Site visit to Kangimi Dam to see different types of
weirs

WEEK 10
5.3 Venturimeter
5.4 Flow through notches and weirs

PRACTICAL
Site visit to a site where construction of open drain is
In progress

WEEK 11 6.0 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

6.1 Reynolds’ dye experiment

6.2 Reynolds’ number

PRACTICAL
Experiment on Reynolds' dye

WEEK 12
6.3 Calculations on Reynolds’ number
6.4 Chezy’s formula

PRACTICAL
Visit to irrigation sites to see water pumps

WEEK 13 7.0 HEAD LOSS IN PIPES

7.1 Head loss due to friction in pipes

7.2 Calculations on head loss

3
 PRACTICAL
Visit to Malali treatment plant to see more pumps

WEEK 14 8.0 OPEN CHANNELS

8.1 Flow in open channels

8.2 Uniform and non-uniform flow

PRACTICAL
Visit to Barnawa water treatment plant to see more
pumps

WEEK 15 9.0 PUMPS AND TURBINES

9.1 Pumps
9.2 Matching pumps with systems
9.3 Pumps classification
9.4 Turbines

PRACTICAL
Second visit to Gurara Dam to see turbine

4
 WEEK 1
1.0 INTRODUCTIOIN

The students were introduced to the subject with a general revision on what they

learnt in ordinary level physics, especially what has to do with applied mechanics.

These include definitions such as: Atom, molecules, matter, force,

upthrust/buoyancy, etc. Others include laws, such as Newton’s law on motion,

Pascal laws, and Archimedes principles.

In the same week, the main course introductory fluid mechanics was introduced

after the lectures the following notes were given to students:

1.1 Elements of fluid mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the branch of applied mechanics which is mainly concerned with

the statics and dynamics of liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of

fluids is based upon the fundamental laws of applied mechanics which relates to the

conservation of mass-energy and the force momentum equation. However there is

need to understand that there are two major aspects of fluid mechanics which differ

from solid-body mechanics. The first aspect is the one that has to do with the nature

and properties of the fluid itself, which are very different from those of a solid. As

for the second aspect, it is clear that instead of dealing with individual bodies or

elements of known mass, in this case we are frequently concerned with the behavior

of a continuous stream of fluid. Again, we are confronted with a problem in that it

can be extremely difficult to specify either the precise movement of a stream of a

fluid or that of individual particles within it. Therefore for the purpose of theoretical

analysis, it is necessary to assume ideal, simplified conditions and patterns of flow.

Appropriate coefficients and factors determined experimentally should be

5
introduced in order to make the results obtained in the calculations reliable and

acceptable. The results obtained will provide basis for the design of fluid systems.

This kind of approach has proved to be reasonably satisfactory provided the

theoretical analysis usually establishes the form of the relationship between the

variables.

1.2 Fluids classification

Scientifically speaking, three states of matters are recognized. They are: solids,

liquids and gas. Although the three are different in many aspects, however liquids

and gas have common characteristics in which they differ from solids. They are

fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer permanent resistance to a deforming

force. Fluids flow under the action of such forces deforming continuously as long as

the force is applied. A fluid is unable to retain any unsupported shape; it flows

under its own weight and takes the shape of any solid body with which it comes

into contact.

1.3 Deformation by shearing forces

B B1 C C1
F

X
E

F
A D

Fig 1 Effect of deformation

6
The type of deformation shown above is caused by shearing forces i.e. force such as

F which act tangentially to the surfaces to which they are applied and cause the

material originally occupying the space ABCD to deform to AB'C'D as shown in

the figure.

In view of the above, it is easy to define a fluid as a substance which deforms

continuously under the action of shearing forces, however small they may be. And

if fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in

the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.

1.4 Differences between fluids and solids

These are some of the differences between the behaviours of fluids and solids under

an applied force:

For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, provided that the

elastic limit is not exceeded. But for a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the

applied stress.

The strain in a solid is independent of time over which the force is applied

and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded the deformation disappears when the force is

removed. A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force is applied and will not

recover its original form when the force is removed.

7
 WEEK 2

1.5 Behaviour of liquid and gas in a container

At the beginning of this week, before we continue students were asked questions

on what we did last week so as to make sure they understand the previous

lectures. Then a lecture on the behaviou of liquid and gas, properties of fluids and

variation of pressure vertically in a fluid was presented and the following are the

notes given to the students:

Even though liquid and gas both share common characteristics of fluids, they

have distinctive things of their own. For example, a liquid is difficult to compress

and for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of

liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container

and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of

the liquid, as shown below:

free surface

LIQUID
Fig.2 Liquid in a container

As for gas, it is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with

pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of

temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand

continuously unless restrained by a container. Therefore it will completely full

8
 any container in which it is placed hence it does not form a free surface as shown

below:

GAS

Fig. 2.1 Gas in a container

1.6 Molecular structure of material

Solids, liquids and gas are all composed of molecules in continuous motion.

However, the management of these molecules and the space between them differs,

giving rise to the characteristic properties of the three different states of matter. In

solids, the molecules are densely and regularly packed and movement is slight, each

molecule being restrained by its neighbours. In liquids, the structure is looser,

individual molecules have greater freedom of movement and, although restrained to

some degree by the surrounding molecules, can break away from this restraint,

causing a change in structure. In gases, there is no formal structure, the spaces

between molecules are large and the molecules can move freely. The molecules of a

substance exert forces on each other which vary with their inter-molecular distance.

Consider, for simplicity, a monatomic substance in which each molecule consists of

a single atom. An idea of the nature of the forces acting may be formed from

observing the behaviour of such a substance and making the following conclusions:

9
  if the two pieces of the same materials are far apart, there is no detachable

force exerted between them. Thus, the forces between molecules are

negligible when widely separated and tend to zero as the separation tends

towards infinity.

 Two pieces of the same material can be made to weld together if they are

forced into very close contact. Under these conditions, the forces between

the molecules are attractive when the separation is very small.

 Very large forces are required to compress solids or liquids, indicating that

a repulsive force between the molecules must be overcome to reduce the

spacing between them.

1.7 Properties of fluids

1) Density: The density (ρ) of a liquid is its mass per unit volume

i.e. D = M For water ρ is 1000 kg / m3.

V

2) Specific weight W of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume.

Since weight is dependent on gravitational attraction, the specific weight will

vary from point to point according to the local value of gravitational

acceleration ‘g’.

3) Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear stress.

It arises from the interaction of fluid molecules. It follows therefore that there can

be no shear stress in a fluid which is at rest. A fluid at rest cannot resist shearing

forces, and, if such forces act on a fluid which is in contact with a solid boundary,

the fluid will flow over the boundary in such a way that the particles immediately

in contact with the boundary have the same velocity as the boundary, while

10
 successive layers of fluid parallel to the boundary move with increasing

velocities.

4) Surface tension

Even though all molecules are in constant motion, on average, a molecule within

the body of the liquid is attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules

surrounding it. But at the surface between liquid and air, or the interface between

one substance and another, the upward and downward attractions are unbalanced

with the surface molecules being pulled inward towards the bulk of the liquid. This

effect causes the liquid surface to behave as if it were an elastic membrane under

tension. The surface tension σ is measured as the force acting across unit length of a

line drawn on the surface. It acts in the plane surface, normal to any line in the

surface, and is the same at all points. Surface tension is constant at any given

temperature but it decreases with increasing temperature. The effect of surface

tension is to reduce the surface of a free body of liquid to a minimum, since to

expand the surface area, molecules have to be brought to the surface from the bulk

of the liquid against the unbalanced attraction pulling the surface molecules

inwards. For this reason, drop of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in order to

minimize surface area. For such a small droplet surface tension will cause an

increase in internal pressure in order to balance the surface force. In a more

practical term, surface tension can be described as a physical property which

enable a drop of water to be held in suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with a

liquid slightly above the brim and yet not spill.

5) Capillarity

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If a fine tube open at both ends, is lowered into a liquid which wets the tube (e.g.

water), the water surface in that tube or meniscus as it is called is concave

upwards as shown below:

Water

Fig 2.2a Capillarity using water

If the liquid does not wet tube (like mercury), the level of the liquid in the tube

will be depressed below the level of the free surface outside (convex) as shown

below:

Mercury
12
 Fig. 2.2b Capillarity using mercury

1.8 Behaviour of fluid at rest

A fluid is said to be at rest, when it is lying in one place and it is not moving. In
other words, it is static. If any force is exerted on any particle, within the fluid, is
the same in all directions. However, if the applied forces were unequal (some are
greater than others), the particles within the fluid would move in the direction of
the resultant force. This means that the force per unit area, exerted by the fluid
against the wall of an arbitrarily shaped containing vessel, is perpendicular to the
interior walls at every point. If the pressure were not perpendicular, an unbalanced
tangential force component would exist and the fluid would move along the wall.
This is what Pascal tried to verify in what is known as Pascal’s law.

Fig 2.3a Fig. 2.23b Fig.2.3c

Fig.2.3 Behaviour of fluid at same depth

The above figure has shown three different situations at the same depth, even

though they differ in how they are located. For example, fig2.3c shows the bottom

13
of a pond, while fig.2.3b and fig.2.3a shows pipes though of equal length and

diameter, but one is standing upright while the other is tilted. But despite these

differences in either shape or location, the fact is that the pressure exerted by

water at the bottom of a pond in fig.2.3c, will be the same as the pressure exerted

by water at the bottom of the straight pipe in fig.2.3b (even though it is narrower

than the pond), since their depth is the same. The same thing occur in fig.2.3a

even though the pipe is tilted but it lie at the same depth with the one in fig.2.3b,

its water will exert the same pressure as in fig. 2.3b. From this explanation, it is

now clear that the pressure at the bottom of a pipe which is 20 m in height is the

same within all the three figures

14
 WEEK 3

FLUID STATICS

This week the students were told to ask any question on the previous topic, before

starting this new topic. After answering questions from students, lecture was

delivered and the following are the notes given to them for this week:

2.1Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under gravity

Area P2
A

Mass density Z2
of fluid ρ

Z1

P1

Fig. 3 Pressure variation

The above figure shows an element of fluid consisting of a vertical column of

constant cross-sectional area A and is also totally surrounded by the same fluid of

mass density ρ. Assuming the pressure to be p1 on the under side at level z1 and p2

on the top at level z2. Since the fluid is at rest the element must be in equilibrium

and the sum of all the vertical forces must be zero. Now, since the fluid is at rest,

there can be no shear forces and therefore no vertical force acting on the side of the

15
element due to surrounding fluid. This in a fluid under gravitational attraction,

pressure decrease s with increase in height z. The forces acting are:

Forces due to p1 on area A acting up = p1A

Forces due to p2 on area A acting down = p2A

Force due to weight of the element = m x g

2.2 Pressure and head

P atm

Liquid
density
h e

P
X

Fig. 3.1 Relationships between pressure and head

In a liquid, the pressure P at any depth, say z, measured downward from the free

surface so that z = - h, will be : P = ρ g h + constant. But since the pressure at the

free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure ρ atm therefore P will be : ρ g h

+ Pa tm. It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum. Therefore

taking P atm as zero we get: P = ρ g h

2.3 Measurement of pressure using manometer

h1 h2

16
 Fig. 3.2 Piezometer

The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement
in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or
piezometer as shown above.
To get the pressure at A:
Pressure due to the column of liquid of height h1 =. PA = ρg h1
Similarly pressure at B, will be : PB = ρ g h2
The U – tube gauge manometer shown below can be used to measure the pressure
of either liquid or gas. h1

Fluid P,
mass density D Liquid Q, mass
e
density ℓ man

A
h2

B
C

Fig.3.3 U-tube manometer

The bottom of the U –tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater

density ρ man and is immiscible with the fluid P, of density ρ, whose pressure is to

be measured. If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is a point

at the same level in the right hand limb, then:

Pressure at B, PB = Pressure at C, PC

For the left hand limb, PB will be:

Pressure at A, PA + Pressure due to h1 of the fluid P = PA + ρ g h1

17
For the right hand limb, PC will be:

Pressure at D, PD + Pressure due to depth h2 of the liquid Q

= PD + ρ man g h2

But PD = Atmospheric pressure = 0

∴PC = 0 + ρ man g h2

Since PB = PB

PA + ρ g h1 = ρ man g h2

∴ PA = ρ man g h2 – ρ g h1

18
 WEEK 4

2.4 Measurement of pressure difference

Having learn how to use pressure using a U- tube manometer, this week the

lecture goes further to show how pressure difference and be calculated and an

inverted manometer can be used to calculate pressure. The notes are as follows:

A U- tube gauge is arranged to measure the pressure difference between two

points in a pipeline. As we have seen earlier, the principle involved in calculating

the pressure difference is that the pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs

must be the same since the fluid in the bottom of the U- tube is at rest: as shown

below:

B
A
Fluid P of density ℓ

b
a
h
C D

Manometric liquid Q
of density ℓ man

Fig. 4 U-tube manometer

For the left hand limb: PC = PA + ρ g a

For the right hand limb: PD = PB + ρ g (b – h) + ρ man g h

Since PC = PD

19
PA + ρ g a = PB + ρ g (b – h) +ρ man g h

Pressure difference = PA – PB = ρ g (b-a) + h g (ρ man - ρ)

2.5 Inverted U-tube manometer

Fluid density ℓ man

X X
h
Liquid density ℓ

b
a
B

Fig. 4.1 Inverted manometer

The above figure is showing an inverted U- tube manometer which is used for

measuring pressure differences in liquids. The top of the U- tube is filled with a

fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that connected to the instrument.

Since the fluid in the top is at rest, pressures at level XX will be the same in both

limbs.

For the left hand limb: PXX = PA – ρ g a – ρ man g h

For the right hand limb: PXX = PB – ρ g (b+h)

Thus, PB – PA = ρ g (b-a) + g h (ρ – ρ man)

If A and B are at the same level, PB – PA = g h (ρ – ρ man)

20
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of a manometer

In its various forms, manometer is an extremely useful type of pressure gauge,

even though it suffers from a number of limitations. While it can be used to

measure very small pressure differences, it can however not be used conveniently

for large pressure differences- although it is possible to connect a number of

manometers in series and to use mercury as the manometric fluid in order to

improve the range. A manometer does not have to be calibrated from first

principles. However, for accurate work, the temperature should be known since

this will affect the density of the fluids. Some liquids are unsuitable for the use

because they do not form well defined menisci. Surface tension can also cause

error due to capillary rise, this can be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are

sufficiently large- preferably not less than 15 mm diameter. It is difficult to

correct for surface tension, since its effect will depend upon whether the tubes are

clean. A major disadvantage of manometer is its slow response, which makes its

unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures. Even under comparatively static

conditions, slight fluctuations of pressure can make the liquid in the manometer to

oscillate, so that it is difficult to get a precise reading of the levels of the liquid in

the gauge. These oscillations can however be reduced by putting restrictions in

the manometer connections.

21
 WEEK 5

2.7 Calculations of pressure

In this week, the students were introduced to calculations on pressure. The

following are among the problems we solved together with the students in the class:

Exercise 1: A cylindrical storage tank contains oil of density 800 kg/ m3 to a height

of 1.5 m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom of the tank. Give answer in k

N/ m3 . Take g = 9.81

Solution: P = ρ g h

= 800 x 9.81 x 1.5 = 1177.2 N / m2

∴ P = 11.8 k N / m2

Exercise 2: A storage tank of 10 m diameter and a height of 25 m contain a liquid

at a height of 20 m. Calculate the pressure in k N /m2 exerted on the base of the

tank. Take the density of the fluid to be 780 kg /m3, and g to be 9.81.

Solution: P = ρ g h

= 780 x 9.81 x 20
1000

= 15.3 k N / m2

Exercise 3: What will be a) the gauge pressure (b) the absolute pressure of water

at a depth of 12 m below the free surface. Assume the density of water to be 1000

kg / m3 and the atmospheric pressure 101 k N / m2.

Solution: a) Pressure P = ρ g h

= 1000 x 9.81 x 12

= 117.72 x 103

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= 117.72 x 103
1000

= 117.72 k N / m2

b) Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

= 117.72 + 101 = 218.72 k N / m2

Exercise 3: Determine the pressure in N / m2 at (a) a depth 6 m below the free

surface of a body of water and (b) at a depth 9 m below the free surface of a body

of oil of specific gravity 0.75.

Solution: a) Pressure P = ρ g h =103 x 9.81 x 6 = 58.9 x 103 N / m2

b) P = ρ g h = 103 x 0.75 x 9 = 6.8 x 103 N / m2

23
 WEEK 6
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLES

In this week, we continued the calculations and pressure diagram as follows:

Exercise 4: A pressure was applied to one limb of a mercury filled U- tube

manometer and the level difference was found to be 254 mm. Calculate the value

of the applied pressure. Density of mercury is 13600 kg / m3.

Solution: P= ρ g h = 13600 x 0.254 x 9.81

= 33887.6 N / m2

= 33.9 k N / m2

Exercise 5: A mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a

pipe. If the mercury liquid Q is 30 cm below A in the left hand limb and 20 cm

above A in the right hand limb, what will be the pressure at A. The specific

gravity of mercury is 13.6

Solution: PA = ρ man x g x h2 - ρ g h1

= 13.6 x 9.81 x 0.5 – 1 x 9.81 x 0.3

∴PA = 63.8 k N / m2

3.1 Hydraulic press

HYDRAULIC PRESS

P W

Area A
Area
a

P1 P2

24
 Fig. 6.1 Hydraulic press

P (force) = Piston

A =area of small piston

A = area of large piston

W = load in the large piston

∴p1 = P
A

p2 = W
A
Exercise 6: What force will be applied at piston A to lift the load of 500 N as shown

in the arrangement below:

p W

Area Area A
a

P1 P2

Fig. 6.1 Hydraulic press

Solution: P = Wa = 500 x π/4 x (20)2

A π/4 x (150)2

3.2 Pressure diagram

The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls of

structure and other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient

25
to calculate the horizontal force exerted per unit width. Let us take the figure

below as examples

A
P = egy
y B
2
/3 H
H
Liquid R

C
eg H

In the above figure, ABC is the pressure diagram for the vertical wall of the tank

containing a liquid. The pressure is plotted horizontally against depth vertically.

At the free surface A, which is exposed to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure is

zero. At depth y, P = ρ g y. The relationship between P and y is linear and can be

represented by the triangle ABC. The area of the triangle will be the product of

depth (in metres) and pressure, this will represent, to scale, the resultant force R

on unit width of the immersed surface perpendicular to the plane of the diagram.

Therefore, area of pressure diagram will be: ½xABxBC.This can also be written

as: ½ x H x ρ x g x H. Finally this resultant force can be simplified to: ρ x g x

H2/2 for unit width. The resultant force R will act through the centroid P of the

pressure diagram which is at a depth of ⅔ H from A.

3.3 Buoyancy of floating bodies

26
According to Archimedes principles, the upthrust or buoyancy force of an

immersed body is equal to the weight of fluid which it displaces. A submerged

body will rise to the surface provided that the weight of the body is less than the

weight of the displaced liquid. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is

known as the centre of buoyancy and a submerged body orientates itself so that its

centre of gravity is located vertically above it centre of buoyancy. If the centre of

gravity and centre of buoyancy coincides, the body will remain in any position

and is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

3.4 Equilibrium of floating bodies

When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces present are the

upthrust R acting through the centre of buoyancy B and the weight of the body W

= m g acting through its centre of gravity as shown below:

W = mg

G
B
V = volume displaced

For equilibrium, R and W must be equal and act in the same straight line. Now, R

will be equal to the weight of fluid displaced ρ g V, where V is the volume of

fluid displaced, therefore: V = m g / ρ g = m/g. The equilibrium of a body may be

stable, unstable or neutral, depending upon whether, when given a small

27
displacement, it tends to return to the equilibrium position, move further from it

or remain in the displaced position. For a floating body, such as a ship, stability is

of major importance.

28
 WEEK 7

FLOW IN PIPES

There was a revision on what was covered in the syllabus so far. Individual

students were asked questions so as ascertain whether they understand these

topics. Lectures were delivered on the flow of water inside pipes, difference

between uniform and steady flows. Similarly, rate of flow and continuity

equations were introduced. Notes were given as follows:

4.1 Fluid in motion

When a liquid flow through a pipeline, it is subjected to resistance caused by

friction and viscosity. If the average velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipeline is

low, then the fluid flows in parallel lines along the sides of the pipeline. In such a

case, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if the average velocity is increased

beyond a critical value, the fluid particles move in a disorderly manner. In such a

case the fluid is said to be turbulent.

4.2 Uniform and Steady flow

Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given point

can vary from one moment of time to the next. Therefore there are four possible

types of flow as follows:

Steady uniform flow: In this case the conditions did not change with the

position or time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are

the same at each cross-section. An example is the flow of a liquid through a pipe

of uniform bore running completely full at constant velocity.

29
 Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point but not with

time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from cross-

section to cross-section, but for each cross-section, they will not vary with time.

An example is flow of liquid at a constant rate through a tapering pipe running

completely full.

Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is

the same, but this velocity will change with time. An example is accelerating flow

of liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running full, such as would occur when a

pump is started up.

Unsteady non-uniform flow: The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from

point to point and also change with time. For example a wave traveling along a

channel.

4.3 Rate of flow

When a liquid flows through the pipeline, the volume of liquid passing any given

cross-section of the pipeline in unit time is referred to as the rate of flow or

discharge, Q.

Cross-sectional area
Pipeline A
Velocity V

If the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is A, and the fluid flows with a uniform

velocity V, then the discharge is given by: Q = A x V in m3/sec.

4.4 Continuity equation

30
 δ A1
V
2

V δ A2
1

Consider the above illustrations indicating flow of water in a given pipe. Let us

suppose that the end sectional areas are δA1 and δA2, and the corresponding

velocities, assumed uniform, are V1 and V2. It is evident that the elemental

discharge δQ is given by:

δQ = V1 δA1 = V2 δA2 . Therefore to get the exact discharge we have:

Q = V1A1 = V2 A2

The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation between the

flows into and out of a junction for steady condition similar to the one shown

below:

A2
V2
Q2

A1
V1
Q1

A3
V3
Q3

Total inflow to junction = Total outflow from junction

Q1 = Q2 + Q3

31
A1 x V1 = A2 V2 + A3 x V3

32
 WEEK 8

4.5 Calculations on rate of flow

This week, the lecture focuses on using the formulae that was taught in the last

lecture. Therefore, the following calculations were taught to the students:

Exercise 7: Water flows from a pipe of diameter 15 mm at a velocity of 0.6 m/

sec. calculate the discharge

Solution : Q = V x A

0.6 x π x (0.015)2
4

∴Q = 1.06 x10-4 m3 / sec.

Exercise 8: Oil which has a density of 800 kg / m3 is flowing through a pipeline at a

rate of 0,002 m3 / sec. The pipeline is 50 mm diameter. Calculate the velocity of

flow.

Solution: Q = A x V

∴V = Q = 0.002 x 4
A π (0.05)2

= 1.02 m / sec

Exercise 9: A fluid is flowing through a converging pipe with a diameter of 0.5 m

at entry point and 0.14 m diameter at the outlet. The rate of flow is found to be 0.6

m3 / sec. calculate the velocity at the entry and outlet.

Solution: Q = A1 V1 and V1 = Q = 0.6 x 4

A1 π (0.5)2

Also from continuity equation we have Q = A2 V2

∴V2 = Q = 0.6 x 4
A2 π (0,14)2

33
Exercise 10: Water is flowing through a pipeline which contract from 500 mm

diameter at position A to 350 mm diameter at position B and then it divides. One

of the branches at position C has a diameter of 100 mm while the one at d has 200

mm as its diameter. The velocity at A is 1.5 m/ sec while velocity at d is 3.5 m

/sec. Calculate the discharge at C and D and velocities at B and C.

Solution: QA = QC + QD

Area at A = π dA2 = π (0.500)2 = 0.196 m2

4 4

Area at B = π (0.35)2 = 0.096 m2

4

Area at C = π (0.1)2 = 0.0078 m2

4

Area at D = π (0.2)2 = 0.031 m2

4

QD = AD VD = 0.031 x 3.5 = 0.109 m3 / sec

QA = AA VA = 0.196 x 1,5 = 0.294 m3 / sec

From continuity equation Q = AA VA = AD VD

∴VB = AA x VA = 0.294 = 3.06 m /sec

AB 0.096

Since QA = QC + QD, then

34
QA = AC VC + QD

= 0.294 = 0.0078 x VC + 0.109

∴VC = 0.294 – 0.109 = 23.72 m /sec

0.0078

And QC = AC VC = 0.0078 x 23.72 = 0.185 m3 / sec

35
 WEEK 9

5.0 Flow measuring equipments

This week a test was conducted for the students and the questions and solution

were as follows:

1. Air is discharged from an outlet at a velocity of 3 m /sec. Calculate the

diameter of the outlet if the discharge is 5.9397 x 10-3 m3 / sec.

Solution: Q = A x V and A = Q = 5.9397 x 10-3

V 3

∴A = 1.9799 x 10-3 m2

But A = π d2 = 1.9799 x 10-3

4

d2 = 4 x 1.9799 x 10 -3
π x 103

d2 = 2.5208
103
d = √(25.208-4) = 50.2 mm

2. Cooling water from a power station is discharged through a pipe. At position 1

the speed of flow is 6 m /sec, and at position 2 the speed is 4 m /sec. The diameter

of the pipe at position 2 is 2 m. Calculate :

a) the rate of flow at position 2

b) the diameter of the pipe at position 1

Solution: Q = A2 x V2

= π d22 x V2
4

= 3.14 x 22
4

∴Q = 12.6 m3 / sec

36
b) From continuity equation

A1 x V1 = A2 V2

π d12 x V1 = π d22 x V2
4 4

d12 V1 = d22 V2

∴ d12 = d22 x V2
V1

= 22 x 4 = √2.68
6

∴d1 = 1.63 m

After the test lectures continues in the week, and the following notes were given.

5.1 Bernoulli’s equation

It states that: H = Z + P + V2
ρg 2g

where : z = potential energy per unit weight

P = pressure energy
Ρg

V2 = kinematics energy per unit weight

2g

Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid

within a particular system is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the

system at any point. This principle of conservation of energy can be used to solve

37
problems involving fluid flow.

h
C
Datum B

Consider the above tank of water in which water is flowing through an orifice in

the side of the tank with a velocity V1, under a static head ‘h’. Bernoulli’s

theorem can be applied to points A, B and C as follows:

ZA + PA+ VA2 = ZB + PB + VB2 = ZC + PC

ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg

Exercise 10: in a horizontal pipeline, there is a liquid that is flowing and the pipe

involved, gradually converges from a diameter of 200 mm at position A to 150

mm at position B. If the velocity at A is 2m / sec and the pressure head is 15 m.

calculate the velocity and pressure head at B. Take g = 10 and Z as the datum.

Solution: From continuity equation, the discharge at A, QA is the equal to

discharge at B, QB. i.e.

QA = QB

AA VA = AB VB

AA = 3.14 (0.2)2/4 = 0.0314 m2

AB = 3.14 (0.15)2/4 = 0.018 m2

To get VB = 0.0314 x 2/ 0.018 = 3,55 m / sec

ZA + PA + VA2 = ZA+ PB + VB2

ρg 2g ρg 2g

38
 0 + 15 + 22 = ZB + PB + (3.55)2
2 x10 ρg 2 x 10

15 + 0.2 = PB + 0.63
ρg

PB = 15 +0.2 – 0.63 = 14.6 m

ρg

5.2 Pitot tube

Z
U0
U
A B

The pilot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and it consists of a

simple L-shaped tube facing into the on-coming flow. In its elementary form, it

consists of a tube with unsealed ends. One limb is inserted in the area of flow

while the other is vertical and open to the atmosphere. From the above figure, if

the velocity of the stream at A is ‘u’, a particle moving from A to the mouth of the

tube B will be brought to rest, so that ‘u0’ at B is zero.. Bernoulli’s equation can

be applied here.

39
40
 WEEK 10

This week, the lecture focuses on instrument of measuring instruments and the

notes are as follows:

5.3 Venturimeter

It is an instrument used for the measurement of flow in pipelines. The pressure

difference between any two points on a tapering pipe through which a fluid is

flowing depends on the difference of level, the velocities and the rate of flow

through the pipe. Hence the pressure difference can be used to determine the rate

of flow for any particular situation. The venturimeter uses this effect for the

measurement of flow in pipes. Venturimeter consists of a short converging

conical tube leading to a cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter

than that of the pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section in which the

diameter increases again to that of the main pipeline.

Converging Diverging
Enter Throat
cone cone

Piezometer
rings

5.4 Flow through notches and weirs

Control of water level and regulation of discharge are very necessary for the

purposes of irrigation, water conservation and navigation. There are wide varieties

41
of hydraulic structures normally used to suit a particular need. They range from

notches, weirs to spillways of large dams. A notch has an opening in the side of a

measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free surface.

Different Kinds of Notches

b
H H δh

h H

θ
/2 H B
RECTANGULR NOTCH
θ
/2
VEE NOTCH

42
 WEEK 11
6.0 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

This week the lecture focuses on the experiment carried out by Reynolds to show

that turbulent and laminar flow can occur in a pipe. The following are the notes

given to students:

6.1 Reynolds’ Dye Experiment

Dye

Glass tube

Water Dye
Filament

In his experiment, Reynolds showed that under suitable conditions, the two types

of flow (turbulent and laminar) could be made to occur in one pipe. His apparatus

were simple and consist essentially of a glass tube through which water could be

passed at varying velocities. Provision was made for the insertion of thin dye into

the stream of water at the upstream end. Commencing with a very low water

velocity, it was found that the dye remained intact in the form of a thin slender

43
thread extending the whole length of the tube. This indicates that the particles of

liquid were moving in straight parallel paths and that the flow was therefore

laminar.
Glass tube

dye fulament

The velocity of the water was then gradually increased and at a certain point the

thread broke up and the diffused dye intermingled with the water in the tube. The

flows have evidently passed into the turbulent state and were found to remain in

this condition for all higher velocities.

diffused dye

Pictures showing low and high flows

6.2 Reynolds number

44
It is a numerical quantity that is a ratio between the inertial forces and viscous

forces that exists in a flow. Reynolds found that the type of flow is determined by

the velocity, dynamic viscosity, pipeline diameter and the density of the fluid.

Reynolds number can be expressed mathematically by this equation:

Re = ρ v d
η
Where ρ = density of fluid

η = dynamic viscosity

v = velocity

d = diameter of pipe.

The critical value of the velocity occurs when the Reynolds’ number is

approximately 2000. Therefore Reynolds’ made the following findings:

o If the Reynolds’ value is less than 2000, then the flow can be said to be

laminar.

o If the Reynolds’ value is between 2000 and 4000 the flow is said to be

critical. That means it is in a transition stage changing from laminar to

turbulent.

o If the Reynolds’ value is greater than 4000 then the flow can be said to

be turbulent.

45
 WEEK 12

6.3 Calculations on Reynolds' number

In order to make the students understand the equations introduced in the last

lectures, the following calculations were done:

Exercise 11; the velocity at which oil of density 800 kg / m3 is flowing through a

pipe of 300 mm diameter is 3 m /sec. With a coefficient of dynamic viscosity of

110 x 10-3 N s /. m2 , calculate and find the type of flow.

Solution: Re = ρ v d = 800 x 3 x 0.3 / 0.11 = 6545.

η

The flow is therefore greater than 4000, hence it is turbulent.

Exercise 12: The same oil of density 800 kg / m3 and viscosity 171 x 10-3 Ns / m2

is pumped through a 100 mm diameter pipeline. If the critical Reynolds number is

2000, determine the velocity of flow.

Solution: Re = ρ v d
η

v = Re x η = 2000 x 0.171 = 4.275 m/ sec

ρd 800 x 0.1

6.4 Chezy’s formula

General equation for head losses in turbulent flow could be derived concurrently

for both open and closed section conduits. Chezy’s formula is among these

equations and the formula is as follows:

V ∝ √R x S, therefore V = C √ R x S

Where v = velocity, C = Chezy’s coefficient, s= bed slope, R = hydraulic radius.

46
 WEEK 13

7.0 HEAD LOSS IN PIPES

The frictional resistance to which fluids flowing through pipes are subjected is

dependent on the velocity, area of wetted surface and the nature of surface. The

losses due to friction are divided as follows:

7.1 Head loss due to friction in pipes

V1 d 1

a
H
V2 d 2

b
V3 d 3

c
L1

1 L2 d

2
L3

1) At ‘a’, loss due to entrance to the pipe: 0.5 V12

2g

2) Between (a and b), head loss due to friction: 4fL1V12

2gd1

3) At ‘b’, head loss due to contraction: 0.5V22

2g

4)Between (b and c) loss due to friction: 4fL2V22

2gd2

5) At ‘c’ head loss due to enlargement: (V2 – V3)/2g

47
6) Between (c and d), loss due to friction: 4fL3V32
2gd3

7) At d, velocity head destroyed: V32 /2g

7.3 Calculations on head loss

Exercise 13: Two reservoirs are connected with pipe 500 m long and the diameter

is 100 mm. If the difference in water levels between the two reservoirs is 15 m,

what is the velocity of flow in the pipe? Take f=0.01 and g=10

Solution
H = 0.5 V12 + 4fL1V12 + V12
2g 2gd1 2g

15 = 0.5 V12 + 4 x 0.01 x 500 x V12 + V12

2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0,1 20

15 = V12 ( 0.5 + 10 + 1 )
20 20

15 = V12 (10.075)

V1 = √15 = 1.2 m /sec

10.075

Question: Reservoirs A and B have a difference of level of 9 m and are connected

by a pipe which is 200 mm in diameter over the first length AC which is 15 m

long and then 250 mm diameter for the remaining 45 m length CB. The friction

coefficient f is 0.01 and g = 10. Calculate the flow rate and check whether

Q1 = Q2

48
Solution:

H = 0.5V12 + 4fL1V12 + (V1 – V2)2 + 4fL2V22 + V22

2g 2gd1 2g 2gd2 2g

9 = 0.5V12 + 4 x 0.01 x 15 x V12 + (V1 – V2)2 + 4 x 0.01 x

2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0.2 2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0.25

45 x V22+ V22
2 x 10

From continuity equation: Q1 = Q2

A1 V1 = A2 V2

V1 = A2V2 = π/4 (0.25)2 x V2 = (0.25)2 x V2 = 1.56V2

A1 π/4 (0.2)2 (0.2)2

V1 = (1.56V2)2 = 2.43V22

9 = 0.061V22 +0.36V22 +(0.56V2)2 + 0.36V22 + 0.05V22

20

9 = 0.061V22 + 0.36V22 + 0.016V22 + 0.36V22 + 0.05V22

9 = 0.847V22 and V22 = 9/0.847 = 10.62

∴V2 = √10.62 = 3.3 m / sec

Since V1 = 1.56V2 , then it will be: V1 = 1.56 x 3.3 = 5.1 m / sec

Q2 = A2V2 = π/4 (d2)2 x V2 = 3.14/4 (0.25)2 x 3.3 = 0.16 m3sec

Q1 = A1V1 = π/4 (d1)2 x V1 = 3.14/4 (0.2)2 5.1 = 0.16 m3 / sec

Therefore Q1 = Q2

Questions were asked by the students on this calculation and were answered to the

satisfaction of the students.

49
 WEEK 14

8.0 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

This week the lectures focus on the differences between flow of water in open

channels and that of pipes. Also the use of pumps in improving water supply to a

high or far distance was discussed. The following is the notes:

8.1 Flow in open channels

It is a flow with a free surface. This flow differs from the flow in pipes in so far as

pressure at the free surface is constant (normally atmospheric) and does not vary

from point to point in the direction of flow, as the pressure can do in a pipeline.

Another difference is that in an open channel the area of cross-section is not

controlled by the fixed boundaries, since the depth can vary from section to

section, unlike in the case of a pipe.

The types of flow in open channel are classified with respect to change in flow

depth. The flow depth may vary with time and space.

Steady and unsteady flow

Time is the criteria. If the depth of flow does not change or if it can be assumed to

be constant during the time interval under consideration, it is known as steady

flow.

If the depth varies with reference to time, it is known as unsteady flow. Examples

are floods and surges. Most of the open channel flows are studied under steady

conditions.

50
8.2Uniform and non-uniform flow

In this case, space is the criteria. A flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow

is the same at every section of the channel. If the depth of flow changes along the

length of the channel, it is said to be non-uniform

Pumps

Pumps are used to raise water from one (lower) point to another (high) point.

Therefore pumps may be needed to lift water from a lake, reservoir or river to

water treatment plant and after treatment another lift will be needed to force water

into the mains and elevated storage tank

51
 WEEK 15

9.0 PUMPS AND TURBINES

9.1 Pumps

Pumps are used to raise water from one (lower) point to another (high) point.

Therefore pumps may be needed to lift water from a lake, reservoir or river to

water treatment plant and after treatment another lift will be needed to force water

into the mains and elevated storage tank

9.2 Matching pumps to system

In many cases involving bad water supply situations, people always suggest that

there is need to purchase a pump in order to improve the water supply. But the big

question that needs to be answered is: what sort of pump is needed to match the

system in question? Honestly, solving the problem and obtaining the correct pump

need or involve a long procedure. If this procedure is not carried out, and a pump

is bought from the market, the chances that it will perform very well are very

small. In order to carry out the procedure of selecting a pump that will match a

system, necessary data must be obtained in order to make the required

calculations. The more accurate the data and calculations, the better pump will be

acquired for the lifting of the water. In the process of distributing water, booster

pumps may be needed at certain points to keep pressure at desirable heights.

Where the source of supply is a well, pumps will be needed to raise the water into

a collecting basin, unless the wells are of artesian type. From the collecting basin,

the main pump will force the water into the mains. For pumping into the water

52
mains, standby or emergency pumps will be needed to operate when breakdown

occur or to take care of great demand.

9.3 Pump classification

The pumps that are used for water supply systems can be broadly divided into two

distinct classes namely: displacement and centrifugal. The displacement type of

pumps include the reciprocating type in which a piston or plunger alternately

draws water into a cylinder on the intake stroke and then forces it out on the

discharging stroke, and the rotary type in which two rotating pistons or gears

interlock and draw water into the chamber and force it continuously into the

discharge pipe. As for the centrifugal type, it has an impeller with radial vans

rotating swiftly to draw water into the centre and discharge it by centrifugal force.

9.4Turbines

Turbine is a rotating engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water

into mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with

paddles, propellers or buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that

the moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts energy

into it. This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate

53
 a machine, compressor, electric generator or propeller. Turbines are classified as

hydraulic, or water turbines, stream turbines or gas turbines. Today turbines

powered generators produce most of the world’s electrical energy.

Water turbines are mainly used in hydro- power stations to drive electric
generators. There are three well-known types that are in common used. These are:
1.The Pelton wheel: It is an impulse turbine in which bucket or vanes of elliptic
shape are attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel. One or two nozzles project
a jet of water tangentially to the vane pitch circle.
2. Francis turbine is of reaction type. This means that during energy transfer in the
impeller there is a drop in static pressure and a drop in velocity head. Only part of
the total head presented to the machine is converted to velocity head before
entering the impeller. This is achieved in adjustable and stationary guide vanes.
This turbine is normally running full of water, which enters the impeller on the
whole periphery.
Axial flow (Kaplan) turbine. Like Francis turbine, this is also a reaction type of
turbine. In fact the arrangement guide vanes for an axial flow turbine are similar to
that for a Francis turbine. The guide vane ring is in a plane perpendicular to the
shaft so that the flow through it is radial. The impeller, however, is situated further
downstream, so that between the guide vanes and the impeller the water turns
through a right angle into the axial direction.
Pictures showing Kaplan and Pelton turbines

54
55