A HISTORY OF TEXTILE S

Flemish linen damask from the seventeenth century. (Detroit Institute of Arts, gift of Miss
Elizabeth Sundstrom)
A HISTORY OF TEXTILES
Kax Wilson
NOTE: Portions of Chapter 11 are from a thesis submitted to the graduate faculty of Colorado
State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.

First published in 1979 by Westview Press

Published in 2021 by Routledge

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 79-3977

ISBN: 0-89158-491-9
ISBN: 0-86531-368-7 (pbk.)

ISBN 13: 978-0-3670-1924-2 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-3671-6911-4 (pbk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429049101
TO HOBE
 CONTENTS

List of Figures ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• xi

List of Plates • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • xv
Preface ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• xxi

1. SOME RELATIONSHIPS •••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1

PART ONE
HISTORY OF MATERIALS AND METHODS

2. SPINNING AND RAW MATERIALS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7

Spindles and Wheels ...•....•.........••....•.................. 7

The Major Fibers ............................................. 10
Minor Textile Materials .....................•................. 27
Notes ...•................................................... 30
Bibliography ...............................•................. 31

3. FABRIC CONSTRUCTION • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 35

Looms .•........•...•..•............................•......• 35
Woven Constructions ......................................... 63
Nonweaving Techniques ....................................... 70
Notes •...................................................... 76
Bibliography ................................................. 77

vii
viii Contents

4. FINISH AND COLOR FOR TEXTILES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 81

Finishing .................................................... 81
Color ......................................................• 86
Notes ....................................................... 99
Bibliography ................................................ 100

PART TWO
WORLD TEXTILES

5. PATTERNED TEXTILES OF THE NEAR EAST •••••••••••••••••••. 107

The Near East .................................•............ 107

Egyptian Textiles ......................•..................... 112
Syrian Textiles .............................................. 115
Persian Textiles ............................................. 116
Byzantine Silks .............................................. 120
Turkish Textiles ............................................. 137
Near Eastern Carpets ......................................... 138
Notes ...................................................... 140
Bibliography ................................................ 140

6. THE MEDIEVAL TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN SOUTHERN EUROPE ••••• 145

Historical Overview ......................................... 146

Spanish Textiles ............................................. 148
Sicilian Silks ................................................ 150
Italian Textiles .............................................. 150
Medieval Guilds ............................................. 153
Medieval Trade ............................................. 154
Medieval and Renaissance French Fabrics ........................ 155
Notes ...................................................... 156
Bibliography ................................................ 156

7. TEXTILES OF THE FAR EAST ••••••••.••..•••••••••••••••••••• 159

The Lands and the Peoples .................................... 159

Indian Textile History ........................•............... 164
The Shawls of Kashmir ....................................... 166
Chinese Textile History ...................................... 168
Japanese Textile History ...................................... 188
Notes ...................................................... 192
Bibliography ................................................ 192
Contents ix

8. TEXTILES IN NORTHERN EUROPE .••••••.•.......•....•••.•... 197

Textile Production ........................................... 197

Northern European Textiles .•................................. 203
Notes ...................................................... 213
Bibliography ....•.................................•...•....• 213

9. TEXTILES AND INDEPENDENCE IN COLONIAL AMERICA •••••••• 233

Colonial America ............................................ 233

Colonial Textiles ................•......•.................... 238
Notes ..........•.....................................•..... 247
Bibliography •............................................... 248

10. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND TEXTILES

IN NINETEENTH CENTURY AMERICA ••........•..•.......••..• 251

Nineteenth Century America .................................. 251

Nineteenth Century Textiles ................................... 255
Notes ...........•.............................•............ 281
Bibliography ...................................•............ 282

11. FABRICS OF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST ••••••.••...•.•••••.• 287

The Region and Its History .................................... 287

Anasazi Fabrics .............................................. 292
Historic Pueblo Textiles ...................................... 294
Navajo Textiles .........................•...........•....... 296
Rio Grande Textiles .......................................... 303
Notes ....................................................•. 305
Bibliography ...............................................• 306

12. FABRICS OF SOUTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA . .•........•.•.••.•• 309

Peruvian Fabrics ............................................. 310

Mesoamerican Textiles .......................•............... 334
Tourist Textiles ...................................•...•..... 338
Molas of the San Blas Islands .................................. 339
Notes .•.................................................... 339
Bibliography ....................•........................... 340

Glossary ••••••••.•••••.••••.•.•••.•••.••••...••••••••.••.•••••• 345

Index ...................•.••...•.•...•••••••••••••............ 349
About the Book and Author ...............................•••.••.... 359
 FIGURES

2.1 Spindle ........................ ........................ ... 8

2.2 Spinning with Distaff ........................ ............... 8
2.3 "S" and "Z" Twists ........................ ................ 9
2.4 Single, Ply, and Cord.................... .................... 9
2.5 Charkha (Indian spinning wheel) ........................ ...... 9
2.6 Jersey Wheel ........................ ...................... 9
2.7 Saxony Wheel ........................ .................... 10
2.8 Flax Fiber ( microscopic view) ........................ ....... 11
2.9 Spinning Flax ........................ ..................... 12
2.10 Hackle ........................ ........................ .. 13
2.11 Twining Yarn in Egypt ........................ ............. 14
2.12 Cotton Fiber (microscopic view) ........................ ..... 16
2.13 Spinning Cotton ........................ ................... 17
2.14 Roller Gin ........................ ....................... 18
2.15 Silk Fiber (microscopic view) ........................ ........ 20
2.16 Silk Trade in Early Centuries A.O..................... ....... 21
2.17 Wool Fiber (microscopic view) ........................ ...... 24
2.18 Spinning Wool ........................ .................... 25
3.1 Parts of the Loom ........................ ................. 36
3.2 Shedding ........................ ........................ . 37
3.3 Penelope's Loom ........................ .................. 39
3.4 Warp-Weighted Loom ........................ ............. 39
3.5 Shedding on a Warp-Weighted Loom ........................ . 40
3.6 Egyptian Loom ........................ .................... 40
3.7 Pit Loom ........................ ........................ . 58

XI
xii Figures

3.8 Treadle Loom ............................................. 58

3.9 West African Loom ........................................ 60
3.10 Inkle Loom ............................................... 60
3.11 Tablet Weaving ........................................... 61
3.12 Chinese Pattern Loom ...................................... 61
3.13 Drawloom ............................................... 62
3.14 Jacquard Loom ............................................ 64
3.15 Plain Weave .............................................. 65
3.16 Rep Weave ............................................... 65
3.17 Tapestry Weave ........................................... 65
3.18 Slit Tapestry .............................................. 66
3.19a Interlocking Tapestry, Single ................................ 66
3.19b Interlocking Tapestry, Double ............................... 66
3.20 Dovetailed Tapestry ....................................... 67
3.21 Basket Weave ............................................ 67
3.22 Reclining Twill ........................................... 67
3.23 Steep Twill ............................................... 68
3.24 Satin Weave .............................................. 68
3.25 Brocading ................................................ 68
3.26 A Compound Weave ....................................... 70
3.27 Double Cloth ............................................. 70
3.28 Weft-twining ............................................. 71
3.29 Warp-twining .............•.............................. 71
3.30 Leno Weave ............................................... 71
3.31 Braiding ................................................. 72
3.32 Plaiting .................................................. 72
3.33 Sprang ................................................... 72
3.34 Stocking Stitch Knit ....................................... 74
3.35 Garter Stitch Knit ......................................... 74
4.1 Medieval Fulling .......................................... 85
4.2 Indigo Production in India .................................. 89
4.3 Calico Printing in 1835 ..................................... 99
5.1 The Near East ........................................... 108
5.2 Egyptian Tunic .......................................... 113
5.3 Ghiordes and Sehna Knots ................................. 139
6.1 Europe ................................................. 146
7.1 The Far East ............................................. 160
7.2 Buddhist Emblems ......................•................. 188
7.3 Confucian Emblems ....................................... 189
7.4 Taoist Emblems .......................................... 189
8.1 Flying Shuttle ............................................ 201
8.2 Weaving Wide Cloth on a French Broadloom ................. 201
8.3 Spinning Jenny ........................................... 202
8.4 Arkwright's Water Frame ................................. 202
Figures xiii

8.5 Cartwright's Power Loom ................................. 203

8.6 High-Warp Loom ........................................ 205
9.1 The United States in the Mid-Nineteenth Century and the
Original Thirteen States .................................. 234
9.2 Tape Loom .............................................. 242
10.1 Power Weaving .......................................... 253
10.2 Spinning Jack ............................................ 259
11.1 The Southwest ........................................... 288
11.2 Navajo Spinning .......................................... 298
11.3 Navajo Vertical Loom ..................................... 299
11.4 Navajo Belt Loom ........................................ 300
12.1 South and Middle America ................................. 310
12.2 Peruvian Loom ........................................... 330
12.3 Discontinuous Warp and Weft .............................. 331
 PLATES

1. A flax brake from nineteenth century Nova Scotia ............. 41

2. A tomb model of a Middle Kingdom Egyptian weaving shop ..... 41
3. Sericulture in Japan ....................................... 42
4. A water-powered carding machine .......................... 43
5. A man's cloth from the Ewe tribe, early twentieth century
Ghana ................................................. 44
6a. A streamer of a mitre from twelfth century Germany ........... 45
6b. A detail of the reverse side of the mitre ...................... 45
7. Chilcat blanket ........................................... 46
8. "The Stocking Knitter," from Diderot's Pictorial Encyclopedia
of Trades and Industry • ..•..••••.•••••••••••••.•••.•••.••••• 47
9. Needle lace from The Mentor •••.••••••••••••••••••••.•••••• 48
10. Bobbin lace from The Mentor ••••..•••.••••••••••••••••••••• 48
11a. Hawaiian tapa ........................................... 49
11b. A detail of the Hawaiian tapa .............................. 49
12. Cloth press from about 1860, Antioch, West Virginia ........... 50
13. Moire-ribbed fabric with watered pattern ................... 50
14. "A Fulling Mill," from Diderot's Pictorial Encyclopedia of
Trades and Industry . •••.••.•••••••••••••••••.•.•••••••••••• 51
15. "Shearing," from Duhamel du Monceau's "Art de la
draperie" in Descriptions des Arts et Mitiers . .••••.••••••••••••• 52
16. "The Dye House," from Diderot's Pictorial Encyclopedia of
Trades and Industry • .•••.•••.•••••••••.•••••.•••.•••••••••• 53
17a. Indonesian batik .......................................... 54
17b. A detail of the Indonesian batik ............................. 54

xv
18. Shibori ................................................ . 55
19. Doubleikat ............................................. 55
20. A detail of a man's cotton mantle from East Sumba showing
warp ikat technique...................................... 56
21. Palampore (painted and dyed cotton) made for the European
market during the first half of the eighteenth century......... 121
22. A roller print, circa 1824 ................................. 122
23. A Coptic tapestry ....................................... 123
24. A depiction of Hermes on a fourth or fifth century Egyptian
looped woolen pile roundel .............................. 123
25. Third or fourth century Coptic portrait of a man ............. 124
26. A wool and linen tapestry panel from an Egyptian tiraz of
the Abbasid period ..................................... 124
27. Hero and lion, an eighth or ninth century silk from
Alexandria, Antioch, or Damascus ........................ 125
28. Sassanian senmurv (winged monster), a Near Eastern silk
from the eighth or ninth century .......................... 125
29. Cock, a sixth or seventh century Sassanian silk twill ........... 126
30. Silk tomb cover (compound twill) from Iran's Buyid period ..... 126
31. A fragment of a Buyid silk textile in a lampas weave, with
a senmurv motif......................................... 127
32. Buyid double-headed eagle silk ............................ 127
33. "Men Leading Prisoner in a Garden," from Persia, probably
created in the seventeenth century ......................... 128
34. An Iranian cut velvet on a cloth of gold ground, from the
Shah Abbas period ...................................... 129
35. A Byzantine silk medallion with a quadriga design, found in
Aachen Cathedral ...................................... 130
36. Turkish kaftan from Tahsin Oz's Turkish Textiles and Velvets •..•• 130
37. Tunic fragment of the Infant Felipe, from the second half
of the thirteenth century ................................. 131
38. Brocaded cut voided velvet in pomegranate patterns, from
the late fifteenth century ................................. 132
39. Brocade from thirteenth or fourteenth century Granada ........ 132
40. "Tree of Life and Lions," a fancy compound satin from the
fifteenth century........................................ 133
41. Silk lampas with gold, from Italy or Sicily in the first half
of the fourteenth century ................................ 134
42. Fourteenth century Lucchese silk brocade .................... 134
43. Fourteenth century Italian silk and metallic woven fabric ....... 135
44. Fifteenth century Italian velvet ............................ 135
45. Late fifteenth century Italian velvet ......................... 135
46. A Florentine orphrey (a band on a religious garment) of
brocatelle construction depicting the Assumption, circa
fifteenth century........................................ 169
 47. Late fifteenth century Italian cope .......................... 170
48. An Indian weaving ship, from Gilroy's History of Silk, Cotton,
Linen, Wool, and Other Fibrous Substances ••••••.••••••••••..•• 171
49. Indian brocade, from the Journal of Indian Textile History •••••.••• 171
50. Phulkari embroidery, from the Journal of Indian Art and
Industry ••••.•••.•.•••••.•.•.•••.•••••••••....•••...•• 171
51a. Kashmir shawl .......................................... 172
51 b. A detail of the Kashmir shawl ............................. 172
52. Chinese silk fragment, from the Han dynasty period ........... 173
53. Chinese silk gauze fragment, from the Han dynasty period ...... 173
54a. "Cock on Drum Calling the Faithful to Prayer," from an
eighteenth century Japanese tsuzure-ori in the Ming style ...... 174
54b. A detail from the tsuzure-ori showing the slit tapestry
construction also characteristic of Chinese k 'o-ssu ............ 174
55. Chinese velvet hanging ................................... 175
56. Seventeenth century Chinese damask ........................ 176
57. Ming dynasty silk ........................................ 176
58. Ch 'ing embroidery ....................................... 177
59. Seventeenth or eighteenth century Chinese dragon roundel
and diaper silk ......................................... 178
60. Detail of a seventeenth century Japanese priest's robe in a
gold brocade from the Nishijin Looms, Kyoto ............... 178
61. Detail of a seventeenth century Japanese Noh-dance robe
in a gold brocade called kara-ori •••••••.••••••••••••••.•••• 179
62. A nineteenth century Japanese brocade ...................... 180
63. Silk kimono from the first half of the eighteenth century ....... 181
64. Boy's kimono with samuri arms and armor, showing Yuzen
dyeing and embroidery .................................. 182
65. One of the pagan heroes, Julius Caesar, from The Heroes
Tapestries, Paris, last quarter of the fourteenth century ....... 183
66. The Unicorn in Captivity, from the Hunt of the Unicorn, VII ... 184
67. The Chinese Fair, a French tapestry from the period of
Louis XV.............................................. 217
68. French bizarre silk from about 1710 ......................... 218
69. Brocaded silk from Lyons in the period 1720-1725 ............. 219
70. Brocaded silk from Lyons, circa 1770........... _- ............ 220
71. Brocaded silk from Spitalfields, mid-eighteenth century ........ 221
72. French silk tissue from the Empire period .................... 222
73. Printing Toiles at Oberkampf Factory at Jouy, France .......... 223
74. Chinoiserie, plate-printed in blue, circa 1770-1780 ............. 224
75. Block-printed linen from about 1780 ........................ 224
76. Hangings in an arborescent pattern, plate-printed in
indigo blue ............................................ 225
77. A Paisley shawl ......................................... 226
78. Pine motif from the Paisley shawl .......................... 227
 79. Blue resist .............................................. 227
80. Handwoven check ....................................... 228
81. Eighteenth century figured fabrics (watermarked 1801),
from a textile sample book by Booth and Theobald,
Norwich, England ...................................... 229
82. English wool calamanco quilt from 1780-1800 ................. 230
83. A pieced homespun quilt from Ontario, circa 1865 ............ 231
84. Cotton bedspread printed by John Hewson, circa 1780-1800 ..... 232
85. Lace, embroidery on net, made by Miss Catherine Skinner
of Wethersfield, Connecticut, circa 1813 ................... 265
86. An overshot coverlet ..................................... 266
87. An overshot coverlet ..................................... 267
88a. Jacquard coverlet made at Auburn Prison, New York State ..... 268
88b. A detail of the jacquard coverlet ........................... 268
89. Jacquard coverlet made by "A. Davidson, Fancy Weaver,"
around 1830 ........................................... 269
90. Twine-plaited shirt from Tonto Monument (1200-1400 A.D.) .... 270
91. A breech cloth from Gourd Cave, woven in double-weft
twill ................................................. 270
92. Hopi maiden's shawl of cotton and wool .................... 271
93. Hopi ceremonial sash ..................................... 271
94. Navajo chief blanket ..................................... 272
95. Navajo rug illustrating beading ............................ 272
96. Navajo blanket illustrating reclining twill .................... 272
97. Navajo rug illustrating diamond twill ....................... 273
98. Navajo rug illustrating tufting with mohair .................. 273
99. Two Grey Hills rug ....................................... 274
100. Navajo dress ............................................ 275
101. Detail of a Germantown rug showing outlining and "lazy
lines"................................................. 276
102. Jerga ......•..................................•........ 276
103. Chimayo rug ........................................... 277
104. A Rio Grande blanket reflecting the influence of Mexican
Saltillo serape .......................................... 278
105. Colcha embroidery ...................................... 279
106. Peruvian mummy bundle .................................. 280
107. The burying ground at Paracas ...........•................. 280
108. Detail of a Paracas painted mantle .......................... 313
109. Paracas embroidery showing an oculate being ................ 313
110a. Picking the seeds and impurities from cotton on the south
coast of Peru near lea ................................... 314
110b. Net from the south coast of Peru ........................... 314
111. Needle knitting ......................................... 315
112. Peruvian twined fabric ................................... 315
113. Peruvian tapestry, possibly from the Nazca period ............. 316
 114. Peruvian tapestry sewn to plain weave, possibly from the
Chancay period ........................................ 316
115. Late Horizon (1450-1530 A.O.) tapestry with eccentric wefts .... 317
116. Peruvian gauze with embroidery ....•...........•.......... 317
117a. The face of a Peruvian brocaded textile, possibly from the
Chancay period ........................................ 318
117b. The reverse of the Peruvian brocaded textile ................. 318
118. A Peruvian warp patterned fragment from the north coast. ..... 319
119. Detail of a Peruvian warp patterned fabric ................... 320
120. Inca bag showing double weave below and tapestry above ...... 320
121. A Peruvian painted textile ................................ 321
122. Peruvian embroidery from the central coast .................. 321
123. Detail of a Late Intermediate Period (900-1450 A.O.)
feather tunic ........................................... 322
124. A Peruvian colonial tapestry ....•.......................... 323
125. A Shipibo painted cotton ................................. 324
126. Detail of a Huipil from the Department Oaxaca, Mexico,
probably made in the 1930s .............................. 325
127. Modern Guatemalan brocade .............................. 326
128. Modern embroidery from southern Mexico .................. 326
129. Weaver at a Guatemalan hotel, circa 1973 ................... 327
130. A mola from Panama .................................... 328
 PREFACE

The purpose of this book is twofold: to serve as a text for college classes and to
aid textile history researchers. It has grown out of more than ten years of research
and teaching at Colorado State University. I hope readers will enjoy the book as
well as learn from it.
Appreciation is due many helpful museum curators and librarians across the
country and especially to the faculty and staff at Colorado State University's
Morgan Library. Particular thanks go to Virginia Valaki for thoughtful editing, to
Opal Moore for professional typing, and to Pat Dietemann for art work. I would
also like to thank my family and my friends for their support and encouragement.
Extra credit for encouragement belongs to Dr. Frances Duffield of Auburn
University.

Kax Wilson

xxi
A HISTORY OF TEXTILE S
 SOME RELATIONSHIPS

Textile history has many facets. It can involve archaeology, inasmuch as fabrics
provide a record of ancient man, or anthropology, inasmuch as fabrics form part of
the material culture of a primitive people. It can involve a study of religion and
symbolism in order to decipher motifs, or it can mean using chemistry to identify
fibers, analyze dyes, or properly clean an old textile. Politics and economics are
also intricately woven into textile history. Artistic analysis is very important, as
identification and dating often become the work of an art historian. Some textiles
are considered fine art and exhibited with great paintings; others are classed as folk
art and housed with crafts. There is also "tourist art," representing a degeneration
in traditional weaving, with its interesting sociological and psychological
implications. Hence, textile historians are involved with many disciplines, and
textiles are studied from various viewpoints.
Handwoven fabrics have now become an art form and are well removed from
everyday life. This was not always so, and as we study something old-
commonplace in its time-we wonder who was personally involved in its making
and use. How was it made? How can it be described? What are the terms to use?
Appreciation of old fabrics is enhanced if one can "read" them well in terms of
material, structure, and design as those elements relate to sociological, economic,
and artistic concepts. For example, one sees a Navajo rug in an airport shop; it
typifies 200 years of weaving certain designs in wool tapestry on a primitive loom;
it also tells a story of economics, first Indian commerce, then Anglo trader control of
a reservation industry; and yet, there is an intangible element-the psychological
value of tribal prestige earned by the weaver.
A textile is considered to have five components: 1) the fiber-the basic unit-
suitable material from many sources, mainly vegetable and animal; 2) the yarn-
the structure made by spinning or twisting the fibers together; 3) the fabric
construction-woven if the yarns are interlaced at right angles, done by some other

1 DOI: 10.4324/9780429049101-1
2 Some Relationships

method if the yarns are twisted, looped, or knotted; 4) the finish, including
processes such as bleaching and pressing; and 5) color-fibers, yarns, or cloth can be
dyed or the cloth may be printed. Textiles from all over the world, past or present,
are often similar yet different. There are some variables that make each group
distinct, however.
1. The raw materials. Certainly, not all fibers could be raised in all parts of the
world nor were they always available in trade. Fiber content determined fabric
characteristics (such as handle and texture} and also put limitations on what could
be done in spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing. Interesting things sometimes
happened when an unfamiliar material was imported and used in the way of a
traditional fiber.
2. The technology. Different materials required different tools and techniques
for spinning and fabric construction. Limitations imposed by lack of technical
knowledge often put restrictions on what could be made. Hawaiians had no loom,
so they made cloth by beating bark fibers into a mat. The ancient Chinese were
ahead of the rest of the world in making patterned fabrics of silk because they had
an advanced loom technology. In the seventeenth century dyers and printers in
India knew methods for coloring cotton cloth not known anywhere else. Europeans
invented and used the machines that made mass production possible.
3. The reason for production. The amount of effort and skill put into weaving has
varied according to the intended use of the product and the value placed on that use
by a society. If clothing and protection from the elements were primary concerns,
people sought economical and fast methods. Cloth made for trade might be woven
very carefully for a sophisticated buyer-or less so for a casual tourist. Often
designs were modified from the traditional to meet the needs of the buyer. On the
other hand, many hours might be spent making patterns for aesthetic reasons.
Textiles made for religious purposes were important for their symbolism; a belief
in life after death resulted in fabrics of intricate design and fine quality.
4. Influences from other cultures. It is very difficult to identify what might be
considered a "pure" textile, that is, one developed solely within a group and never
changed by the ideas ofnew weavers coming into the area, or by people ofdifferent
religion taking over and changing motifs, or by new plant materials being
introduced to change colors. Cultural diffusion is very evident and often several
influences can be identified in a single historic fabric.
* * *

In Part One material and technology will be covered with a view towards tying
them to people, places, and different periods. Emphasis will be placed on fiber,
yarn, construction, finish, and color and their historical relationships. Part Two will
discuss textiles of selected places and times. Examples can be seen in museums,1 and
at least some published information about them is available. Bibliographical essays
included with each chapter will provide important references in English for each
topic, following the order of presentation used in the chapter.
Some Relationships 3

NOTES
1. For information about museums with textile collections see Cecil Lubell, ed., Tex-
tile Collections ofthe World, 3 vols. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976-). Lubell's first
volume deals with the United States and Canada, the second with the United Kingdom and
Ireland, and the third with France. Others to come.