WEEK 9

REASONS AND RESULTS OF WORLD WAR

I
 A GENERAL
DEFINITION

 World War I (1914-1918) is the first major global
conflict that emerged from various reasons and it
gave birth to a new global order.
 The war also marked the end of «long nineteenth
century», which was characterized by a relative
peace in Europe based on Concert of Europe, Treaty
of Paris (1856) and the international gold standard.
 During 19th century, Europe or the world hadn’t
witnessed a long and large-scale war.
 MAIN REASONS OF
WAR

We can define several reasons for the breakout of
World War I:
 Rise of nation-states and nationalism
 Competition for colonies (including Africa)
 Rise of Germany as a major power and its ambition
to become a global force
 Russian expansionism
 Specific situation of Ottoman Empire
 RISE OF NATION STATES
AND NATIONALISM

 Nationalism and nation-states are modern concepts.
They didn’t exist in the pre-modern period.
 Although they had their first origins in post-
Westphalian period, they emerged essentially after the
French Revolution of 1789 and in the 19th century.
 This new concept underlines national identities, and
sometimes seeks national supremacy against others.
 Also nationalists insist that each nation must have its
own state instead of multi-ethnical empires.
 COMPETITION FOR
COLONIES

 Following the Industrial Revolution of 19th century,
major powers started to look for new resources to be
used as cheap and useful raw material for their
industries.
 These raw materials were mainly found in Asia and
Africa. Also, main industrial forces needed cheap
labor force and new markets to sell the products.
 For these reasons, a competition emerged to get
domination on colony countries and regions.
 RISE OF GERMANY

 Germany experienced the Industrial Revolution later than
other European countries and didn’t have colonies. Also it
took a long time for the German state form a unity.
 When Wilhelm II became German Emperor in 1888, he
made many steps to accelerate the industrialization and
he colonized some parts of Africa.
 Wilhelm II was very ambitious to make Germany a major
force. He formed good relations with Austria-Hungary
and Ottoman Empire. He also collided with France in
many areas.
 RUSSIAN
EXPANSIONISM

 Russian Empire had expansionist ambitions.
 They had two major targets: Balkan regions (which
had a significant Christian Orthodox population)
and Eastern Anatolia.
 Russia had also a traditional hostility against
Ottoman Empire.
 SPECIFIC SITUATION OF
OTTOMAN EMPIRE

 Before the World War I, Ottoman Empire was ruling the
Arab Middle East, which had important resources and
which was located in a strategically important position
(concerning international trade). Great Powers had
intention to get these areas.
 Also Ottoman Empire was facing serious problems since
long time and it could survive only by making alliances
with major European countries.
 During the pre-war period, Ottoman Empire made
strong relations especially with Germany.
 CATALYST OF THE
WAR

 On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Austrian archduke
Franz Ferdinand and his wife, were shot dead by a
nationalist Bosnian Serb, called Gavrilo Princip.
 Austrian army officers and government saw this
assassination as an occasion to humiliate Serbia and
to enhance Austria-Hungary’s prestige in the
Balkans.
 They decided to present an unacceptable ultimatum
to Serbia and then to declare war. They believed that
Germany would prevent a possible Russian
intervention.
 CATALYST OF THE
WAR

 Serbia accepted some parts of the ultimatum and rejected
some other parts. They also offered to submit the issue to
international arbitration. But Austria-Hungary severed
diplomatic relations with Serbia and ordered partial
mobilization.
 On July 28, Austro-Hungarian artillery began to bombard
Belgrade. Russia then ordered partial mobilization against
Austria-Hungary; two days later, they ordered general
mobilization. This was the beginning of the great war.
 So it is possible to say that the war formally started when
Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. This first
attack quickly triggered new ones and then alliances were
formed.
 MAIN SIDES OF THE
WAR

Two main sides of the World War I were:
 Allied (or Entente) Powers: Britain, France and
Russia (also Italy, Japan and later USA)
 Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria
OTHER PARTS OF THE
WAR

 On the other hand, the war involved all major
powers and all European states, except Spain,
Netherlands, Scandinavian countries and
Switzerland.
 Also, the war witnessed to the participation of a very
wide spectrum of people from Canadians to New
Zealanders.
 And it became a totally destructive war which led to
17 million deaths.
 HOBSBAWM’S
COMMENT

 According to famous historian Eric Hobsbawm, “If
one of the great ministers or diplomats of the past had
risen from their graves to observe First World War, they
would certainly have wondered why sensible statesmen
had not decided to settle the war by some compromise
before it destroyed the World of 1914. We must also
wonder.”
 He asks: “Why was the First World War waged by the
leading powers on both sides as a zero-sum game, i.e. as a
war which could only be totally won or totally lost?”
 HOBSBAWM’S
COMMENT

 According to Hobsbawm, unlike earlier wars, World
War I was waged for “unlimited ends”.
 All of the participants, especially Britain, France and
Germany wanted to get absolute superiority in both
political and economic fields, and they wanted to
make their rivals inferior in all senses.
 That’s why, any compromise couldn’t be possible.
 NEW DEVELOPMENTS
TOWARDS THE END OF WAR

 USA officially participated to the war in 1917 following
several naval conflicts with Germany. It is generally accepted
that the entry of the United States was the turning point of the
war, because it made the eventual defeat of Germany
possible.
 At that time, Ottoman Empire was near to a defeat and
Britain and France had already made plans for a future
domination in the Middle East.
 Secret Sykes-Picot Agreement (sharing of Arab regions) was
made in 1916 and Balfour Declaration (creation of a Jewish
homeland in Palestine) was announced in 1917, i.e. before the
end of the war.
BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION
AND ITS EFFECTS

 The year 1917 marks another very important event,
which would not only take Russia out of the war, but
also ultimately change the history of 20th century and
the international system: The Bolshevik Revolution of
November 7, 1917.
 For centuries, Russia was ruled by an autocratic dynastic
rule. In 1905, a constitutional monarchy regime was
declared. In March 1917, tsar was replaced by a
transitional government. In November 1917, final part of
the revolution was carried out.
 BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION
AND ITS EFFECTS

 Having a communist ideology and led by Vladimir
Ilyich Lenin, Bolshevik Party took the power.
 They were supported by: i) urban workers, ii) poor
/little peasants and iii) junior officers in the army
and other soldiers who were fed up with the war.
BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION
AND ITS EFFECTS

 So one of the first steps of the new regime was to declare
that Russia was out of the World War.
 30 years later, Soviet Russia would be the leader of
socialist bloc and one of the two “super powers” of the
World. That’s why, the Bolshevik Revolution was a very
important event for the international system.
 P.S.: The revolution took place on 7 November 1917, but
in the Russian calendar, it was 25 October. That’s why
it’s also called “October Revolution”.
 WILSON PRINCIPLES /
FOURTEEN POINTS

 Another important event of this period was the
proclamation of Wilson Principles, which is also called
as “Fourteen Points”.
 On January 8, 1918, in his address to the joint session of
the United States Congress, US President Woodrow
Wilson formulated under 14 separate heads his ideas of
the essential nature of a post-World War I settlement.
 If we elaborate them briefly…
 FOURTEEN POINTS

 Point 1 calls for diplomacy and open peace
agreements.
 Point 2 calls for “Absolute freedom of navigation
upon the seas, outside territorial waters, both in
peace and in war”.
 Point 3 calls for removal of economic barriers
between nations and free and equal trade.
 Point 4 calls for reduction of national armaments to
the lowest points consistent with domestic safety.
 FOURTEEN POINTS

 Point 5 calls for “a free, open-minded, and absolutely
impartial adjustment of all colonial claims”.
 Points 6 to 13 are about establishing peace and
sovereignty in the territories of various countries
that have participated to the World War.
 Point 14: “A general association of nations must be
formed under specific covenants for the purpose of
affording mutual guarantees of political
independence and territorial integrity to great and
small states alike.”
 MAIN ASPECTS OF
WILSON PRINCIPLES

 Calls for peace,
 diplomacy,
 mutual cooperation,
 preservation of sovereignty rights,
 and right of self-determination.
END OF WORLD WAR I

The winners made subsequent peace agreements with
losers:
 Treaty of Versailles with Germany (June 28, 1919)
 Treaty of St. Germain with Austria (September 10,
1919)
 Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (November 27, 1919)
 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (June 4, 1920)
 Treaty of Sèvres with Ottoman Empire (August 10,
1920)
END OF WORLD WAR I

 Briefly said, these treaties brought severe conditions
to the loser countries. Especially Treaty of Versailles
and Treaty of Sèvres gave major parts of German
and Ottoman territories to Alliance Forces, and
losers had to pay very high war compensations.
 Defeat for Germans would lead to rise of Nazism in
the medium term, whereas occupation of Anatolia
would lead to the emergence of National Struggle
movement.