GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES

DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE:
Demographic Change is the phenomenon where a country moves
from high birth rates and high death rates, to lower birth and death
rates as the country undergoes industrialization.
the existence of some kind of demographic transition is widely
accepted in the social sciences because of the well-established
historical correlation linking dropping fertility to social and economic
development.
The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history
developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson
(1887–1973).
Adolphe Landry of France made similar observations on
demographic patterns and population growth potential around 1934.

In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are

high and roughly in balance. All human populations are believed to
have had this balance until the late 18th century, when this balance
ended in Western Europe.[6] In fact, growth rates were less than
0.05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years
ago.[6] Population growth is typically very slow in this stage, because
the society is constrained by the available food supply; therefore,
unless the society develops new technologies to increase food
production (e.g. discovers new sources of food or achieves higher
crop yields), any fluctuations in birth rates are soon matched by
death rates.[6]
In stage two, that of a developing country, the death rates drop
quickly due to improvements in food supply and sanitation, which
increase life expectancies and reduce disease. The improvements
specific to food supply typically include selective breeding and crop
rotation and farming techniques.[6] Other improvements generally
include baking and access to ovens. Numerous improvements in
public health reduce mortality, especially childhood mortality. [6] Prior
to the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were
primarily in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and
personal hygiene.[6] One of the variables often cited is the increase in
female literacy combined with public health education programs
which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[6] In Europe,
the death rate decline started in the late 18th century in
northwestern Europe and spread to the south and east over
approximately the next 100 years.[6] Without a corresponding fall in
birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the countries in this
stage experience a large increase in population.

In stage three, birth rates fall due to various fertility factors such as

access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization, a
reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in the status and
education of women, a reduction in the value of children's work, an
increase in parental investment in the education of children and
other social changes. Population growth begins to level off. The birth
rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th century
in northern Europe.[6] While improvements in contraception do play a
role in birth rate decline, contraceptives were not generally available
nor widely used in the 19th century and as a result likely did not play
a significant role in the decline then.[6] It is important to note that
birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values; not just
because of the availability of contraceptives.[6]

During stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates.
Birth rates may drop to well below replacement level as has
happened in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to
a shrinking population, a threat to many industries that rely on
population growth. As the large group born during stage two ages, it
creates an economic burden on the shrinking working population.
Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to
increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and
high obesity and an aging population in developed countries. By the
late 20th century, birth rates and death rates in developed countries
leveled off at lower rates.[7]

Some scholars break out, from stage four, a "stage five" of below-
replacement fertility levels. Others hypothesize a different "stage
five" involving an increase in fertility.[8]

Population ageing is an increasing median age in a population due to

declining fertility rates and rising life expectancy. Most countries
have rising life expectancy and an ageing population (trends that
emerged first in developed countries, but which are now seen in
virtually all developing countries).

Population ageing is a shift in the distribution of a country's

population towards older ages. This is usually reflected in an increase
in the population's mean and median ages, a decline in the
proportion of the population composed of children, and a rise in the
proportion of the population composed of elderly. Population ageing
is widespread across the world. It is most advanced in the most
highly developed countries, but it is growing faster in less developed
regions, which means that older persons will be increasingly
concentrated in the less developed regions of the world.

Income and fertility is the association between monetary gain on

one hand, and the tendency to produce offspring on the other. There
is generally an inverse correlation between income and the total
fertility rate within and between nations. The higher the degree
of education and GDP per capita of a human population,
subpopulation or social stratum, the fewer children are born in any
developed country.[3] In a 1974 United Nations population
conference in Bucharest, Karan Singh, a former minister of
population in India, illustrated this trend by stating "Development is
the best contraceptive."[4]
In developed countries where birth control is the norm, increased
income is likewise associated with decreased fertility. Theories
behind this include:

People earning more have a higher opportunity cost if they focus on

childbirth and parenting rather than their continued career.[9]

Women who can economically sustain themselves have less

incentive to become married.[9]

Higher-income parents value quality over quantity and so spend their

resources on fewer children.[9]
Across countries, there is a strong negative correlation
between gross domestic product and fertility, and ultimately it is
proven that a strong negative correlation exists between household
income and fertility.
A reduction in fertility can lead to an aging population, which can
lead to a variety of problems. See for example the demographics of
Japan.
A related concern is that high birth rates tend to place a greater
burden of child rearing and education on populations already
struggling with poverty. Consequently, inequality lowers average
education and hampers economic growth.[12] Also, in countries with a
high burden of this kind, a reduction in fertility can hamper economic
growth as well as the other way around.

Estimates for pre-modern times are necessarily fraught with great

uncertainties, and few of the published estimates have confidence
intervals; in the absence of a straightforward means to assess the
error of such estimates, a rough idea of expert consensus can be
gained by comparing the values given in independent publications.
Population estimates cannot be considered accurate to more than
two decimal digits; for example, the world population for the year
2012 was estimated at 7.02, 7.06 and 7.08 billion by the United
States Census Bureau, the Population Reference Bureau and
the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
respectively, corresponding to a spread of estimates of the order of
0.8%.

Total population is low but it is balanced due to high birth rates and

high death rates.

Total population rises as death rates fall due to improvements in

health care and sanitation. Birth rates remain high.

Total population is still rising rapidly. The gap between birth and
death rates narrows due to the availability of contraception and
fewer children being needed to work - due to the mechanization of
farming. The natural increases high.

Total population is high, but it is balanced by a low birth rate and a

low death rate. Birth control is widely available and there is a desire
for smaller families.

Total population is high but going into decline due to an ageing

population. There is a continued desire for smaller families, with
people opting to have children later in life.

Demographic change can influence the underlying growth rate of the

economy, structural productivity growth, living standards, savings
rates, consumption, and investment; it can influence the long-run
unemployment rate and equilibrium interest rate, housing
market trends, and the demand for financial assets.

EDUCATION FOR ALL

One of the most important issues in education today has to do with the
importance of grades and standardized, high-stakes tests. Many students,
parents, and teachers are questioning the importance of grades and test
scores, and exploring new ways to teach and learn.

More than 260 million children are out of school worldwide. Discrimination of
marginalized groups by teachers and other students, long distances to school,
formal and informal school fees, and the absence of inclusive education are
among the main causes. Millions stop going to school to work long hours, often
under hazardous conditions. Others experience violence or abuse from
teachers or fellow students, or find their schools targets of armed attack.
Families do not send girls to school, force them out of school to marry or girls
are denied an education when they become pregnant. Many are kept from
getting a secondary education because they cannot afford school fees. Even
when in school, millions of children receive a poor quality education that
leaves them lacking essential skills and knowledge.

Few would argue that the state of our education system has plenty of room for
improvement. However, developing a plan to take schools in the right direction
is easier said than done. The first challenge lies in identifying underlying
problems keeping students from learning today. This challenge, in part, is due
to the fact that the problems may change considerably depending on who is
labeling them, whether it is students, parents, educators or lawmakers.
Consider this list of 10 major challenges currently facing public schools, based
on the perspective of many involved in the world of education today.

Many areas of the country are facing classrooms that are literally busting out
at the seams. A report at NEA Today two years ago discussed how schools in
Georgia, in the midst of major funding cuts for schools, had no choice but to lift
all class size limits to accommodate students with the faculty the school
system could still afford to keep. More recently, Fairfax County in Virginia has
been looking into a proposal to increase classroom sizes in the face of
significant budget cuts. The Board of Education in South Carolina is also
weighing their options in this area.

Technorati reported last fall that 22 percent of the children in the U.S. live at or
below poverty level. American Graduate defines poverty as a family of four
with an annual income level of $23,050 or lower. American Graduate also cites
a report from the Southern Education Foundation, which shows in 17 states
across the U.S., low-income students now comprise the majority of public
school students in those states. Some estimates put poverty levels for public
school students at 25% in the not-so-distant future.

Technology needs to come into the classroom to keep up with the learning
demands of the 21st century. Schools that are already cash-strapped may find
an insurmountable challenge in coming up with the funding to bring computers
and other forms of technology into their classes. Scholastic offers some tips for
school districts that want to fit the bill for technology, including everything
from asking individuals in the district for “big gifts” to going to Uncle Sam for
the funding. The website also suggests negotiating prices on technology when
possible and allowing students to bring their own from home.

Bullying is not a new problem, but it is one that has a profound impact on the
learning aptitude of many students today. Technology has given bullies even
more avenues to torment their victims – through social networking, texting
and other virtual interactions. Cyberbullying has become a major issue for
schools, as evidenced by the number of suicides that can be directly traced to
bullying events. The fact that laws are still fuzzy regarding cyberbullying adds
to the challenge – since parents, teachers and administrators are unsure of
how to legally handle such issues.

Education economics or the economics of education is the study

of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education,
the financing and provision of education, and the comparative efficiency of
various educational programs and policies. From early works on the
relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the
field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all
areas with linkages to education.

The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human

capital theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is investment in
the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase earnings, or provide
long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes referred to
as cultural capital).[7] An increase in human capital can follow technological
progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their
skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating
machines. 

With a world population of 7 billion people and limited natural resources, we,
as individuals and societies need to learn to live together sustainably. We need
to take action responsibly based on the understanding that what we do today
can have implications on the lives of people and the planet in future. Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD) empowers people to change the way they
think and work towards a sustainable future.
UNESCO aims to improve access to quality education on sustainable
development at all levels and in all social contexts, to transform society by
reorienting education and help people develop knowledge, skills, values and
behaviours needed for sustainable development.

EMPLOYMENT

Globalization and the attendant concerns about poverty and inequality have
become a focus of discussion in a way that few other topics, except for
international terrorism or global warming, have. Most people I know have a
strong opinion on globalization, and all of them express an interest in the well-
being of the world's poor. The financial press and influential international
officials confidently assert that global free markets expand the horizons for the
poor, whereas activist-protesters hold the opposite belief with equal intensity.
Yet the strength of people's conviction is often in inverse proportion to the
amount of robust factual evidence they have.

As is common in contentious public debates, different people mean different

things by the same word. Some interpret globalization to mean the global
reach of communications technology and capital movements, some think of
the outsourcing by domestic companies in rich countries, and others see
globalization as a byword for corporate capitalism or American cultural and
economic hegemony. So it is best to be clear at the outset of this article that I
shall primarily refer to economic globalization--the expansion of foreign trade
and investment. How does this process affect the wages, incomes and access
to resources for the poorest people in the world? This question is one of the
most important in social science today.

This job is hard--and we are not treated fairly. The managers do not respect us
women. But life is much harder for those working outside. Back in my village, I
would have less money. Outside of the factories, people selling things in the
street or carrying bricks on building sites earn less than we do. There are few
other options. Of course, I want better conditions. But for me this job means
that my children will have enough to eat and that their lives can improve.

The debate among economists is a paragon of civility compared with the one
taking place in the streets. Anti Globalizers' central claim is that globalization is
making the rich richer and the poor poorer; proglobalizers assert that it
actually helps the poor. But if one looks at the factual evidence, the matter is
rather more complicated. On the basis of household survey data collected by
different agencies, the World Bank estimates the fraction of the population in
developing countries that falls below the 1-a-day poverty line (at 1993 prices)--
an admittedly crude but internationally comparable level. By this measure,
extreme poverty is declining in the aggregate.

he labor market, also known as the job market, refers to the supply of and
demand for labor, in which employees provide the supply and employers
provide the demand. It is a major component of any economy and is intricately
linked to markets for capital, goods, and services.

The labor market refers to the supply of and demand for labor, in which
employees provide the supply and employers provide the demand.

The labor market should be viewed at both the macroeconomic and

microeconomic levels.

Unemployment rates and labor productivity rates are two important

macroeconomic gauges.

Individual wages and number of hours worked are two important

microeconomic gauges.

At the macroeconomic level, supply and demand are influenced by domestic

and international market dynamics, as well as factors such as immigration, the
age of the population, and education levels. Relevant measures include
unemployment, productivity, participation rates, total income, and gross
domestic product (GDP).

At the microeconomic level, individual firms interact with employees, hiring

them, firing them, and raising or cutting wages and hours. The relationship
between supply and demand influences the hours employees work and
compensation they receive in wages, salary, and benefits.

Universal basic income (UBI), also called unconditional basic income, basic

income, citizen's income, citizen's basic income, basic income
guarantee, basic living stipend, guaranteed annual income, universal income
security program or universal demogrant, is a theoretical governmental public
program for a periodic payment delivered to all citizens of a given population
without a means test or work requirement.[2] A basic income can be
implemented nationally, regionally, or locally. If the level is sufficient to meet a
person's basic needs (i.e., at or above the poverty line) it is sometimes called a
full basic income; if it is less than that amount, it may be called a partial basic
income.

Youth unemployment is the situation of young people who are looking for a

job, but cannot find a job, with the age range being that defined by the United
Nations as 15–24 years old. An unemployed person is defined as someone who
does not have a job but is actively seeking work. In order to qualify as
unemployed for official and statistical measurement, the individual must be
without employment, willing and able to work, of the officially designated
"working age" (often from the teens to the mid-60s) and actively searching for
a position. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in
every country in the world.

Beyond the necessity to ensure its access to all, education is not adequately
tailored to the needs of the labour market, which in turn leads to two
consequences: the inability for young people to find jobs and the inability for
employers to hire the skills they need. Combined with the economic crisis and
the lack of sufficient job creation in many countries, it has resulted in high
unemployment rates around the world and the development of a skills crisis.
Surveys suggest that up to half of all businesses have open positions for which
they are struggling to find suitably qualified people.[8] One global survey found
that more than 55% of employers worldwide believe there is a "skill crisis" [8] as
businesses witness a growing mismatch between the skills students learn in
the education system and those required in the workplace. For many
governments, a key question is how they can bridge this gap and ensure that
young people are equipped with the skills employers are looking for.

Many countries around the world provide income assistance to support

unemployed youth until labour market and economic conditions improve.
[15]
 Although this support is strictly related to obligations in terms of active job
search and training, it has led to an emerging debate on whether or not it
creates dependency among the youth and has a detrimental effect on them.
[16]
 In September 2014, David Cameron announced that he would cut housing
and employment benefits for 18- to 21-year-olds by £3,000 to £23,000 [17] to
reduce dependency on government assistance and redirect funding to targeted
programmes for increased learning and training opportunities.

FUEL AND ENERGY

Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity

generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-
grid) energy services.

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have
renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply.
National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly
in the coming decade and beyond.[14] At least two countries, Iceland and
Norway, generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and
many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in
the future.[15] At least 47 nations around the world already have over 50
percent of electricity from renewable resources.[16][17][18] Renewable energy
resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which
are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of
renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in
significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.
[19]
 In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting
renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.[20][21]
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable
technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing
countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.
Hydraulic fracturing, also
called fracking, fracking, hydrofracking, fraccing, fracking,
and hydrofracturing, is a well stimulation technique involving the fracturing
of bedrock formations by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-
pressure injection of "fracking fluid" (primarily water, containing sand or
other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into
a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock formations through which natural
gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is
removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either
sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.[1]
Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947, and the first
commercially successful application followed in 1950. As of 2012, 2.5 million
"frac jobs" had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells, over one
million of those within the U.S.[2][3] Such treatment is generally necessary to
achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas, tight gas, tight oil, and coal seam
gas wells.[4] Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in
certain veins or dikes.[5] Drilling and hydraulic fracturing have made the United
States a major crude oil exporter as of 2019,[6] but leakage of methane, a
powerful greenhouse gas, has dramatically increased.[7] Increased oil and gas
production from the decade-long fracking boom has led to lower prices for
consumers, with near-record lows of the share of household income going to
energy expenditures. Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial.

Peak oil is the year when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is
reached, after which it is expected to enter terminal decline.[2] As of 2020, peak
oil forecasts range from 2019[3] to the 2040s,[4] depending on economics[5] and
how governments respond to global warming.[6] It is often confused with oil
depletion; however, whereas depletion refers to a period of falling reserves
and supply, peak oil refers to the point of maximum production. The concept
of peak oil is often credited to geologist M. King Hubbert whose 1956
paper first presented a formal theory. Peak coal was in 2013 and peak oil is
forecast to occur before peak gas.
Most early analyses concentrated on increasing costs of extraction and
assumed that demand would drive costs higher. More recent analyses
concentrate on drop in demand as alternatives to oil become more attractive.
Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of
energy from natural resources. These activities include production of
conventional, alternative and renewable sources of energy, and for
the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. Energy
conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy
development, and can have benefits to society with improvements
to environmental issues.
Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating
and air conditioning, and communication, for industrial, commercial, and
domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as primary resources,
where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as
secondary resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more
conveniently usable form. Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted
by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing
processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation.

There is considerable uncertainty about the scale of methane leakage

associated with hydraulic fracturing, and even some evidence that leakage may
cancel out the greenhouse gas emissions benefits of natural gas relative to
other fossil fuels. For example, a report by Environmental Defense Fund (EDF)
highlights this issue, focusing on the leakage rate in Pennsylvania during
extensive testing and analysis was found to be approximately 10%, or over five
times the reported figures.[22] This leakage rate is considered representative of
the hydraulic fracturing industry in the US generally. EDF has recently
announced a satellite mission to further locate and measure methane
emissions.

GLOBALIZATION

Criticism of globalization is skepticism of the claimed benefits of globalization.

Many of these views are held by the anti-globalization movement.
Globalization has created much global and internal unrest in many countries.
While the dynamics of capitalism is changing and each country is unique in its
political makeup, globalization is a set-in-stone "program" that is difficult to
implement without political unrest. Globalization can be partly responsible for
the current global economic crisis. Case studies of Thailand and the Arab
nations' view of globalization show that globalization is a threat to culture and
religion, and it harms indigenous people groups while multinational
corporations profit from it. Although globalization has promised an improved
standard of living and economic development, it has been heavily criticized for
its production of negative effects. Globalization is not simply an economic
project, but it also heavily influences the country environmentally, politically,
and socially as well.

The founder of Local Futures (formerly the International Society for Ecology

and Culture), Helena Norberg-Hodge, has suggested that globalization does not
work for all the economies that it affects and that it does not always deliver
the economic growth that is expected of it.
Globalization has been described as an "uneven process" in Africa due to the
global integration of some groups happening alongside the marginalization or
exclusion of others. Therefore, worldwide trade will have restrictions on the
growth of the economy.

The Global Economic Crisis, the worst financial crisis since the Great
Depression, can be partially attributed to globalization. Although globalization
promised an improved standard of living, it has actually worsened the financial
situation of many homes and has made the financial crisis global through the
influences of international financial institutions such as the World Bank.
Globalization limits development and civilization to a path that only leads to a
Western and capitalistic system. Because of the political and structural
differences in countries, the implementation of globalization has been
detrimental for many countries.

Globalization has fueled the rise of transnational corporations, and their power
has vaulted to the point where they can now rival many nation states. Of the
world's one hundred largest economies, forty-two of them are corporations.
[citation needed]
 Many of these transnational corporations now hold sway over many
nation states, as their fates are intertwined with the nations that they are
located in.
Also, transnational corporations could offer massive influence regarding
the Third World, and bring about more pressure to help increase worker
salaries and working conditions in sweatshops. However, these corporations
are often transnational specifically to take advantage of different labor laws,
which they can keep implemented with their influence and exploit for their
gain. On account of doing business globally, transnational corporations have a
huge influence in many nation states.
In the process of implementing globalization in developing countries, the
creation of winners and losers are often predetermined. Multinational
corporations often benefit from globalization while poor, indigenous locals are
negatively affected. The power of transnational companies inflicts a major
threat for indigenous tribes. Transnational companies have exploited local
family land for their businesses.[4] Globalization can be seen as a new form of
colonization or imperialism, as economic inequality and the rise in
unemployment have followed with its implementation. Globalization has been
criticized for benefiting those who are already large and in power at the risk
and growing vulnerability of the countries’ indigenous population.
Furthermore, globalization is non-democratic, as it is enforced through top-
down methods.

Globalization has been one of the main causes of the increase in inequality in
many countries in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and
Development. These countries, including the United States, Canada, and
Argentina, have faced an increase in inequality by between one-half to one-
third between the 1970s and the late 1990s.

Globalization is about interconnecting people around the world beyond the

physical barrier of geographical boundaries.[7]
These advances in economic globalization were disrupted by World War I.
Most of the global economic powers constructed protectionist economic
policies and introduced trade barriers that slowed trade growth to the point of
stagnation.[8] This caused a slowing of worldwide trade and even led to other
countries introducing immigration caps. Globalization did not fully resume until
the 1970s, when governments began to emphasize the benefits of trade.
[9]
 Today, follow-on advances in technology have led to the rapid expansion of
global trade.[10]
Three suggested factors accelerated economic globalization: advancement of
science and technology, market oriented economic reforms, and contributions
by multinational corporations.[9][11]
The 1956 invention of containerized shipping, along with increases in ship
sizes, were a major part of the reduction in shipping costs.
According to the International Monetary Fund, growth benefits of economic
globalization are widely shared. While several globalizers have seen an
increase in inequality, most notably China, this increase in inequality is a result
of domestic liberalization, restrictions on internal migration, and agricultural
policies, rather than a result of international trade.[25]
Poverty has been reduced as evidenced by a 5.4 percent annual growth in
income for the poorest fifth of the population of Malaysia. Even in China,
where inequality continues to be a problem, the poorest fifth of the population
saw a 3.8 percent annual growth in income. In several countries, those living
below the dollar-per-day poverty threshold declined. In China, the rate
declined from 20 to 15 percent and in Bangladesh the rate dropped from 43 to
36 percent.

Economic globalization may affect culture. Populations may mimic the

international flow of capital and labor markets in the form of immigration and
the merger of cultures. Foreign resources and economic measures may affect
different native cultures and may cause assimilation of a native people.[73] As
these populations are exposed to the English language, computers, western
music, and North American culture, changes are being noted in shrinking
family size, immigration to larger cities, more casual dating practices, and
gender roles are transformed.

LAW AND CRIMINALITY

Law is a system of rules created and enforced through social or governmental

institutions to regulate behavior,[2] with its precise definition a matter of
longstanding debate.[3][4][5] It has been variously described as a science[6][7] and
the art of justice.[8][9][10] State-enforced laws can be made by a
group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive
through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent,
usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally
binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative
ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws
themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and
the rights encoded therein. The law
shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a
mediator of relations between people.

Consequently, the application of justice differs in every culture. Early theories

of justice were set out by the Ancient Greek philosophers Plato in his work The
Republic, and Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics. Throughout history various
theories have been established. Advocates of divine command theory have
said that justice issues from God. In the 1600s, philosophers such as John
Locke said that justice derives from natural law. Social contract theory said that
justice is derived from the mutual agreement of everyone. In the
1800s, utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill said that justice is based
on the best outcomes for the greatest number of people. Theories
of distributive justice study what is to be distributed, between whom they are
to be distributed, and what is the proper distribution. Egalitarians have said
that justice can only exist within the coordinates of equality. John Rawls used
a social contract theory to say that justice, and especially distributive justice, is
a form of fairness. Robert Nozick and others said that property rights, also
within the realm of distributive justice and natural law, maximizes the overall
wealth of an economic system. Theories of retributive justice say that
wrongdoing should be punished to insure justice. The closely
related restorative justice (also sometimes called "reparative justice") is an
approach to justice that focuses on the needs of victims and offenders.

The idea of justice occupies centre stage both in ethics, and in legal and
political philosophy. We apply it to individual actions, to laws, and to public
policies, and we think in each case that if they are unjust this is a strong,
maybe even conclusive, reason to reject them. Classically, justice was counted
as one of the four cardinal virtues (and sometimes as the most important of
the four); in modern times John Rawls famously described it as ‘the first virtue
of social institutions’ (Rawls 1971, p.3; Rawls, 1999, p.3). We might debate
which of these realms of practical philosophy has first claim on justice: is it first
and foremost a property of the law, for example, and only derivatively a
property of individuals and other institutions? But it is probably more
enlightening to accept that the idea has over time sunk deep roots in each of
these domains, and to try to make sense of such a wide-ranging concept by
identifying elements that are present whenever justice is invoked, but also
examining the different forms it takes in various practical contexts. This article
aims to provide a general map of the ways in which justice has been
understood by philosophers, past and present.
Justice is a matter of how each separate person is treated and appears to
create problems for theories such as utilitarianism that judge actions and
policies on the basis of their overall consequences aggregated across people –
assuming that these theories wish to incorporate rather than discard the idea
of justice. In Section 4 below we examine how utilitarians have attempted to
respond to this challenge.

Second, Justinian’s definition underlines that just treatment is

something due to each person, in other words that justice is a matter of claims
that can be rightfully made against the agent dispensing justice, whether a
person or an institution. Here there is a contrast with other virtues: we
demand justice, but we beg for charity or forgiveness. This also means that
justice is a matter of obligation for the agent dispensing it, and that the agent
wrongs the recipient if the latter is denied what is due to her. It is a
characteristic mark of justice that the obligations it creates should be
enforceable: we can be made to deliver what is due to others as a matter of
justice, either by the recipients themselves or by third parties. However it
overstates the position to make the enforceability of its requirements a
defining feature of justice.

The third aspect of justice to which Justinian’s definition draws our attention is
the connection between justice and the impartial and consistent application of
rules – that is what the ‘constant and perpetual will’ part of the definition
conveys. Justice is the opposite of arbitrariness. It requires that where two
cases are relevantly alike, they should be treated in the same way (We discuss
below the special case of justice and lotteries). Following a rule that specifies
what is due to a person who has features X, Y, Z whenever such a person is
encountered ensures this. And although the rule need not be unchangeable –
perpetual in the literal sense – it must be relatively stable. This explains why
justice is exemplified in the rule of law, where laws are understood as general
rules impartially applied over time.

The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt)[2] is an intergovernmental

organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague, Netherlands. The
ICC is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to
prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. It is intended to
complement existing national judicial systems and it may therefore exercise its
jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute
criminals. The ICC lacks universal territorial jurisdiction, and may only
investigate and prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes
committed by nationals of member states, or crimes in situations referred to
the Court by the United Nations Security Council.

Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (French: Surveiller et

punir : Naissance de la prison) is a 1975 book by the French philosopher Michel
Foucault. It is an analysis of the social and theoretical mechanisms behind the
changes that occurred in Western penal systems during the modern age based
on historical documents from France. Foucault argues that prison did not
become the principal form of punishment just because of
the humanitarian concerns of reformists. He traces the cultural shifts that led
to the predominance of prison via the body and power. Prison used by the
"disciplines" – new technological powers that can also be found, according to
Foucault, in places such as schools, hospitals, and military barracks.

MIGRATION

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another

with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location
(geographic region). The movement often occurs over long distances and from
one country to another, but internal migration (within a single country) is also
possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally.
[1]
 Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual
and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is very
also important for both work and non-work migration.[2] People may migrate as
individuals, in family units or in large groups.[3] There are four major forms of
migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.[4]
Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement (such as a natural
disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as displaced persons or, if
remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who
seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for leaving the home country
is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application
to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described [by whom?] as
an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status
becomes that of a refugee.
In contemporary times,[when?] migration governance has become closely
associated with state sovereignty. States retain the power of deciding on the
entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the
defining elements of a State.

Why do people migrate?

People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified
as economic, social, political or environmental:

● economic migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path

● social migration - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be
closer to family or friends
● political migration - moving to escape political persecution or war
● environmental causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding
Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country
to enhance their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg
someone who moves due to war or famine.

A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home
to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not
have a clear idea of where they may finally settle.

Push and pull factors

Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:

● lack of services
● lack of safety
● high crime
● crop failure
● drought
● flooding
● poverty
● war
Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They
include:

● higher employment
● more wealth
● better services
● good climate
● safer, less crime
● political stability
● more fertile land
● lower risk from natural hazards
Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull
factors.

Many of the countries neighboring conflict zones—which have welcomed most

of the refugees—have stretched their capacity to absorb people to the limit.
To support additional public services for refugees, they will require more
financial resources. The international community must play its part. With the
IMF’s support, for example, Jordan has been able to adjust its fiscal targets to
help meet this need.

Those countries that have done most to welcome displaced people are to be
commended. Some countries have been willing to receive large flows of
refugees and done their utmost to provide them with food and shelter.
Others, especially among advanced countries, should look at how they might
increase their scope for admitting more refugees.

Human capital flight refers to the emigration or immigration of individuals

who have received advanced training at home. The net benefits of human
capital flight for the receiving country are sometimes referred to as a "brain
gain" whereas the net costs for the sending country are sometimes referred to
as a "brain drain".[1] In occupations that experience a surplus of graduates,
immigration of foreign-trained professionals can aggravate
the underemployment of domestic graduates,[2] whereas emigration from an
area with a surplus of graduates leads to better opportunities for the ones left.
The other way around, with occupations or areas with a lack of graduates,
emigration will lead to more difficulties concerning the area.
Research shows that there are significant economic benefits of human capital
flight both for the migrants themselves and the receiving country. [3][4][5][6]
[7]
 There are a series of positive and negative effects in the economy of
countries of origin, with many developing countries devising strategies to avoid
emigration of skilled labour.[6][7][8] It has been found that emigration of skilled
individuals to the developed world contributes to greater education and
innovation in the developing world.[9][10][11][12][13] Research also suggests that
emigration, remittances and return migration can have a positive impact
on democratization and the quality of political institutions in the country of
origin.

Research suggests that migration (both low-and high-skilled) is beneficial both

to the receiving and exporting countries.[3][4][34][6] According to one study,
welfare increases in both types of countries: "welfare impact of observed
levels of migration is substantial, at about 5% to 10% for the main receiving
countries and about 10% in countries with large incoming remittances".
[3]
 According to economists Michael Clemens and Lant Pratchett, "permitting
people to move from low-productivity places to high-productivity places
appears to be by far the most efficient generalized policy tool, at the margin,
for poverty reduction".[35] A successful two-year in situ anti-poverty program,
for instance, helps poor people make in a year what is the equivalent of
working one day in the developed world.[35] Research on a migration lottery
that allowed Tongans to move to New Zealand found that the lottery winners
saw a 263% increase in income from migrating (after only one year in New
Zealand) relative to the unsuccessful lottery entrants.[36] A 2017 study of
Mexican immigrant households in the United States found that by virtue of
moving to the United States, the households increase their incomes more than
fivefold immediately.[37] The study also found that the "average gains accruing
to migrants surpass those of even the most successful current programs of
economic development."[37]
Remittances increase living standards in the country of origin. Remittances are
a large share of GDP in many developing countries,[38][39] and have been shown
to increase the wellbeing of receiving families.[40] In the case of Haiti, the
670,000 adult Haitians living in the OECD sent home about $1,700 per migrant
per year. That's well over double Haiti's $670 per capita GDP.[30] A study on
remittances to Mexico found that remittances lead to a substantial increase in
the availability of public services in Mexico, surpassing government spending in
some localities.[41] A 2017 study found that remittances can significantly
alleviate poverty after natural disasters.[42] Research shows that more educated
and higher earning emigrants remit more.[43] Some research shows that the
remittance effect is not strong enough to make the remaining natives in
countries with high emigration flows better off.[3] A 2016 NBER paper suggests
that emigration from Italy in the wake of the 2008 global financial
crisis reduced political change in Italy.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

In 2016, transportation overtook power plants as the top producer of carbon

dioxide emissions in the US for the first time since 1979. Nearly a quarter of
the transportation footprint comes from medium- and heavy-duty trucks. And
increasingly the impact is coming in what people in the world of supply-chain
logistics call “the last mile,” meaning the final stretch from a distribution
center to a package’s destination. (The “last mile” can in truth be a dozen miles
or more.)

Before the online revolution, the majority of last-mile deliveries were to

stores, which tended to cluster in areas that can be more easily served by large
trucks. Today, most packages are now going directly to residential addresses.
We’ve traded trips to the mall, in relatively fuel-efficient cars, for deliveries to
residential neighborhoods by trucks and other vehicles. The last mile today
ends on our doorsteps.

Even before the rise of online shopping and residential deliveries, urban freight
traffic, generated a disproportionate amount of emissions, although it
represented a small proportion of overall traffic. These emissions include the
greenhouse gases responsible for global warming as well as a range of other
pollutants that have deleterious health impacts on communities.

And things are getting worse. Deliveries are now expected to go into
neighborhoods that were never designed for freight traffic — creating
congestion, noise problems, and infrastructure damage in addition to
emissions. The high number of destinations, combined with the
unpredictability of customer orders and the increasing demand for speedy
delivery also results in trucks that are less than full making multiple trips.
The problem’s not just the mode of transport. We’re also simply buying more
stuff. We used to be limited by the stores in our town and their selection. Now
we can shop from almost anywhere and get almost anything — and we do.
From there, the sequence is predictable and disturbing. More shipments mean
more trucks. More trucks, more gridlock, more double-parking, more noise,
more pollution.
We can attack these problems from several directions. First, we can make the
existing freight system more efficient — even if current consumption trends
continue. Second, we can change how we order online to minimize the number
of shipments.
The significant role of airports on the regional economy has been prominently
recognised by many researchers; airports bring significant social benefits and
in many cases they are thought to be the single largest generator of economic
activity in the regions they serve. However, transport infrastructures like
airports have considerable effect on a city's urban development and have
negative impacts on the environment. Many reports show that the
contribution of airports to environmental disturbance at a local and global
scale is significant. Key environmental impacts may result from airport
operations, airline operations, airport access or various construction projects in
the airport landside.
Within the global context, airports have a significant impact on the global
environment in terms of climate change. At a local level, even though noise
seems to be the main concern over the last 20 years, air emissions, resources
(energy and water) availability, waste and waste water management,
ecosystems and land use planning constitute issues that are directly linked to
local communities’ tolerance.
Worldwide international aviation is considered one of the most growing
sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Even though aircraft emissions are not
included in Kyoto protocol, emissions that are directly controlled by airport
operators are ground-based and therefore are subject to national inventories
and targets.