Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region I
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF ILOCOS NORTE

General Biology 2
Quarter 3 – Module 2:
History of Life on Earth &
Mechanisms of Evolution

MELC: Describe general features of the history of life on

Earth, including generally accepted dates and sequence
of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major
groups of organisms present during these time periods
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8)

Explain the mechanisms that produce change in

populations from generation to generation (e.g., artificial
selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation,
recombination)
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)

Prepared by:
JOHNVER F. CURAMENG
Solsona National High School
Science SHS – General Biology 2
Share-A-Resource-Program
Quarter 3 – Module 2: History of Life on Earth & Mechanisms of Evolution
First Edition, 2020

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in
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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Writer: Johnver F. Curammeng
Editor: Sherwin Jay Palaspas, Marissa Areola
Reviewers/Evaluators: Rajah Adib Reyes, Jerry G. Tabrilla,
Ursino C. Pascua

Management Team: Joann A. Corpuz EdD, CESO V

Joye D. Madalipay EdD
Santiago L. Baoec EdD
Jenetrix T. Tumaneng
Jerry G. Tabrilla
Ursino C. Pascua

Division Design & Layout Artist: Jerry M. Burgos

Printed in the Philippines by ______________________________

Schools Division of Ilocos Norte
Office Address: Brgy. 7B, Giron Street, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte
Telefax: (077) 771-0960
Telephone No.: (077) 770-5963, (077) 600-2605
E-mail Address: ilocos.norte@deped.gov.ph
 11
General Biology 2
Quarter 3 – Module 2:
History of Life on Earth &
Mechanisms of Evolution
Introductory Message
This Contextualized Learning Module (CLM) is prepared so that you, our dear
learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions,
directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each
lesson with ease.
This CLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-
step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

Pre-test is provided to measure your prior knowledge on the lesson. This will
show you if you need to proceed in completing this module or if you need to ask your
facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of the lesson. At the
end of this module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check your learning.
Answer keys are provided for all activities and tests. We trust that you will be honest
in using them.

In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher is also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they can
best help you in your home-based learning.

Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part
of this CLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and tests.
Likewise, read the instructions carefully before performing each task.

If you have any question in using this CLM or any difficulty in answering the
tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the nature of Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the textbook you are now using.

The module will talk about the History of Life on Earth & Mechanisms of Evolution

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the dates and sequence of the periods in the geologic time scale;
2. identify the major events in each major period;
3. describe the characteristics of the major groups of organisms’ presents during a
time period;
4. identify types of fossils; and
5. describe causes of mass extinctions.

What I Know

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. ________________ are the longest subdivision of Geological Time Scale.
A. Eons B. Eras
C. Periods D. Epoch

2. How old is our Earth?

A. 46 million years old B. 4.6 million years old
C. 460 million years old D. 4.6 billion years old

3. When was the first life appeared on Earth?

A. 320 billion years old B. 3.8 billion years old
C. 320 million years old D. 4.6 billion years old

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4. Which is the longest part of Earth's History?
A. Mesozoic Era B. Precambrian Time
C. Paleozoic Era D. Cenozoic Era

5. End of this era was believed to be caused by a comet or asteroid colliding with
Earth, causing a huge cloud of dust and smoke to rise into the atmosphere,
blocking out the sun.
A. Mesozoic Era B. Precambrian Time
C. Paleozoic Era D. Cenozoic Era

6. The Geologic time scale is subdivided into 4 groups. List them beginning with the
largest.
A. Period, Epoch, Era, Eon B. Era, Epoch, Eon, Period
C. Eon, Era, Epoch, Period D. Eon, Era, Period, Epoch

7. During which era did Pangaea break up?

A. Mesozoic Era B. Precambrian Time
C. Paleozoic Era D. Cenozoic Era

8. When did Mammals evolve?

A. Mesozoic Era B. Precambrian Time
C. Paleozoic Era D. Cenozoic Era

9. The boundaries between ______________ seem to coincide with major changes in

the life forms present on Earth.
A. Precambrian B. Eras
C. Periods D. Epochs

10. During which era were the first land plants formed.
A. Mesozoic Era B. Precambrian Time
C. Paleozoic Era D. Cenozoic Era

11. Human beings evolved during which geological era?

A. Mesozoic B. Precambrian
C. Paleozoic D. Cenozoic

12. Trilobites were invertebrates that could be first found

A. 3 million years ago B. 20 million years ago
C. 350 million years ago D. 530 million years ago

13. Which type of organism could be much better chance to be fossilized?

A. Mammals B. Sharks
C. Sea shells D. Jelly Fish

14. Which type of invertebrate group did the Trilobites belong to?
A. Molluscs B. Arthropods
C. Jelly fish D. Worms

2
.15. According to the figure below, in how many eras have mammals existed?

A. 2
B. 4
C. 7
D. 5

Lesson
History of Life on Earth
1

Earth is the only known planet to have sustained and cater life. But have you
ever wondered how did life begin on its surface? What are the features and
characteristics of the first life on Earth? Where and when did exactly life begin?

Are humans the first life found on Earth? If not, when did humans begin to
populate the Earth? What are the organisms that walked before humans and with
humans on Earth?

There are a lot of scientific questions that we have when it comes to the History
of Life on Earth, but there’s no more waiting for these inquiries to be answered
because you now have this module to enjoy and learn from!

What’s In
Previously on the past lesson, you have learned the wonders and the many
possible applications of the central dogma of molecular biology which is genetic
engineering. You have discussed also the many benefits and applications of
recombinant DNA technology to the society. This time, evaluate the following
statements and tell whether you agree or not.

3
 1. I will eat different varieties of fruits and vegetables produced by classical
breeding.
2. I will eat genetically-modified fruits that contain toxins for pests but safe
for humans and other mammals, fish and birds.
3. I will use bacteria-produced insulin if I have diabetes where I
cannot produce insulin.
4. If I have a mutated gene that makes my immune cells defective, I will
allow the use of gene therapy to replace the mutated gene with the
normal gene in my immune cells.
5. If the process is available, I will determine the eye color or IQ of my
future children.

In addition, number the following from 1 being the first step and 4 being the last
step according to the procedures followed in genetic engineering.

Steps in Genetic Engineering:

____ Ligation ____Transformation ____DNA Isolation ____
Selection

As you have learned, these steps are the basic procedure in trying to alter or change
a specific trait of an organism such as the size and length of the bone, the shape,
and structure of its lips and more. You need to remember that these differences
are caused by the codes of genes on DNA. Keep this in mind as we will try to
connect this concept to our new learnings in this module.

Note the Teachers

The teacher must consider the prerequisite skills needed in
the development of this competency including the schema or
background knowledge which may reinforce learning. This module
will help the learners bridge the gap of learning to attain mastery
of the lesson in its spiral progression.

4
 What is New
“Have you seen the movies Ice Age and The Land Before Time? How was the
Earth presented in this movie?”
The Earth is covered with thick blanket of ice, lots of volcanoes and high
mountains, large organisms roamed the land, the atmosphere did not have high
oxygen content, asteroids/ meteors frequently hit the surface, the lands moved a lot
or the continents were a little closer to each other, volcanic eruptions, a little bit
warmer, plants were bigger and humans were not yet around.

In this lesson, you will be learning more about the Earth’s vast history, both
gradual and catastrophic processes that have produced enormous changes.

What is It
The Earth is the only known planet with the existence of life, meaning it can
provide the necessary ingredients and conditions for life to exist. But is this how
simple the equation is?

Favorable life condition=Existence of life

The answer is yes and no.

1. Yes, life exists on Earth because of the favorable condition that it has.

2. No, it is not as simple as that equality.

Life is complex. Life has its ingenuity. Life thrives not only on favorable
conditions, but also it adopts and challenges itself to fit in its environment. Having
mentioned the environment let us now try to discover: Where did life begin?
Where did life begin?

Let us consider the condition of primordial or “young” Earth. It is not the same as its
structure today, there are still no plants, trees, and breath-taking sceneries. There are
only an atmosphere and places for water and ground. The condition is still too harsh
because the earth is only starting to develop its landmasses and structures.

But the scientists were sure that at the beginning of life on Earth, there are
atmospheric events taking places such as storms and thunders. This is because of
the chemical reactions occurring between the surface, atmosphere, and inner part of
the very active “young” Earth.

Because of these given conditions, scientists narrow down into 3 (three) probable
places where life FIRST appear on Earth: land, shallow pond, deep-sea vents. Let us

5
check each one of them and eliminate the two less likely place of origin of life on
Earth.

1. The land is very unlikely because during “young” Earth time, there is
still not enough oxygen on its surface and UV rays are too strong for
molecular bonding to occur and make life possible.
2. A shallow pond is a bit likely because it is full of organic materials and
when evaporated, the organic materials present in it will have a higher
concentration
that will lead to more favorable conditions for organic materials to
combine and make life possible. But the experiments cannot prove it.
3. We are now left with deep-sea vents. Deep-sea vents are highly likely
the exact place of origin of life on Earth because DNA evidence
suggests that early life forms can survive on high-temperature
conditions like those in deep-sea vents. The high temperature also
provides high chemical energy which makes deep-sea vents the most
accepted hypothesis among the three given places above.

Deep-Sea Vents and the Miller-Urey Experiment

It is likely proven in theory and DNA evidence correlation that deep-sea vent
is WHERE life began, but can scientists prove it through experiment?

The answer is YES! Miller and Urey are scientists who conducted a simple
experiment, that yielded very helpful findings in answering questions about how life
began on Earth.

They have set up the experiment, as shown in the diagram above. Flask A
represents the earth’s primitive ocean; Flask B with the presence of methane and
ammonia represents the primitive atmosphere. The connecting tubes between the
flasks represent the water cycle processes (i.e., evaporation, cloud formation,
condensation, and precipitation), which are already occurring during the early days
of “young” Earth. Certain conditions such as heating/boiling of the primitive ocean
and providing electricity from the power supply to create a spark that may be like

6
thunders in the actual earth’s atmosphere were found to be important in the success
of the experiment.
The heat from the boiling flask and the spark from the power supply in the
atmospheric flask have given the necessary boost or starting point for organic
compounds to materialize in the experiment. The experiment yielded amino acids
and complex organic materials throughout the process. This experiment showed that
high chemical energy from chemical interaction and heat are needed for such a
process to take place.

How did Life begin and What is the earliest life form on Earth?
You have learned from the experiment of Miller and Urey that because of the chemical
reactions occurring between the sea and the atmosphere of the “young” Earth,
organic compounds such as amino acids developed and became present along with
different water areas on Earth through the water cycle.

The early atmospheric events and conditions of Earth favor the creation of complex
organic compounds such as amino acids.
You can now say that these complex ORGANIC COMPOUNDS or MOLECULES are
the predecessors of life on Earth. The occurrence of these materials on the surface
of the Earth became the earliest sign of a high chance of developing the presence of
life on Earth.

Why? Because these compounds are like the key ingredients to life; with the correct
“cooking” method, these compounds will bring forth the first living organism.
Our Ancestors are very SIMPLE

Problem: After the synthesis of organic molecules, the earth has what is
likened to an “organic soup” which are the organic compounds found in the
seawater and other surfaces of the earth where water was found. But this soup is
too diluted or weak to evolve into another life structure.

The solution: laboratory experiments showed that when hot clay, sand, or
rock were placed in the dilute organic soup, the molecules self-assembled. These
molecules stick to the hot surface which increased their density and likelihood of a
reaction. This had led to the following evolution of the early life presence on Earth.

At this point, let us trace the development of the most likely earliest life form on
Earth:

1. Organic Compounds -these are molecules linked with life and

developed through reactions between atmospheric processes and
the watery area of Earth.

7
 2. RNA -the resulting molecule when organic compounds self-
assembled into a self-replicating molecule.
3. Pre-cells -resulted when self-replicating RNA enclosed itself in a
membrane to protect itself from the outside environment.
4. Primitive Cells -these are pre-cells with improved function
through the process of evolution
5. Modern Cell -as the cells choose to fit itself for survival, it
developed into a structure which
is familiar to us today, a cell with
a DNA genome.

This modern cell had led to the

development of the first classification of life
form on Earth: the bacteria or the
prokaryotes. After some time, as the oxygen
level on Earth increases the next archetype
of cells has developed: The Eukaryotes.
It will be important for you to be
reminded of your previous biology class
discussions that prokaryotes and
eukaryotes are the two types of cells in which the prokaryotes are simpler,
and the eukaryotes are more complex and have more cell organelles.
Take note of how life chooses to
adapt to the existing conditions that it is
in, and how it changes and evolves
through the process. From the simplest to
the most complex. Life is like learning. It
starts from the basics until it becomes an
expert in dealing with the challenges that
its environment posits.

When did life begin?

Pieces of evidence suggested that if Earth is 4.5 billion years old from
radiometric dating of the oldest rock found on it, life on Earth began most probably
3.5 billion years ago.
The first line of evidence that gives us the answer to the question when did life
begin on Earth is the stromatolites. Stromatolites are “living” rock samples that
scientists have discovered and dated to age up to 3.5 billion years old. These are rock
formations identical to a living mat of microbes. They have layers of microbes and
sediments. Scientists found out that the topmost layer used photosynthesis to obtain
food and the lower layer uses the top layers by product to survive.
Another line of shreds of evidence is the microfossils found in western
Australia. These are fossils that were first thought to be minerals, but later studies

8
using advanced techniques of dating and investigation proved that these are fossils
of microbes who have lived 3.5 billion years ago.
Panspermia: the other side of the coin

We have learned that life had first appeared as simple microbes and bacteria,
which have their point of origin from the chemical reactions and building of organic
compounds on deep-sea vents of ancient Earth, which as evidence suggests occurred
from 3.5 billion years ago.

But there is another school of thought as to how living organisms started on

Earth. Panspermia is a theory that postulates that life had come from outside the
Earth and upon reaching a suitable environment such as the deep-sea vents could
have evolved into a more complex living organism such as the bacteria. Supporting
evidence to this theory are the facts that organic molecules are found on rocks from
other celestial bodies such as the Mars and some bacteria can withstand a huge
amount of radiation and also be able to stay dormant under low atmospheric
conditions, which suggests that they may exist anywhere in the universe but were
not able to evolve because of the unfavorable condition.

The Book of the Origin of Life and How to read it

You have answered some of the reveling questions about the origin of life. And
you might have noticed that scientists answered those questions logically through
educated guesses and with the use of pieces of evidence.
If the History of the Earth is a book, then the ROCKS are its pages. Pieces of
evidence that tells the story of the distant past of the Earth and the life that had once
walked through it are found and are preserved on its rocks. Fossils, which may be
actual remains of organisms such as bones, teeth, shells, and leaves, or even traces
of their past activities such as footprints and nests, are usually as old as the rocks
where they were embedded or imprinted. These fossils and evidence were analyzed
using the following dating techniques:

1. Absolute Dating- obtaining the actual age of the fossils and rock through
radiometric dating or the use of the concept of half-life and the radioactive decay of
elements.
2. Relative Dating- obtaining the relative age of the rocks or samples, it
does not tell the actual age but only uses some principles of comparison which are
as follows:

a. Law of Superposition- which states that the youngest rocks are found on
top of the layers and the oldest rocks are found on the bottom

b. Law of Original Horizontality- sedimentation or layering of the rocks

occur horizontally; if tilting, breaking, or folding of rocks or its layer occur,
it happened recently after the horizontal layering.

c. Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship- if the rocks under investigation have

a cut from igneous rock intrusions, then the intrusions or fault breaks are
younger than the rock being investigated.

9
 Continental drift has played a major
role in macroevolution. Continental drift is the
slow, incessant movement of Earth’s crustal
plates on the hot mantle. This movement has
influenced the distribution of organisms and
greatly affected the history of life. Continental
mergers triggered extinctions and the
separation of continents caused the isolation
and diversification of organisms.

Plate tectonics, the movements of

Earth’s crustal plates, are also associated with
volcanoes and earthquakes. By forming new
islands, volcanoes can create opportunities for
organisms, but volcanic activity can also
destroy life.

Mass extinctions were followed by

diversification of life-forms. At the end of the
Cretaceous period, many life-forms
disappeared, including the dinosaurs. These
mass extinctions may have been a result of an
asteroid impact or volcanic activity. Every
mass extinction reduced the diversity of life.
But each was followed by a rebound in
diversity and mammals filled the void left by
the dinosaurs.

The GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Now that you gained the insight on how scientists read the history of the
Earth, it is the time to list down all of the life forms that they have unearthed through
time; from the very distant past of the origin of life into the present. To do that we
will use the geologic time scale.

Geologic Time Scale is a representation of the life forms that have lived and
dominated the Earth on a specific time scale. Geologic is the combination of the word
geologic and chronologic, which means rock and time, respectively.
The geologic timescale is divided into the following partitions:
Eon- largest division of the geologic time scale; spans hundreds to thousands
of millions of years ago (mya)
Era- division in an Era that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions
of years
Period- a division of geologic history that spans no more than one hundred
million years
Epoch- the smallest division of the geologic time scale characterized by
distinctive organisms.

10
 Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings
There are two eons on the Earth’s geologic time scale: the PRECAMBRIAN (4.6
billion years ago), and the PHANEROZOIC (540 million years ago). Precambrian is
when the origin of life existed, it is when the living creatures are as simple as
microorganisms such as bacteria from Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eras.
Phanerozoic is the eon of “everything” after the Cambrian Explosion.

The Cambrian period which took place approximately 540 million years ago is the
first period under the Phanerozoic eon, Paleozoic era and is well known for the
“Cambrian Explosion” because, during this era, life explodes and teamed with all
of the body plans for the evolution of animals diversity that will occur in the time
span of 40 million years.

11
 Under the Phanerozoic eon are the three major eras: the Paleozoic, also known
as the “age of invertebrates”, the Mesozoic also known as the “age of reptiles” and
the Cenozoic which is also known as the “age of mammals.”

Some of the notable periods on the geologic timescale are: the Devonian period
which is the age of fishes, the Triassic period when the first dinosaur and the first
mammal in the form of rodent appear, the Jurassic period which is the “golden age
of dinosaur” when the dinosaurs flourish and also when the first birds appear, the
Cretaceous period when the mass extinction and demise of dinosaurs and 25% of
marine life marked the end of the Mesozoic era and when the appearance of the first
primates and snakes marked the start of Cenozoic era.

Epochs under the Tertiary period are the Paleocene epoch when the first horse
appear, Eocene when grasses spread and large mammals such as elephants and
rhinos developed, Oligocene when dogs, cats, and apes appear, Miocene when
horses and tigers dominate the land, and Pliocene when hominids or the bipedal
apes develop.

The Quaternary period has Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Pleistocene is

when modern humans develop, this is also the ice age because ice sheets
predominate during this epoch. Holocene is the epoch where humans flourish and
dominate the earth.

As you can deduct from the discussed geologic time scale: we are currently living in
the Phanerozoic eon, Cenozoic era, Quaternary period, and Holocene epoch.

What’s More
Activity 1: You Complete Me!

Hello! Let us check what you already know about the History of Life on
Earth.

Complete the following story by supplying the correct words to describe the general
features of the history of life on Earth. Choose from the box below and write down
your answers on the space provided.

Eukaryotes Phanerozoic Archaebacteria

Paleozoic Holocene Emergence of Humans
Tertiary Cenozoic Mass Extinction
4.5 Billion Years Ago Organic Molecule Miller-Urey
Cultural and Tech Evolution 3.5 Billion Years Ago Panspermia
Quaternary Cambrian Explosion Deep sea vents

12
 The History of Life on Earth
Long ago after millions of years that the Earth has come to be; sprung out the
first sign of life, this was ventured to happen around 1.______________, and this first
sign of life is believed to be 2.______________. From this first sign of life, the RNA
approached the membrane-enclosed pre-cell structure until it was developed into a
true cell and DNA genome containing cell. After the DNA genome was formed, the
soup of life has stirred the first simple organism 3. ______________. All of these took
place and started from where life had sparked to be which is the 4. ______________
because it was observed to have a high amount of chemical energy. To prove it, a
famous experiment was done, and it was named as 5. ______________ experiment.

But it is not the only side of the coin, some scientists also believed that life
could have started outside the Earth and this theory or school of thought is termed
as 6.______________.

When the oxygen level in the early Earth rose, the next simple organism had
evolved, and it is the 7. ______________. The next essential event that had occurred
in the history of life on Earth is the 8. ______________during the 9. ______________
era.

Then the plants colonized the land, followed by the animals. But major
catastrophic events brought 10. ______________. And then the primates had finally
evolved, being the first animals to use their limbs, which in turn pave the way to the
11. ______________. After the biological evolution of man, it is now believed that
humans are in the transition of 12. ______________. Currently, humans are in the
3. ______________eon, 14. ______________era 15. ______________period, and
______________ epoch.

Activity 2: My Own Timeline

Now, you are aware of the Earth’s vast history. To trace the beginning of life
on Earth, you have to construct your own “Earth’s History Timeline”. Below is a brief
discussion for you to understand what a timeline is and the things to be considered
in creating a timeline.

What is a timeline?

Timeline presents events during specific intervals shown chronologically along a line.
These events may be historic and shows the important milestones in a project.
Timelines do not go into detail, but links to events and information may be added as
needed. A timeline consists of a horizontal bar or line representing time processing
from left to right. This bar is marked with events or steps to indicate when they
should or did happen.

13
Tips for Creating a Timeline

What does your timeline depict? Every timeline should have a title identifying the
project or historic events it illustrates. Place a fitting title at the top of the page.

Make the timeline. Decide what segment of time you want to illustrate. Make a
horizontal line or bar in the center of the page. Place the start and end dates at each
end of the line going from left to right.

Determine the scale of the timeline. Based upon the total duration of the time
depicted, divide the timeline into equal reasonable sections using small vertical line
segments or dashes and label each accordingly. For example, if the timeline covers a
year you may want to divide it into months, a day might be divided into hours, and
a century into decades.

Missing time. If there is a period of time with no activity, you can skip a segment in
the timeline or add a zigzag line to denote a time gap.

Add events. Place small circles or points along the line wherever an event takes place
or a task must be completed. Then attach a vertical line and extend it from the dot
up or down, depending on how crowded the page is, and write the event in a box at
the end of the line. If the timeline is very crowded, you can try using angled arrows
or lines with varying lengths instead. An overcrowded timeline may also indicate that
the scale of the timeline is too small.

Add visuals (optional). Use pictures to further illustrate an event or task on the
timeline this can add clarity and increase the visual appeal of your timeline.

Since you have already had enough background about what a timeline is and the
guidelines in creating timeline diagrams, you can now start creating your “Cell
History Timeline” (with a title). To guide you in creating your own timeline, the
example below which shows the development of Climate Science is provided for you.
Your product will be assessed based on the following criteria: quality of content,
quantity of facts, accuracy of content, sequence of events, sentence fluency, and
mechanics. The actual rubric is given below for your guidance.

14
Rubric for scoring:
Criteria Exceeds (4) Good (3) Fair (2) Poor (1)
Quality of Included events Most of the Some events Many major Many
Content are important included events included are major events
and interesting. are important trivial and are excluded and
No more details and interesting. major events too many trivial
are excluded. 1 or 2 major are missing. events are
events may be included.
missing.
Quantity of The timeline The timeline The timeline The timeline
Facts contains at contains at contains at contains fewer
least 8 – 10 least 6 – 7 least 5 events than 5 events.
events related events related related to the
to the topic to the topic topic being
being studied. being studied. studied.
Accuracy of Facts are Facts are Facts are Facts are often
Content accurate for all accurate for accurate for inaccurate for
events reported almost all most (-75%) of events reported
on the timeline. events reported the events on the timeline.
on the timeline. reported on the
timeline.
Sequence of Events are Almost all Most (-75%) of Most events are
Events placed in events are the events are incorrectly
proper order. placed in placed in placed on the.
proper order. proper order. timeline
Sentence Events are Events are Events are not Events are
Fluency clearly described well, described well described using
described using but language is and language is vague language
accurate and sometimes often vague and or inaccurate
vivid language. vague or inaccurate. information.
inaccurate.
Total:
_____/20

15
 What I have Learned

You Complete Me!

Now it is your turn! Read and fill out the following “I have learned oath.”

Learning about the history of life on Earth is an amazing experience! I can

now understand how life have developed through time. I have remembered that life
began on (1.) __________________, probably at (2.) _____________ billion years ago, and
the first sign of life is (3.) ________________ . I have learned from this module that the
time scale used to record specific partitions of time on Earth based on the dominant
species at such time is called (4.) ______________________________. It is sectioned into
4 major subdivisions which are: (5.) _________________, (6.) ___________________, (7.)
_____________________, and (8.) ________________. The three eras under Phanerozoic
eon are the Paleozoic or the age of (9.) _____________________, Mesozoic or the age of
(10.) ______________________, and the (11.) ______________________ or the age of (12.)
_______________________.
Life is indeed a genius! It strives to survive and change its form to adapt to the
changes in its environment! And what is more amazing is how people with great
scientific skills have developed a way on how to read the book of the history of life on
Earth through the fossils on the rocks. Science and society can be good friends. I
___________________ (write/state your name), do solemnly pledge that I will only do
good and responsible science for my society specifically in unearthing the history of
life on Earth.

What I Can Do

My 3-D Object (Cast)

Make a fossil from a natural and man-made object. The materials you will need are:
cement, sand, pan/container, clay, any natural object available at home, petroleum
jelly or any oil
1. Choose any object you want to make a fossil of. Any natural object (shells, leaves,
animal bone) will do as long as it fits in the container. If you choose leaves, be sure
it is not dry.
2. Combine the cement and sand with water. Use 1-part cement and sand to 2 parts
water and mix well in a paper cup with a plastic spoon. Let it sit while you work with
the clay.

16
3. Choose an object as the template of your fossil. Generally, leaves, shells, branches,
or bones work best. Just make sure you have enough clay and cement to cover it.
4. Knead the clay until it is soft and pliable. This will be what your object rests and
forms an impression in. It needs to be kneaded until it can cover the area of your
object.
5. Coat the object with petroleum jelly or any oil. Firmly yet slowly press it into the
clay to make an impression. The petroleum jelly or any oil prevents it from sticking
to the clay, so be generous. Remove the object carefully to create a mold in the shape
of the item you used.
6. Fill the impression left by your object with the mixture of cement and sand in a
pan or any container you wish to use. Smooth the mixture of cement and sand to
the level of the clay to form a flat surface. Let it stand to harden for at least overnight,
but 2 or 3 days is preferred and safer.
7. Peel the clay off the hardened plaster to free the fossil. The shape of your object
should be recreated in the cement, details intact.
8. You now have a cast of your own chosen object!
Standards 5 POINTS 4 POINTS 3 POINTS 2 POINTS
Understanding Demonstrates a Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates
of Task substantial understanding understanding of gaps in their minimal
(Accuracy) of the content, processes the content and understanding understanding
and demands of the task. task, even though of the content of the
some supporting and task. content.
ideas or details
may have been
overlooked or
misunderstood.
Completion of Fully achieves the Accomplishes the Completes Attempts to
Task purpose of the task, task. most of the accomplish
(Quality) including thoughtful and task. the task, but
insightful interpretations. with little or
no success.

17
 Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. In geologic time scale, what is the longest subdivision, they are namely the
Precambrian and the Paleozoic.
a. Eon b. Era
c. Period d. Epoch

2. What is the shortest subdivision in the geologic time scale and is marked by
differences in life forms and can vary from continent to continent?
a. Eon b. Era
c. Period d. Epoch

3. Name the era, which is divided into three periods, and is considered as the age of
reptiles.
a. Cambrian b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic d. Cenozoic

4. The period on a geologic time scale which is considered as the explosion of life:
a. Cambrian b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic d. Cenozoic

5. The current epoch upon which organisms of the earth are living.:
a. Holocene b. Oligocene
c. Pliocene d. Miocene

6. The name of the experiment which helped answer many questions about the origin
of life on Earth:
a. Patrick-Miller Experiment b. Miller-Urey Experiment
c. Urey-Gagarin Experiment d. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species

7. Which among the following is believed to be the predecessors of life because its
existence is vital in the development of the first primitive cell?
a. Inorganic Compound b. Organismal Biology
c. Organic Compound d. RNA

8. Which among the following best describes the Cenozoic era?

a. Age of bacterium b. Age of invertebrates
c. Age of reptiles d. Age of mammals

18
9. How will you describe the Geologic Time Scale?
a. It divides up the history of the earth based on life-forms that have existed
during specific times since the creation of the planet.
b. It sums up the history of the earth based on life-forms that have existed
during specific times since the creation of the solar system.
c. It sectioned the history of the earth based on non-living things that have
existed during specific times since the creation of the planet.
d. It divides up the history of the earth based on spheres of the Earth where
life-forms have existed during specific times since the creation of the planet.

10.What period is known as the age of fishes?

a. Silurian b. Devonian
c. Ordovician d. Cretaceous

11.How will you` describe the Triassic period?

a. The golden age of dinosaurs. b. The period when birds first appear.
c. The golden age of reptiles. d. The golden age of dinosaurs and also the
period when birds first appear.

12.How many periods are under the Cenozoic era?

a. 2 the Pleistocene and the Paleocene
b. 2 the Pleistocene and the Holocene
c. 2 the Tertiary and the Quaternary
d. 3 the Binary, Tertiary, and Quaternary

13.In the history of life on Earth, how will you describe the earliest life-forms that
had existed?
a. They are very adaptive and complex.
b. They require minimal metabolic processes, but they are also complex
organisms.
c. They are simple organisms that thrive with the minimal necessary to
survive.
d. They are simple organisms that later evolve to more complex organisms.

14.Which among the following are NOT an evidence that life existed in as early as
3.5 billion years ago?
a. Microfossils found in western Australia
b. Trilobites
c. Stromatolites
d. None of the above

15.The following are the principles of used in relative dating of fossils EXCEPT:
a. Law of Superposition
b. Law of Original Horizontality
c. Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship
d. Law of Superimposition

19
 Additional Activities
The Earth has an incredibly long history. Scientists contend that we are now
living in the new age or epoch. They call it the Anthropocene epoch, which is
proposed by Paul Crutzen in 2000. He believes that man had greatly impacted
the environment and ecosystem of the Earth since the start of the industrial
revolution.
In your personal stand, as a senior high school student, How does
understanding of geologic time and the significant geologic events of the past
impact your understanding of humans’ unique responsibility and place on
earth? How does understanding the past help us understand the present??
Explain your answer through an essay using the concepts that you have
learned from this module.
This rubric serves as your guide.
Category Excellent Very Good Good
5 3 1
A. Quality of Provides thoughtful, Provides general Lacks evaluation of
Evaluation and logical evaluation evaluation of the the scenario.
Response to of the scenario. scenario. Provides unclear
Scenario Provides a Provides a general response to scenario
(content) thoughtful, logical response to the or lacks a response.
response to the scenario.
scenario.
B. Persuasive Response is highly Response is mildly Response is not
Argument persuasive and persuasive and persuasive and is
(content) maintains reader’s makes sense to the difficult to
attention. reader. understand.
C. Grammar, Response has 3 or Response has 4-6 Response has 7 or
Usage, and less errors in errors in grammar, more errors in
Mechanics grammar, usage, usage, and grammar, usage,
(writing) and mechanics. mechanics. and mechanics.
D. Organization Response Response Response
(writing) paragraphs are well paragraphs have paragraphs have
organized with clear appropriate topic ineffective or no
topic sentences and sentences and topic sentences and
supporting supporting supporting
sentences. There sentences. There sentences. There are
are effective are some transitions ineffective or no
transitions between between transitions between
paragraphs. paragraphs. paragraphs.

20
 Answer Key

Pre Test What’s More What I Have Learned:

1. A Activity 1: 1. Deep Sea vent

2. D 1. 35 BYA 2. 3.8
3. B 2. Organic molecule
3. Organic
4. B 3. Archaebacterial
4. deep sea vents molecule
5. A 4. Geological Time
5. Miller-Urey
6. D
6. Panspermia Scale
7. A 7. Eukaryotes
8. A 5. Eons
8. Cambrian
9. B 6. Eras
9. Paleozoic
10. C explosion 7. Epochs
11. D 10. Mass extinction 8. Periods
12. D 11. Emergence of 9. Invertebrates
13. C humans 10. Reptiles
14. B 12. Cultural and 11. Cenozoic
15. A technological 12. Mammals
evolution
13. Phanerozoic
14. Cenozoic
What’s In
15. Quaternary,
Holocene
2_Ligation
3_Transformation Activity 2:
1_DNA Isolation
Answers may vary. Use
4_Selection
the rubric as your
guide.

Assessment
Additional Activity
1. A
See rubric for scoring
2. D
What I Can DO
3. B
See Rubric for scoring 4. A
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. A
10. B
11. D
12. C
13. D
14. B
15. D

21
References
Campbell, N. et al. 2003. Powerpoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections 4th
Edition. Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

CHED (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General Biology 2. First
Edition. Pp. 49-69.

Department of Education. (2020). Most Essential Learning Competencies with

Corresponding CG codes. General Biology 2. Pp 631-633.

Department of Resources South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Geologic Time and
Earth’s Biological History. South Carolina: Department of Resources.

"K To 12 Curriculum Guide In General Biology 1". 2016. Deped.Gov.Ph.

https://www.deped.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/General Biology 1-CG.pdf.

Tiamzon, Maria Elena, et al. (2016). General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior Highschool.
Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Pp. 80-89.

Weisberger, Mindy. Tiny Fossils May Be Oldest Evidence of Life on Earth. Live Science.
2017. June 22, 2020. https://www.livescience.com/61232-oldestknown-fossils.html

RECOMMENDED READINGS
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-
science2.0/section/4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-
flexbook2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-high-
school/section/10.7/

22
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the nature of Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the textbook you are now using.

The module will talk about the Mechanisms of Evolution.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain that genetic variation is the prerequisite and should therefore
be present for any genetic process to cause change in populations from
generation to generation;
2. state the Hardy-Weinberg Principle; and
3. enumerate the conditions that should be present for a gene or in a
larger scale, a population, to attain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

23
 What I Know
Are you ready for this lesson? Let us check what you already know about
the Mechanisms of Evolution.

Fill in the following crossword puzzle with the correct terms. Use the clues
provided below the puzzle.

Across
1. A very common practice among farm breeders; selectively breeding farm
animals with better traits such as leaner meat.
2. A major factor of evolution, it could be the habitat or the certain conditions
on where organisms live.
3. A group of species living in one area.
4. These are processes that caused something to take place or happen.
5. Change in population which is caused chance processes.
6. Also known as gene flow.
7. Change in characteristics of populations over generations.
8. Favoring one’s characteristics over another, resulting in the reproduction of
that said characteristics rather than the one which is not favored.
9. The ability to stay alive and beat the odds presented by the environment.
10. An organism that is the most adapted to its environment.

24
 11. Genetic drift is also termed as this kind of cause for evolution.
Down
12. It occurs during meiosis and is the cause of genetic diversity
even between the offspring of the same parents.
13. The change in the original sequence of the DNA.
14. One major cause of mutation.
15. The idea that nature favors some characteristics over others
hence choosing the population with those characteristics to survive
and flourish.

Lesson
Mechanisms of Evolution
2
Everyone is puzzled until now about the true origin of human beings. A lot of
questions remain unanswered like, “Is it true that humans evolved from
chimpanzees?”, “Are we still evolving?” and “Why haven’t we seen actual evolution in
modern days?” As we move along through this module, we will find answers to our
questions about evolution. In this module, we will try to analyze evolution from the
standpoint of a person who studies science.
As you learn about the true meaning of evolution, we will also study the
different mechanisms that cause such changes in the population of some organisms.

What’s In
In the previous lesson, you have delved deeper into the distant past of
the history of life on Earth. You have learned about that, by 3.5 billion years ago,
there was life on Earth and changes has occurred on these life-forms throughout the
geologic time.

By way of a review, you need to fill in the blanks with the correct words on the box
about the creation of life.

oxygen oceans nitrogen Cyanobacteria stromatolites atmosphere

The 3.5-billion-year-old fossilized algae mats, which are called ___________, are
considered to be the earliest known life on earth. ____________, commonly called blue-
green algae, is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis
was the first life on Earth. The composition of the early __________ and __________
were conducive to the creation of primitive amino acids which are the building blocks
of protein molecules. The ability of cyanobacteria to perform oxygenic photosynthesis
is thought to have converted the early Earth atmosphere into an oxidizing one, which
dramatically changed the life forms on Earth and provoked an explosion of
biodiversity. By around 2.2 to 2.4 billion years ago, the Earth had developed an

25
atmosphere that is very similar to today’s atmosphere with ___________ and
___________. It is hypothesized that the banded iron layers were formed in sea water
is the result of free oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria combining with
dissolved iron in the oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out,
forming a thin layer on the seafloor.

Note the Teachers

The teacher must consider the prerequisite skills needed in the
development of this competency including the schema or background knowledge
which may reinforce learning. This module will help the learners bridge the gap
of learning to attain mastery of the lesson in its spiral progression.

What is New
Paint a Thousand Words
Examine closely the picture below. What have you noticed? Aha, this would
tell us that appearance alone does not always define a species. Similarities between
some species and variation within a species can make defining species difficult. Just
like in this picture, humans alone exhibit extreme physical diversity. How much more
with other species?

Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

26
 What is It
GENETIC VARIATION: CELEBRATE YOUR UNIQUENESS!

Have you ever wondered why do people look the same, but also look different
from each other? Like how you look like some of your relatives, but still, you are
unique and recognizable. To some extent, even twins may look exactly alike but still,
there will be some traits that will make them different from each other, such as the
way they talk or the way they walk.

No two persons are genetically alike. Hence, no two persons have the same
codes of DNA. This is because as an individual, you carry a unique set of genes. The
differences between the genes of each individual and the differences between genes
of the different populations are termed as GENETIC VARIATION.

GENE FREQUENCY and EVOLUTION

As an individual, you carry a unique gene of traits, so as the other people in the
world. But there are parts of that gene in which you may find similarities with others.
For example, you may be unique because you are the only person with tan skin and
three moles beneath an eye within your community, but you may also be the same
with other people in your community because the majority of you have tan skin.
The number of times at which the common gene appears in everyone within a
population is called GENE FREQUENCY. In a simpler context, gene frequency refers
to how common a specific gene is in a group of specie within a specific area.
You can even solve gene frequency by dividing the actual occurrence of a specific
gene with the total number of populations. It is like solving for the percentage of the
population with a specific common gene.
Any change in the gene frequency of a species or population is EVOLUTION.
Evolution is the change in the genetic materials of organisms, it is a change
manifested in their traits. It is also a change that started deep within the cells of
individuals, in their genes, in their DNA, in their chromosomes.

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: What causes a change in gene frequency?

Gene and the DNA don’t change overnight and don’t change with no cause. There are
various mechanisms that bring forth changes to the gene frequency, let us investigate
and explain them one by one:

27
1. Natural Selection. Charles Darwin observed that organisms produce more
offspring than the environment can support, organisms vary in many characteristics,
and these variations can be inherited. So, he concluded that individuals best suited
for a particular environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than those less
well adapted. Then he introduced this basic mechanism of evolution which is the
natural selection. It is the process which is also known as “Survival of the Fittest.”
Fittest means NOT the person or organism with the “body-goal” or “fitspiration” body
type. Fittest in the ground of
survival means the organism with
traits that are most adaptive to its
environment. Nature or the
environment dictates which
among the organism will survive,
this organism has a certain
variety of traits or characteristics
that will be passed on to the next
generation.
The picture above shows an
evolution of insecticide resistance
is an example of natural selection
in action. Source:
2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as
Benjamin Cummings

2. Artificial Selection

Darwin saw that when humans choose organisms with specific characteristics as
breeding stock, they are performing the role of the environment. This is where
artificial selection or selective breeding started. One of the causes of change in the
gene frequency of
some species
specifically
domesticated plants
and animals is
artificial selection or
selective breeding. It
is when humans
selectively choose to
breed animals and
plants with specific
traits that they
deemed beneficial
for different
purposes.
Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

28
3. Gene Flow or Migration

Gene flow involves the

movement of genes into or
out of a population, due to
either the movement of
individual organisms or their
gametes (eggs and sperm,
e.g., through pollen
dispersal by a plant).
Organisms and gametes that
enter a population may have
new alleles, or may bring in
existing alleles but in
different proportions than those already in the population. Gene flow can be a strong
agent of evolution.

4. Genetic Drift

Genetic drift is a mechanism that may bring change to the gene frequency in a
population because of “chance” events. It is a result of an incident or accident which
may have brought significant and palpable change to the gene frequency or common
traits in a given population.
Catastrophic events such as
floods, volcanic eruptions, and a
pandemic or epidemic may
greatly affect the gene pool of a
given population, especially if
the population is small enough
to be impacted by some “chance”
events.

5. Non-Random Mating
It occurs when some species choose a partner with preferred characteristics. Some
female species only allow certain male characteristics to be their partner, making the
genes of the chosen male species to reproduce in the next generation. Some male
species with less preferred traits may
not be able to reproduce and pass
their genes on the next generation.
This event may also happen in male
to female circumstances, wherein
some male species choose or look for
specific traits in a female.

Source:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-
mechanisms-of-evolution

29
The given scenario above may result in less variation in the gene frequency of a
population; non-sexual reproduction, which is done by some species of plants is also
a type of non-random mating because it uses its variety of genes to reproduce hence
no mixing of traits will occur. Another example may observe when humans choose
whom to date, some men and women have certain preferences in whom they will
choose as a partner, it may also be dictated by cultural preferences. These preferred
characteristics may be manifested in the genetic pool of a certain population as time
will show how these characteristics are more commonly observed than others.
6. Recombination

Recombination or gene shuffling is life’s way of

bringing variety in similarity. It occurs during
meiosis, the cell replication process used for
reproduction. Recombination is also the reason
behind gene variation between siblings and twins
and makes genetic diversity possible. During
meiosis, crossing over happens where
homologous chromosomes line up to prepare for
cell division. In this instance, chromosomes
exchange information and shuffle parts of the
DNA which resulted in a very random variation
yet the same copy of the original gene.

7. Mutation

A Mutation occurs when an insertion, deletion, or any change in the codes of the
DNA takes place. Changes in the DNA codes may result from internal or external
factors. Internal factors happen when the DNA fails to copy or duplicate the DNA
correctly; while the cell has many mechanisms to prevent this from happening. There
are still times when this occurs and became undetected by the cells. External factors
are usually caused by radiation; this is because excessive radiation causes ionization
in the cellular level of the body which may result in the breaking of the DNA. The
break in the DNA will cause faulty replication and mutation. Not all mutations are
seen and manifested in the physical characteristics of organisms, some mutations
are not even passed on from the parents to the offspring. Somatic mutation is when
mutation takes place in the somatic cells or regular cells of the organisms; hence will
not be replicated during meiosis. If the mutated DNA is not replicated during meiosis,
it will not pass on to the next generation.

The Mutation on the sex cells or

gametes is the only type of
mutation that may affect the gene
frequency of a population in the
long run, this is called a germline
mutation. An example of this is
the antibiotic resistance of some
bacteria.

Source:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-
mechanisms-of-evolution

30
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that the shuffling of genes during sexual
reproduction does not alter the proportions of different alleles in a gene pool. To test
this, let’s look at an imaginary, non-evolving population of blue-footed boobies

The Hardy-Weinberg equation is useful in

public health science to estimate frequencies of
disease-causing alleles in the human population
just like phenylketonuria (PKU).
There are five conditions required for Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium to happen:
1. The population is very large;
2. The population is isolated;
3. Mutations do not alter the gene pool;
4. Mating is random, and;
5. All individuals are equal in reproductive
success.

Natural selection results in the accumulation of traits that adapt a population to

its environment. If the environment should change, natural selection would favor
traits adapted to the new conditions

31
 What’s More

Picture Perfect!
Have you enjoyed learning about evolution and the mechanisms that brought
changes to the characteristics of a certain population? Observe the following pictures
and choose any mechanisms of evolution that are applicable to the given
illustrations. Explain your answer.

1. Camouflage adaptations of mantids that live in different environments.

Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. Five vegetables derived from wild mustard.

Source: 2003 Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin Cummings

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

32
 What I have Learned

You Complete Me!

Learning about evolution and the mechanisms that cause changes to the gene
frequency of a population is a remarkable involvement! I can now understand how
life has evolved over time. I have remembered that (1.) __________________ is the
number of times a certain gene appears in a given population and the changes that
occurs in it may result to (2.) _____________. The diversity in genes amongst individual
is termed as (3.) ________________ .

I have learned from this module that there are 6 mechanisms which cause
changes to the characteristics of a population; they are (4.)
______________________________, (5.) _________________, (6.)___________________,
(7.) _____________________, (8.) ________________, and (9.)
_____________________.

Life is indeed a genius! It strives to survive and change its form to adapt to the
changes in its environment! As a result, evolution takes place when the next
generation of organisms acquired new traits from their parents, which are fit for the
requirement of the environment where they habituate. What’s more amazing is how
humans have been doing manipulative evolution of some crops and animals in the
form of selective breeding or artificial selection. With proper precaution, science is
beneficial to society.

What I Can Do

Performance Task: My 3-D Object (Cast)

Make a fossil from a natural and man-made object. The materials you will need are:
cement, sand, pan/container, clay, any natural object available at home, petroleum
jelly or any oil
1. Choose any object you want to make a fossil of. Any natural object (shells, leaves,
animal bone) will do as long as it fits in the container. If you choose leaves, be sure
it is not dry.
2. Combine the cement and sand with water. Use 1-part cement and sand to 2 parts
water and mix well in a paper cup with a plastic spoon. Let it sit while you work with
the clay.
3. Choose an object as the template of your fossil. Generally, leaves, shells, branches,
or bones work best. Just make sure you have enough clay and cement to cover it.

33
4. Knead the clay until it is soft and pliable. This will be what your object rests and
forms an impression in. It needs to be kneaded until it can cover the area of your
object.
5. Coat the object with petroleum jelly or any oil. Firmly yet slowly press it into the
clay to make an impression. The petroleum jelly or any oil prevents it from sticking
to the clay, so be generous. Remove the object carefully to create a mold in the shape
of the item you used.
6. Fill the impression left by your object with the mixture of cement and sand in a
pan or any container you wish to use. Smooth the mixture of cement and sand to
the level of the clay to form a flat surface. Let it stand to harden for at least overnight,
but 2 or 3 days is preferred and safer.
7. Peel the clay off the hardened plaster to free the fossil. The shape of your object
should be recreated in the cement, details intact.
8. You now have a cast of your own chosen object!
9. The rubric below serves as your guide.

Standards 5 POINTS 4 POINTS 3 POINTS 2 POINTS

Understanding Demonstrates a Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates
of Task substantial understanding gaps in their minimal
(Accuracy) understanding of the content understanding understanding
of the content, and task, even of the content of the content.
processes and though some and task.
demands of the supporting
task. ideas or details
may have been
overlooked or
misunderstood.
Completion of Fully achieves Accomplishes Completes most Attempts to
Task the purpose of the task. of the task. accomplish the
(Quality) the task, task, but with
including little or no
thoughtful, success.
insightful
interpretations
and conjectures.

34
 Assessment

Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What type of mechanism of evolution is this: some species exhibit intra-sexual
competition leading to the preservation of genes of those successful organisms?
A. Recombination B. Non-random Mating
C. Mutation D. Genetic Drift

2. “Survival of the fittest.”

A. Gene Flow B. Genetic Drift
C. Artificial Selection D. Natural Selection

3. A cause of change in the gene frequency of some animals and crops because of
humans’ selective breeding or cross-pollination activities on these said organisms:
A. Artificial Selection B. Natural Selection
C. Recombination D. Mutation

4. Which among the following best explain recombination as a mechanism of

evolution?
A. Recombination is a natural process which happens during meiosis, it is the
crossing over of the homologous chromosomes that resulted in gene
variation and random gene exchange.
B. Recombination is the process of combining two parts of DNA to create a
new one in the cell’s pursuit to fight off foreign bodies.
C. Recombination happens when two identical cells cross over one another
and exchange information between their nuclei.
D. Recombination resulted from the mitosis of cells to repair the damage.

5. How will you differentiate artificial selection from natural selection?

A. Artificial selection happens when nature dictates the fittest organisms to
survive and continue their generation, while natural selection is a
laboratory type of selectively choosing the best DNA copy from cells.
B. Artificial selection happens in laboratories while natural selection happens
in nature.
C. Artificial selection is manipulated by humans and natural selection is
dictated by the environment of the organisms.
D. B and C

6. Evolution is brought by the change in the gene frequency of a population over the
next generation, which among the following is considered the change in gene
frequencies because of chance processes?
A. Artificial Selection B. Natural Selection
C. Gene Flow D. Genetic Drift

35
7. The movement of genes or certain traits into or out of a population, that is
immigration or emigration, is identified as what type of mechanism causes a
change in the gene frequency of a population?
A. Gene Flow B. Genetic Drift
C. Mutation D. Recombination

8. Name the type of mechanisms of evolution that takes place because some
female/male species prefer to interbreed with mates that have certain or
predetermined qualities.
A. Mutation B. Recombination
C. Non-random Mating D. Natural Selection

9. Identify the mechanism of evolution that resulted from the deletion, insertion,
substitution, or inversion of DNA because of radiation or copying errors.
A. Artificial Selection B. Mutation
C. Recombination D. Genetic Drift

10. Nature “selects” which organisms will be successful.

A. Artificial Selection B. Natural Selection
C. Gene Flow D. Genetic Drift

11. What type of mutation can cause evolution or change in the gene frequency of
organisms from one generation to another?
A. Germ-line mutation B. Individual Radiated Mutation (IRM)
C. Ionized mutation D. Somatic mutation

12. This effect happens after a genetic drift when a huge percentage of population or
organisms are wiped off or were unable to reproduce because of catastrophic
events, resulting in change to the gene frequency of the affected population:
A. Founder Effect B. Healer Effect
C. Bottleneck Effect D. Extinction Effect

13. Among the mechanisms of evolution, which is caused by the deliberate action
and activity of man?
A. Artificial Selection B. Natural Selection
C. Gene Flow D. Genetic Drift

14.How will you explain the mechanisms of evolution?

A. These are the processes that cause gene frequencies of the population to
change from one generation to another.
B. Some of the mechanisms of evolution are gene flow, genetic drift, and
recombination.
C. Mechanisms of evolution are caused by nature, but sometimes it may also
be caused by accidents or chance processes.
D. All of the above

15.The following are the mechanisms of evolution that may be caused by an accident
or unforeseen events EXCEPT:
A. Genetic Drift B. Natural Selection
C. Mutation D. Artificial Selection

36
 Additional Activities

Organizations that aim to protect the

rights of animals have been battling leisure
breeders to stop selective breeding because they
view it as a form of abuse or cruelty to animals.
Selective breeding or artificial selection is a
mechanism that has brought a huge impact on
the gene frequency of animals especially
domesticated ones like dogs and cats.
Image Courtesy: https://images.app.goo.gl/uG4xXkoxnq3vPutb8

There are cases when breeding animals such as dogs resulted in diseases and
malformation or abnormalities in the resulting offspring. In your point of view as a
senior high school STEM student, is it proper to continue selective breeding? Give
an explanation to your answer. The rubric below serves as your guide in crafting
your answer.

Scoring Science Basic Scientific Nature of

Level and Concepts Approach Science
Society and
Fundamenta
l
Principles
Develops and Integrates and Demonstrates Demonstrate
4- defends an applies comprehension s scientific
Accomplishe informed basic scientific of the reasoning
d position, concepts and scientific across
integrating principles. approach; multiple
values, illustrates with disciplines.
science, and examples
technology.
Correctly Shows clear Accurately Interprets
describes comprehensio expresses and relates
3- perspectives n of concepts relating scientific
Competent concerning basic scientific to the results in a
the scientific concepts and scientific way
aspects of a principles. approach that shows a
societal clear
issue. recognition of
the nature of
science.
Recognizes Able to state Uses vocabulary Provides
2- the place of basic related simplistic or
Developing

37
 science in scientific to scientific incomplete
human concepts methods in a explanations
affairs, and principles. rote manner or of the nature
but is unable showing of science.
to simple
communicat conceptualizatio
e its roles. n
1 - Does not Lacks Shows minimal Does not
Beginning visualize a understanding understanding of distinguish
role of basic scientific between
or need for scientific methods scientific,
science in concepts and political,
human principles. religious, or
affairs. ethical
statements.

38
 Answer Key

What I Know What’s In What’s More

1. Artificial 1. stromatolites 1. Natural selection.

selection 2. Cyanobacteria The explanation may
2. Environment 3. Atmosphere
vary.
3. Population 4. Ocean
5. Nitrogen 2. Artificial selection.
4. Mechanisms
6. oxygen
5. Genetic drift The explanation may
6. Migration vary.
7. Evolution
8. Non-random
mating
9. Survival
10. Fittest
11. Chance
12. Recombination
13. Mutation
14. Radiation
15. Natural selection

What I Have Learned Assessment Additional Activity

1. Gene frequency 1. A See rubric for scoring
2. Evolution
2. D
3. Gene variation
4. Artificial selection
3. A
5. Natural selection 4. A
6. Gene flow 5. D
7. Genetic drift 6. B
8. Recombination 7. C
9. mutation 8. C
9. B
What I Can DO 10. B
11. A
See Rubric for scoring
12. C
13. A
14. D
15. D

39
References
Campbell, N. et al. 2003. Powerpoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts &
Connections 4th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc publishing as Benjamin
Cummings

CHED (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School in General Biology 2. First
Edition. Pp. 49-69.

Collins, Francis. “Genetic Variation.” National Human Genome Research

Institute:The Forefront of Genomics. 2017. June 23, 2020.
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Variatio

Department of Education. (2020). Most Essential Learning Competencies with

Corresponding CG codes. General Biology 2. Pp 631-633.

Department of Resources South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Geologic Time

and Earth’s Biological History. South Carolina: Department of Resources.

"K To 12 Curriculum Guide In General Biology 1". 2016. Deped.Gov.Ph.

https://www.deped.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/General Biology
1-CG.pdf.

Retoka. “Evolution.” Behance. 2016. June 23, 2020.

https://www.behance.net/gallery/21702871/POEMS-ABOUT-
EVOLUTION

Tiamzon, Maria Elena, et al. (2016). General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior
Highschool. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Pp. 80-89.

Weisberger, Mindy. Tiny Fossils May Be Oldest Evidence of Life on Earth. Live
Science. 2017. June 22, 2020. https://www.livescience.com/61232-
oldestknown-fossils.html

RECOMMENDED READINGS
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-
science2.0/section/4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-
flexbook2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-high-
school/section/10.7/

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For inquiries and feedback, please write or call:

Schools Division of Ilocos Norte – Curriculum Implementation Division

Learning Resource Management Section (SDOIN-CID LRMS)

Office Address: Brgy. 7B, Giron Street, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte
Telefax: (077) 771-0960
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