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Conservation of historic water systems in Champaner-Pavagadh, Gujarat,

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Conservation of historic water systems in

Champaner-Pavagadh, Gujarat, India

Amita Sinha

To cite this article: Amita Sinha (2018): Conservation of historic water systems in Champaner-
Pavagadh, Gujarat, India, Landscape Research, DOI: 10.1080/01426397.2018.1495702

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LANDSCAPE RESEARCH
https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2018.1495702

ARTICLE

Conservation of historic water systems in Champaner-Pavagadh,

Gujarat, India
Amita Sinha
Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign, IL, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Champaner-Pavagadh, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Gujarat, is an Water-intelligence;
interesting and unusual case study in how religion, culture, terrain, and sustainable heritage
climate interact in creating water systems that sustained large communities conservation; cultural
landscape; pilgrimage
for 800 years between the eighth and sixteenth centuries. Water is central to
Hindu worship rituals and at Pavagadh Hill, embodiment of the goddess
Kalika, is symbolic of her nurturing aspects. The ornate water architecture of
Champaner city at the foothill, inhabited by Muslims, celebrated water not
for its symbolic value but for its sensual and utilitarian aspects. In ‘water-
intelligent’ settlement planning at Champaner-Pavagadh, historic water
catchment and conveyance systems ensured availability of water through-
out the year. The article concludes with outlining the landscape approach to
sustainable heritage landscape conservation within which water systems
are restored and made functional, to serve the needs of local residents and
pilgrims, and to enhance the legibility of this complex and layered site.

Introduction
Champaner-Pavagadh in Gujarat, India, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) in 2004 based
upon its outstanding monuments and its importance as a pilgrimage destination. Although its water
structures are included in the nomination criteria, their conservation as a functioning hydrological
system has not occurred as evidenced by the recent water crisis at Pavagadh during the pilgrim season
in 2016.1 The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as the custodian of the WHS and responsible for its
preservation follows the outdated colonial monument-centric approach, in which building structures
are fenced off from their surroundings and preserved as picturesque objects in a sanitised space,
usually a lawn. The article outlines the cultural landscape approach to conservation in which the site is
not the static monument but a dynamic eco-cultural system of which the built structures are one part
(Sinha, 2017). In this approach, conservation entails sustainable restoration and reclamation of water
systems as functioning entities with cultural and spiritual meanings.

Background
Champaner was the capital of Gujarat in the early sixteenth century, and as such its rich architectural
legacy forms an important chapter in the architectural and urban history of India. As the last of
settlements at the site, with previous ones on Pavagadh Hill, its extant fortifications and water
management systems are a marvel of engineering feats of the medieval era. The first Rajput settlement
dates back to the eighth century and by the twelfth century, the hill had become a stronghold of
Chauhans. They ruled until 1484 CE when Sultan Mehmud Begada captured the Pavagadh fort and

CONTACT Amita Sinha sinha2@illinois.edu

© 2018 Landscape Research Group Ltd
2 A. SINHA

built his new city called Champaner at the foothill. Champaner was ransacked by the Mughal Emperor
Humayun in 1535 CE and was abandoned and forgotten, ‘lost in the jungle’ (Goetz, 1949) until it was
excavated in 1969–1975 (Mehta n.d.). Although the Hindu and Jain temples on the sacred Pavagadh
Hill were destroyed by Islamic invasions, the hill reclaimed its status as a pilgrim destination when the
goddess Kalika Temple was rebuilt on its summit in the nineteenth century. The hill is thus the cradle of
Hindu and Islamic civilisations that rose and fell in nearly eight centuries of continuous occupation.
About two and a half million pilgrims annually climb the hill to obtain darshan (ritual sighting)
of the goddess Kalika in a temple at its summit. Around 3700 people live in small settlements on
the upper plateaus and another 2000 in the village nestling in the inner fort at the foothill. The ASI
maintains 39 monuments, all in Champaner, while local organisations such as temple trusts are
responsible for the upkeep of religious buildings on Pavagadh. The forested hill is conserved by the
State Forestry department. So far, there has been no attempt to interpret heritage (besides ASI
signage), revive the defunct water structures, or involve the local communities in conservation
efforts. It is against this background that conservation efforts at Champaner-Pavagadh should be
reassessed for new directions in landscape management.

Water intelligence
Champaner-Pavagadh lies in a semi-arid region with an average annual rainfall of 823 mm mostly
in the monsoon season (Figure 1). The region is dry in other seasons making water resource
management imperative. Abundant rainfall over a short period needs to be harvested and stored
for later use. Traditional knowledge and technologies involving an intimate understanding of
terrain, groundwater table, and percolation rates in soils evolved around this necessity for storing

Figure 1. Location of Champaner-Pavagadh.

 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 3

water. Holistic knowledge of site hydrology, although essential for survival, remained unrecorded
and largely based upon lived experience. Water harvesting was a cultural practice based upon the
collective wisdom of local communities (Modi, 2002; Ruggles & Sinha, 2009).
Pavagadh Hill rises suddenly from the plains to a height of 830 m. It is part of the ancient ridge
running from western to northern India, made of igneous rocks from lava flows that are now
exposed in vertical escarpments in cliffs separated by narrow steep gorges. The hill cascades down
in five plateaus on the north-east and has sheer vertical faces on its other sides. There are no
perennial rivers or streams in Champaner-Pavagadh. Small rivulets such as Vishwamitri on
Pavagadh Hill and Jhorvan in the plains below dry up in summer. The hilly topography creates
watersheds that were utilised to build waterworks for the historic communities. Its plateaus were
prime sites for water harvesting in talaos (ponds) around which temples, palaces, and mansions
were built in fortified settlements by Hindu rulers known as Rajputs.
Champaner city at the foothill relied largely on groundwater for meeting its daily needs. Wells
were the primary source of water for individual households and for public uses. Large talaos on the
outskirts of the city harvested monsoon rains and run-off from Pavagadh and Saria Vakaria hills and
supplied water to the city and for agriculture. A complex system of catchment and conveyance in
water sheds evolved over time to feed the waterbodies (jalashay) in Champaner-Pavagadh. These
demonstrate a sound working knowledge of terrain, soils, rainfall patterns, and groundwater table,
put into practice for hundreds of years, thus enabling the historic Hindu and Muslim settlements to
flourish in the semi-arid climate. Water architecture, a fusion of Hindu–Islamic styles, was elabo-
rately designed and had reached a high level of excellence in its craftsmanship by the time the site
was abandoned in the sixteenth century.

Water symbols
The knowledge base and skills in harvesting rainwater developed within cultural contexts in which
religious symbolism played a profound role. In the Indic world view, nature is sentient and water,
among the five natural elements (panch tattva), is the primary constituent of all matter. Water
purifies by washing away physical dirt and moral sins. It precedes creation and reabsorbs it and is
thus associated with both evolution and dissolution in creation myths. Bathing is regeneration of
body and spirit; emergence upon taking a dip in the holy waters is symbolic of taking on a new and
purer form (Sinha, 1995). At Pavagadh, the symbolism of water should be interpreted in the context
of myths. The hill is visualised as the goddess Sati’s toe and as the body of goddess Kalika who is
worshipped in the temple on its summit. Sati and Kalika are manifestations of the Great Goddess,
whose origins lie in the prehistoric fertility hill goddess worshipped by Bhil tribes. Kalika is revered
as Mata (mother) and since the hill is her manifestation, her transcendence made immanent in a
natural form, it is symbolic of her maternal qualities of protecting and nourishing. As such, the life
sustaining waters on the hill take on added meanings as mother’s milk, milk-based food such as
chaach (curd), and Annapurna, the giver of food (Sinha, 2006).
The arrival of Islam and building of Champaner at the foothill added further meanings to water.
Islam shares with Hinduism (and with other religions) the concept of water as a purifying element.
Ablution is a necessary part of the Islamic prayer ritual and every mosque courtyard has tanks for
waju (cleansing ritual). The flowing waters of Qu’ranic paradise are the essence of the paradisiacal
garden, celebrated in pools, channels, and fountains. The sensual pleasures afforded by water are
the dominant aspect in design of water architecture in Islamic culture and shaped the urban
landscape of Champaner. Water in this world view was not a medium for a transcendent divine
entity, rather it was to be enjoyed for its phenomenal properties—to cool, nourish life, and to
assume myriad playful forms. Hindu and Islamic views of water combined at Champaner-Pavagadh
to ascribe multiple values to the cultural landscape—water was a resource, a purifying element,
integral part of sacred rituals, a source of sensual delight and pleasure, and symbol of the goddess
Kalika’s nurturance.
4 A. SINHA

Water architecture
The meanings attributed to water in the Indo-Islamic culture of Champaner-Pavagadh shaped cultural
practices and built forms that accommodated them. Vernacular water structures consist of talao, a macro-
catchment basin with earthen embankments or built steps (ghats); wells edged with square/circular
platforms from where water could be drawn by a rope pulley; stone or brick cisterns; and canals, under or
above ground, lined with clay, brick, or concrete. The historic jalashays demonstrate sophisticated design
intent and high levels of craftsmanship. They include kunds—square/polygonal tanks with ornamental
steps—and vavs or stepwells—deep underground wells reached by steps. This rich typology of water
structures for storing water above or below ground is quite extraordinary and rarely seen elsewhere in
western India. The opportunities afforded by natural terraced slopes of Pavagadh Hill and high ground-
water table in plains below, combined with cultural meanings attributed to water, led to efficient water
systems and ornate water architecture.
The location of water structures was not only contingent upon terrain, monsoon run-off, and
groundwater table but also upon value and meanings attributed to water and cultural practices
that reflected them. Waterbodies were foci of Rajput settlements on Pavagadh Hill; they were
centrally located, and in close proximity to temples and palaces (Sinha, 2008). Dudhiya Talao lies
directly below Kalika Temple on the crest of Mauliya Plateau, demonstrating the archetypal hill–
water dyad in sacred sites of Hinduism (Figure 2). Talaos were ‘frames’ in the sense of being
situational entities where spaces organised experience and activities shaped places (Nawre, 2013).
Religious, recreational, and utilitarian uses of water in different situations, each creating its own
spatio-temporal context, were supported by the talao. Its banks were hubs of activities ranging
from sacred to profane, around which community life revolved. Medhi Talao was the centre of the
Rajput settlement in Atak Fort (Figure 3), as were Annapurna and Teliya Talaos in the Machi Plateau
settlement, and Moti Talao in Bhadrakali Plateau palace complex (Sinha, 2008).

Figure 2. Dudhiya Talao and Kalika Temple on Mauliya Plateau, Pavagadh.

 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 5

Figure 3. Medhi Talao in Atak Fort, Pavagadh.

Talaos, instead of being centres of community life as they were in Pavagadh, were on the
outskirts of the walled city of Champaner. Due to their peripheral location, they were suburban
pleasure resorts for the Sultan and his nobles. Stepwells in Champaner, as their location on the
main transportation routes attested, were meant to be used by pilgrims and travellers. Gaben Shah
Vav was built where the pilgrim path began its ascent up the Pavagadh Hill and the helical stepwell
is on the outskirts of Champaner city. They represent a synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions in
water buildings. Ornate tanks graced mosque courtyards, the most exquisite being in Jami Masjid
where the octagonal ablution tank (Figure 4) has nested stair triangles, split into two halves and
spliced around the octagonal edge (Livingston, 2002).
The Royal Enclosure in Champaner had gardens with channels, tanks, and a pavilion cooled by
water. The mansion of the nobleman Ghulam Ali, known as Amir’s Manzil, had an elaborate
network of water channels to collect water, and gardens with lotus pools and spiral water channels
(Sinha, Kesler, Ruggles, & Wescoat Jr., 2004). Household wells were private domestic settings in
Champaner, unlike the community spaces of talaos in Pavagadh. The temple on the banks of the
talao in Pavagadh Hill was replaced by the mausoleum and pleasure pavilion in Champaner talaos
(Figure 5). Water was a source of delight and pleasure in private and public settings, although its
spiritual connotations were lacking except in ablution tanks of mosque courtyards.
Today, the historic water structures in the lower plateaus of the hill and in Champaner are
defunct, while those in the upper plateaus barely suffice for the local community’s daily needs.
Wells are no longer functional because of the low groundwater table in the area. The rain water
catchment systems have deteriorated. The water-intelligence of the past is lost knowledge today
and there is no understanding of how the historic water systems, now fragmented, had functioned
in the past. The dry talaos, kunds, and vavs diminish the sacredness of the landscape and are
yawning voids in the ASI managed Champaner archaeological park.
6 A. SINHA

Figure 4. Ablution Tank in Jami Masjid, Champaner.

Conservation framework
A shift from monument-in-garden approach currently practised by ASI to a broader under-
standing of landscape as a dynamic eco-cultural system is required to conserve the cultural
heritage of Champaner-Pavagadh (Sinha, 2004). This entails restoring the historic waterbodies
and reviving the water systems to preserve their integrity. Sustainable management of water,
a precious resource today, is essential for conserving the cultural landscape that embodies
both tangible (water architecture and catchment-conveyance systems) and intangible (water
intelligence and sacred symbolism) heritage. The present water crisis emerged from reliance
on water from the distant Narmada Canal. Local water resource management is the key to
sustainability. Heritage constituted by extant historic water structures and recovered water
intelligence is a prime asset and exemplar for meeting the needs of pilgrimage and secular
tourism today.
The restoration and revival of water structures and systems would not only add to water
resources for use by the local community and ASI in maintaining the archaeological park but
also shape the visitor experience in new ways. The pilgrim would once again be able to take
the obligatory holy dip in Dudhiya Talao before the darshan of Kalika Mata and after life
cycle ceremonies such as tonsure. The perception of the hill as holy, protective, and nurtur-
ing would be strengthened in the eyes of the faithful. For the tourist interested in history
and living heritage, the restored water architecture and catchment-conveyance systems will
be the frame for sensory design resulting in a richer and deeper experience (Malnar
& Vodvarka, 2004).
 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 7

Figure 5. Pavilion overlooking Wada Talao, Champaner.

Mappings
Water systems were not part of excavations of Champaner in the late 1960s and those of Pavagadh
are obscured and fragmented, even as the talaos on the upper plateaus are in use by the local
community. Site mappings based upon fieldwork2 revealed the extant reservoirs, tanks, and
channels that caught and conveyed water to the talaos and kunds on the hill and at its foot.
Waterbodies were documented and the path of water down the hill and into the plain was
mapped. Historic waterworks on two of the watersheds formed from the monsoon run-off on
Pavagadh Hill were identified. Water falling on the summit of Pavagadh Hill was captured in the
past in large macro-catchments in rocky depressions on the northern, eastern, and southeastern
sides of the highest cliff on which the goddess temple stood.
Dudhiya Talao and Chassiya Talaos on the eastern and southeastern sides harvested rainwater in
the past and even today function as degraded reservoirs of water for cattle and other livestock. On
the next major plateau downstream known as Machi, twin talaos combine flood control and water
supply. Water first collects in Annapurna Talao from where excess water is diverted in a channel to
Teliya Talao. Annapurna Talao remains dry for most of the year except in monsoons while Teliya
Talao retains water for use by the community. Further downstream on Atak Plateau, Medhi Talao,
built by damming a small valley, supplied water to the fortified Rajput settlement. The 16-sided
talao had ghats, an island shrine, and a tower on its banks, all crumbling today. Water flows from
Atak Plateau, recharging groundwater supply to Gaben Shah Vav, and is channelised to Wada Talao
north-east of Champaner. This talao is the largest rainwater catchment also capturing run-off in a
8 A. SINHA

Figure 6. North-east watershed.

channel from Saria Vakaria hills to its north-east. Wada Talao, with a pleasure pavilion and mosque
on its banks, was the summer retreat for the royal family and was large enough to supply water to
the city through an underground channel (Figure 6).
Another chain of waterworks lies in the watershed west of the main system, beginning on Mauliya
Plateau where clouds envelop the hill and updrafts along its steep slopes cause turbulent sprays.
Rainfall is captured in two large basins near Naulakha Kothar from where an overflow channel carries
water to the three rectangular tanks built along the ramparts. The tanks, collectively known as Triveni
Kund, are named Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati, after the three sacred rivers of northern India. Water
flowing down the hill, instead of flowing away from the city towards the north-west, is dammed and
diverted through a tunnel to Kasbin Talao. The talao, located adjacent to the Champaner city wall, is
edged with ghats and ramps for animals and has a central island. Shakkar Khan’s Tomb, an outstanding
example of ornamental architecture, was built on its north-west. On this watershed, two kinds of water
systems were constructed: catchment-conveyance-tank as in Triveni Kund on Mauliya Plateau and
tank-conveyance-catchment as in Kasbin Talao (Figure 7).

Jal yatra
Our proposals for conservations of waterworks draw upon cultural meanings of water specific to Hindu
and Indo-Islamic traditions and phenomenology of water in universal human experience. Water is
proposed to be the frame for revealing the vital role it played in shaping the historic settlement
patterns. In its sense of immediacy, ability to invite touch, and its capacity to induce reflection, it
becomes salient in encountering and remembering sacred sites and spectacular historic monuments.
In this way, conservation practice goes beyond restoration of physical artefacts and becomes sensory
design in the true sense. The restoration of the 700-year old Hauz Khas Lake in Delhi in the last decade is
a good case in point.3 The historic waterbody in the southern ridge of the Aravalli hilly range (of which
Pavagadh Hill is a part) had dried up by the 1960s because of urban growth in its catchment area.
 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 9

Figure 7. North-west watershed.

Harvesting of monsoon rainfall, complemented by treated effluent from a local sanitary treatment
plant conveyed through a system of pipes, revived the lake and bioremediation and aerator fountains
improved the water quality, attracting migratory birds. Today, the lake and the adjacent historic
monuments, part of the district park, are a popular destination for local residents and tourists alike.
Conservation of extant historic water systems will contribute towards solving the present-day water
crisis in Pavagadh. Sporadic community efforts to dredge and clean Dudhiya and Chassiya Talaos in the
past should be augmented with more sustained and systematic efforts to repair the waterworks within
their restored watersheds. This would recharge the groundwater table, revive the wells, and aid in
water harvesting in the dry talaos of Champaner. The restoration of waterbodies in Pavagadh Hill will
enable pilgrims to carry out their rituals and will enhance the visitor experience of the landscape in and
around the Champaner monuments. The water quality in Chassiya Talao for example can be improved
by aerator fountains and remediating the grey water from washing platforms (Figure 8).
Jal yatra, meaning water journey, is proposed on a heritage trail linking the water systems and
structures on the hill and the archaeological site below. The journey will be akin to pilgrimage in
which water is a threshold for preparing the encounter with the divine. The idea of water as a
threshold is extended to the experience of history glimpsed in monuments. The journey begins at
the source on the summit of Pavagadh from where the trail follows the movement of water
downhill, moving with its flow, and resting where it does on each plateau. The water trail in taking
the visitor from one water building to another is linked to the main pilgrim path on Pavagadh Hill
and the proposed archaeological trail in Champaner. It becomes a circumambulatory path around
Dudhiya and Chassiya Talaos where ghats (steps) are repaired and extended to allow the pilgrims
and local community to get down to water. At Machi Plateau, the marshy Annapurna Talao is
restored as a bird-habitat while Teliya Talao is repaired and integrated into a pilgrim welcome
centre. Around Medhi, Kasbin, and Wada Talaos, walkways on the embankments give access to the
historic pavilions, mausoleums, and mosques (Figure 9).
10 A. SINHA

Figure 8. Proposed reclamation of Chassiya Talao, Pavagadh.

Figure 9. Proposed water trail in Champaner-Pavagadh.

 LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 11

Figure 10. Proposed water trail on Mauliya Plateau, Pavagadh.

Interpretive signage on the water trail reveals and amplifies the presence of water in the landscape.
On Mauliya Plateau, for example, the concept of water harvesting is represented in land art—boulders
arranged in circles and scooped to hold water (Figure 10). Copper mandalas are mounted on vertical
face of rocks and immersed in talaos that have fluctuating water levels; the rising and falling water
levels are marked as copper oxidises. Water logos and maps of water systems etched on bronze on
stone pillars interpret the water intelligence of historic communities to the visitor.

Conclusion
Champaner-Pavagadh is read as a bifurcated site—Islamic Champaner of historic monuments and
Hindu and Jain Pavagadh of sacred sites and temples—the former an archaeological park and the
latter a pilgrim destination, each serving a different group of visitors (Sinha & Sharma, 2009). This
reading belies the many ties between the two linked by fort walls, syncretic architectural style, and
above all by water systems. Water is the connecting element in a landscape perceived as divided
and fragmented along religious lines. Collective wisdom in water intelligence and craftsmanship in
water architecture cannot be exclusively defined along sectarian lines. Water flowing down the hill
shaped the cultural landscape of both Pavagadh and Champaner tying them together in an
indivisible whole for purposes of resource management.
Today at the UNESCO WHS, water is proposed to be the frame for revitalising the landscape of
Champaner-Pavagadh in a sustainable way. It should be the core of sensory design, in affording
tactile, haptic, visual, aural, and olfactory sensations to the visitor which will form the bedrock for her
cognitive knowledge of history, culture, and geography. Taking a dip in the holy talaos of Pavagadh,
walking along and resting on the banks of scenic talaos in Champaner, climbing down to the cool
interiors of vavs, and feeling the monsoon sprays on Mauliya Plateau will be intensely pleasurable and
restorative as the visitor explores the archaeological and sacred landscape of this richly layered site.
12 A. SINHA

Notes
1. ‘Pavagadh runs out of water’, The Times of India, 2 April 2016, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vado
dara/Pavagadh-runs-out-of-water/articleshow/51655328.cms, retrieved 17 November 2017.
2. For site mapping details, see the following reports of co-operative projects by Department of Landscape
Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA and Heritage Trust, Baroda, India; Amita Sinha
and Gary Kesler. ‘Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, Gujarat, India’, 2002 (https://issuu.com/amita
sinha/docs/chamapner-pavagadh_8e1776e4517f31); Amita Sinha, Gary Kesler, D. Fairchild Ruggles, and
James Wescoat, Jr. ‘Champaner-Pavagadh Cultural Sanctuary, Gujarat, India’, 2003 (https://issuu.com/amita
sinha/docs/champaner-pavagah); Amita Sinha, D. Fairchild Ruggles, and James Wescoat, Jr. ‘Panch Yatras in
the Cultural Heritage Landscape of Champaner-Pavagadh, Gujarat, India’, 2005, (https://issuu.com/amitasinha/
docs/champaner-report).
3. Bhatnagar, M. ‘Revival of Hauz Khas Lake, A Historic Lake in Urban Delhi’. In M. Sengupta and R. Dalwani (eds.)
Proceedings of Taal2007: The 12th World Lake Conference, 1477–1487, http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/
nlcp/P%20-%20World%20Case%20Studies/P-21.pdf, retrieved on 18 November 2017.

Acknowledgements
I thank Karan Grover for the opportunity to do fieldwork, and Agus Soeriaatmadja, Sumesh Modi and James Wescoat
for their insightful observations and interpretation of water systems in Champaner-Pavagadh.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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