Experimental Cutting Tool

Mark R. Miller
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos, NM 87545
e-mail: mrmiller@lanl.gov
George Mulholland
New Mexico State University,
Las Cruces, NM 88001
Charles Anderson
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, NM 87545
Temperature Distributions
High temperatures in machining cutting zones activate wear mechanisms that decrease
tool life and increase production costs and yet this phenomenon is not fully understood
nor characterized. Although experimental work has been performed, the techniques used
have generally been difficult to apply, and lacked sufficient resolution and or acceptable
accuracy. Theoretical predictions and computational simulations have been performed to
gain further insight into this problem but could not be accurately validated due to the lack
of sufficient experimental temperature data. Experimental techniques using modern, digi-
tal infrared imaging were developed and successfully applied during this study to gather
cutting tool temperature distributions from orthogonal machining operations. This new
process has seemingly overcome many problems associated with past experimental
techniques. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1621425兴

1 Introduction and Background
Nearly all mechanical work required to remove material during
machining is converted to thermal energy that increases the tem-
perature of the work piece, chip and cutting tool. Elevated cutting
tool temperatures adversely effect material properties leading to
decreased tool life that correlates to poor work piece geometry
and surface finish. Unfortunately, determination of cutting tool
temperature distributions is technically difficult and past research
has not provided sufficiently accurate temperature data as cited by
Shaw 关1兴, Boothroyd 关2兴, and Kalpakjian 关3兴. Therefore, providing
accurate experimental verification of the mechanisms that cause
wear using modern methods is very important.
Industrial demands create problems that require a better under-
standing of cutting zone temperatures such as increased produc-
tion rates to lower costs, dry machining implementation to elimi-
nate hazardous wastes, and continuous product quality
improvements. Experimental data regarding cutting tool tempera-
ture distributions are required to gain a better understanding of the
influence of fundamental machining parameters including cutting
tool materials and coatings, cutting speed, and work piece mate-
rial. A temperature measurement technique is needed that can pro-
vide accurate measurements and produce high-resolution thermal
images from the cutting zone to study the thermal phenomenon
that influences cutting tool wear. Development of a temperature
measurement technique that accomplishes these goals was the ob-
jective of this investigation.
A number of techniques have been used to gather temperature
information from the cutting zone of orthogonal machining pro-
cesses. Early work employed methods such as the cutting tool and
work piece thermocouple, thermocouple implants, observations of
micro-structural material changes as performed by Trent 关4兴, and
infrared 共IR兲 photographic plate techniques used by Boothroyd
关5,6兴. The observations made by Trent to construct temperature
isotherms required cutting tools constructed of materials that
would undergo micro-structural changes while experiencing in-
creased temperatures generated during machining, limiting this
technique to a narrow range of cutting tool steels. Boothroyd’s
application of infrared photographic plates was unique but this
early use of infrared technology is now antiquated and no longer
applicable. Additionally, the photographic plates were sensitive to
a narrow range of cutting tool temperature that required preheat-
ing the cutting tool and decreased cutting speeds.
Physical vapor deposited 共PVD兲 films were employed by Kato
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received
Dec. 2002; Revised July 2003. Associate Editor: M. A. Elbestawi.
and Fujii to produce temperature distributions between a two-
piece cutting tool. Various metal films were physically vapor de-
posited on the inner surfaces between a two-piece cutting tool and
upon observing the melt region after machining tests a single iso-
therm was inferred. This technique requires the use of a variety of
films and multiple tests with different tools to produce a single
temperature distribution. Although this method can be used to
gather temperature distributions for orthogonal machining opera-
tions, the method cannot be used for in situ measurement. Since
multiple tests are required to produce a single temperature distri-
bution, care must be exercised to prevent experimental error from
increasing due to variance between cutting tools and length of cut
time.
Kottenstette 关7兴 and Ueda et al. 关8,9兴 used two-color pyrom-
eters to study cutting zone temperatures. A two-color pyrometer
共ratio thermometer兲 uses two detectors sensitive to different wave-
lengths to determine target surface temperature from the thermal
radiation. These systems can accurately predict temperature but
are restricted to point observation or linear profile, hence an ac-
curate temperature distribution could not be constructed using this
ratio thermometer. Ueda 关9兴 also used a two-color pyrometer to
predict the maximum temperature of a CBN tool cutting edge at
the flank face. Ueda correlated the maximum flank face tempera-
ture to cutting speed and several work piece materials but could
not provide a complete temperature distribution. Experimental
evidence produced by Boothroyd 关6兴, and Kato and Fujii 关10兴, has
shown the maximum cutting tool temperature during orthogonal
machining exists away from the cutting edge along the rake face.
Stephenson 关11兴 utilized a thermal imaging system to observe
average shear plane temperature in the work piece that was used
to compare to predictive analytical model results. Mueller-
Hummel 关12兴 utilized an infrared thermal imaging system to ob-
serve the absolute rake face temperature of diamond-coated tools.
Jaspers et al. 关13兴 used a digital infrared camera to study the chip
temperatures during machining; unfortunately no cutting tool tem-
peratures were measured. M’Saoubi et al. 关14兴 used a charge
coupled infrared device to produce cutting zone temperature dis-
tributions but did not reveal the critical emittance measurement
technique, image resolution nor was an experimental error analy-
sis provided. Additionally, the silicon sensor saturated at tempera-
tures above 900C, therefore critical high temperature information
was not obtained.
Hence, past work does not provide an experimental technique
to measure accurate and complete high-resolution temperature
distributions for a wide range cutting conditions and cutting tool
materials. A suitable experimental technique utilizing modern
digital infrared thermometry was developed during the course of
this study that overcame many difficulties of measuring cutting

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Fig. 1 Orthogonal machining geometry
tool temperature distributions during orthogonal machining. The
data is shown to have resolution and accuracy not previously ob-
tained in past work and the developed technique was applied un-
der ordinary shop floor conditions. The digital infrared thermom-
eter used is sensitive to thermal radiation corresponding to
temperatures between 0 and 2000 C allowing observation of a
wide range of cutting speeds. Since nearly all cutting tool materi-
als and associated coatings in use today emit thermal radiation
proportional to temperature the application of IR thermometry as
described in this study offers wide application. This method also
allows real time data acquisition that can be readily correlated to
other data obtained from instrumentation, such as force transduc-
ers, observed over the same period.
Experimental temperature data is needed to validate and im-
prove computational models capable of predicting tool tempera-
ture and the mechanisms that cause tool wear. The models in
conjunction with experimental data may be used to help select
cutting tool materials and coatings, design tool geometry and op-
timize machining processes. This benefits industry by extending
cutting tool life that reduces production costs, potentially increas-
ing production rates and improving part quality. Cutting zone
simulation, provided by finite element analysis, yields complete
temperature distributions; unfortunately past studies have not de-
veloped methods or provided data to make these comparisons.
Modern digital infrared thermal imaging developed during the
course of this study has demonstrated the necessary accuracy and
resolution to allow valid comparisons between experimental and
computational results.
Although orthogonal machining principles have been exten-
sively used for simulation and testing in past work, a thorough
understanding of this process has not been realized. The orthogo-
nal machining technique offers many benefits for testing including
a reduction of experimental variables, profuse existence of theory
and models, and offers valuable insight to oblique machining.
Orthogonal machining tests can potentially be used to examine
how cutting tool materials and coatings as well as rake angle and
edge preparation, effect cutting zone temperatures.
2 Theory
Infrared imaging requires an unobstructed view to the target
surface of interest, hence orthogonal machining was employed
during all tests. Figure 1 depicts simple orthogonal machining
geometry where the cutting tool has a rake angle represented by a
and the primary shear plane angle is designated by ␾. The depth
of cut is t 0 and the chip thickness after deformation is t 1 .
Orthogonal machining is produced by holding the cutting edge
of a tool perpendicular to the direction of relative motion between
the cutting tool and work piece. This machining geometry pro-
duces a continuous, rectangular chip and generates a plane surface
parallel to the original work surface. Orthogonal machining, as
illustrated in Fig. 1, was demonstrated for this study by feeding a
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Fig. 2 Work piece showing temperature observation surface
cutting tool into the end of a rotating cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.
Note the observation area shown in Fig. 2 approximates the target
area from which the radiance data was acquired.
Radiometers measure radiant flux, or radiance, from a target
surface and generate a corresponding output signal. This electric
signal, usually a voltage, is converted to temperature using a cali-
bration algorithm that is derived under ideal conditions from a
blackbody surface. Generally at this point an emittance value,
input by the user, is applied to the data to correct for ‘‘real’’
surfaces 共emittance less than one兲. Once these calculations are
complete a thermogram is generated that maps the apparent tem-
perature of the target area. The total radiant flux as seen by a
detector is comprised of target surface emission and reflectance
from surroundings as well as atmospheric effects such as absorp-
tion, emission, and scattering.
As stated all radiometers require knowledge of target surface
emittance to compensate for real surfaces that radiate less effi-
ciently than black body surfaces. Additionally, the thermal radia-
tion emitted by most real surfaces is dependent on surface tem-
perature as well as other factors including material composition
and surface texture. Hence, accurate emittance values that reflect
test conditions of the target surface are directly related to the
accuracy of the inferred temperature results. Since published data
may not reflect actual test conditions of the target surface 共tem-
perature, roughness, oxidation, etc.兲 using it to infer true tempera-
ture from radiation thermometers may not yield accurate results.
Target surface emittance measurements are critical when accurate
surface temperatures are required using radiation thermometers
and must be performed using target surface conditions 共tempera-
ture, finish, etc.兲 that are as close as possible to those existing
during actual testing.
Madding 关15兴 illustrated the mathematics behind radiation ther-
mography that was employed during this study. Radiance as mea-
sured by an IR camera, also termed camera digital level, L m , is
given by Eq. 共1兲
L m ⫽␧ t L t ⫹ 共 1⫺␧ t 兲 L b (1)
The emittance of the target surface is represented by ␧ t , and
hence ␧ t L t is target surface radiance and (1⫺␧ t )L b is the radiance
reflected off the target from background sources. The radiance
measurements produced by the infrared camera used in this study
are based on the assumption that the emittance of the target sur-
face is independent of wavelength, i.e., a greybody emitter as
verified by Madding 关16兴. Therefore, 1⫺␧ t ⫽ ␳ t , is used to de-
scribe the reflectivity of the target surface. Prior to testing back-
ground temperatures were measured with the radiometer and
found consistent with normal room conditions 共approximately 24
C兲. Note Eq. 共1兲 does not include potential atmospheric effects.
Equation 共1兲 can be solved to yield an expression describing target
level radiance, Eq. 共2兲.
L m ⫺ 共 1⫺␧ t 兲 L b
L t⫽ (2)
␧t
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 3 Cutting zone experimental test setup Fig. 4 Emittance data

The radiometer employed in this study used Eq. 共2兲 to calculate

the digital radiance value for the target surface and determine the
temperature from a calibration 共lookup兲 table based on data gath-
ered under ideal conditions.
3 Experiment
The experimental setup shown in Fig. 3 reveals the location and
orientation of the infrared camera in relation to the cutting tool
and work piece. The mild steel work piece, AISI 1025, has pub-
lished material properties as follows, elastic modulus equal to
203.37 GPa, Poisson’s ratio of 0.303 and hardness approximately
140 HB. The cutting tool is fine grain carbide, Kennametal, Inc.
grade K313. Grade K313 is advertised as an unalloyed WC/Co
with low binder content for application as an ISO class M10 to
M20 or K05 to K20 but the composition is most similar to K20.
Hardness is approximately 1900 HV with an elastic modulus
equal to 615 GPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.216. The cutting tool
incorporated a 15° positive rake angle and a chip deflector to help
move the chip away from the camera lens. This geometry pro-
duced a continuous, rectangular chip for all tests conducted.
The selection of cutting speeds and depth of cut was intended to
represent general machining conditions undergoing final material
removal conditions or finish cuts. Table 1 yields the test param-
eters for the temperature distributions gathered. The cutting
speeds are based on recommended values found in the Machin-
ery’s Handbook 关17兴 for turning a mild-steel work piece with a
standard carbide cutting tool. The 0.102 mm 共0.004 inch兲 per
revolution feed rate correlates to a 0.102 共0.004 inch兲 depth of cut
for orthogonal machining.
Plane strain conditions exist in the chip during orthogonal ma-
chining in the same plane created by the cutting and thrust forces.
The degree of strain in the lateral direction, perpendicular to this
plane, can be determined from the ratio of the work piece wall
thickness to the chip width after material is removed. The lateral
strain for this case was less than 0.5% as tested.
The target surface of interest is the vertical side of the cutting
tool directly below the rake surface. Two regions generate heat in
the cutting zone of an orthogonal machining operation, the pri-
mary and secondary zone and are depicted in Fig. 1. Plastic de-
formation causes almost instantaneous heating of the material in
the primary zone while both viscous heating and friction contrib-
ute to heat generated in the secondary zone. The mechanisms of
heat transfer include conduction, convection and thermal radiation
absorption and reflectance. The techniques described in this work
are based on several fundamental assumptions from past work and
observed phenomenon during testing. First, the target surface acts
as a greybody emitter as verified by Madding 关16兴. Next, Boo-
throyd 关2兴 found convection losses from the target surface are
negligible during steady state machining conditions and are omit-
ted throughout this study. Also, three pathways exist for heat con-
duction in the cutting zone, a兲 into the work piece, b兲 into the
chip, and c兲 into the cutting tool. Lastly, the amount of heat con-
ducted into the work piece in the direction of motion is insignifi-
cant at the practical cutting speeds as used for these tests as origi-
nally discovered by Rapier 关18兴.
The IR camera was set on broad band spectrum, 3–14 mi-
crometers, that brackets the peak spectral radiance for the tem-
perature detected during testing and an emittance of one was used
as IR camera input to reduce subsequent calculations. The camera
was setup normal to the target surface as shown in Fig. 3 due to
the directional nature of the thermal radiance from the target
surface.
The reference temperature method was used to develop an ex-
pression for target surface emittance as a function of camera level
radiance. An example of emittance testing is shown in Fig. 4 and
represents an average of six data points from ten cutting tools
each. The figure also shows the linear regression line along with
its associated 95% confidence interval. Multivariate cubic spline
interpolation was used to produce the constants shown in Eq. 共3兲;
this equation was used to plot the linear curve shown in Fig. 4.

Table 1 Mechanical data and test parameters

RPM rev/min 550 760 1050

Feed Rate mm/rev 共inch/rev兲 0.102共0.004兲 0.102共0.004兲 0.102共0.004兲
Depth of Cut mm 共inch兲 0.102共0.004兲 0.102共0.004兲 0.102共0.004兲
Cutting Speed m/s 共ft/min兲 1.78 共351兲 2.46 共485兲 3.40 共671兲
Chip Thickness mm 共inch兲 0.203共0.008兲 0.203共0.008兲 0.178共0.007兲
Chip Width mm 共inch兲 4.67共0.184兲 4.67共0.184兲 4.70共0.185兲
Strain % 0.5 0.5 1.1
Chip Contact Length mm 共inch兲 0.635共0.025兲 1.092共0.043兲 0.762共0.030兲

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 Fig. 5 Test results observed at a cutting speed of 1.78 mÕs
„351 ftÕmin…, plotted as isotherms showing cutting tool outline
Observation of Fig. 4 reveals the dependence of emittance on
target surface radiance. Considering that temperature is propor-
tional to radiance, Fig. 4 illustrates obtaining accurate emittance
measurement is essential to the accurate formulation of tempera-
ture distributions.
␧ t 共 L m 兲 ⫽0.00001793L m ⫹0.192 (3)
␧ t (L m ) in Eq. 共3兲 represents the target surface emittance as a
function of camera digital level. Equation 共3兲 is placed in Eq. 共2兲
to yield the following.
L m ⫺ 共 1⫺␧ t 共 L m 兲兲 L b
L t⫽ (4)
␧ t共 L m 兲
Equations 共3兲 and 共4兲 were applied to the target surface radiance
data used to produce the image of the target surface shown in
Figs. 5, 6, and 7.
Radiance data gathered for these machining tests were recorded
on VHS videotape at the rate of 30 Hz for the period of testing,
approximately six seconds. Each frame of data comprised a com-
plete black and white image of the target surface area as observed
by the radiometer and is stored digitally as a matrix of tempera-
Fig. 6 Test results observed at a cutting speed of 2.46 mÕs
„485 ftÕmin…, plotted as isotherms showing cutting tool outline
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Fig. 7 Test results observed at a cutting speed of 3.40 mÕs
„671 ftÕmin…, plotted as isotherms showing cutting tool outline
ture values. A random sample of images was chosen from each
segment of tape between 1.0 and 5.4 seconds after test start and
averaged to create a matrix of temperature values. Each numeric
element of the averaged data matrix corresponds to a single pixel
within the image.
As stated, the radiometer used in this study provides a tempera-
ture value for each matrix element of a thermogram. Utilization of
Eq. 共4兲 requires camera level radiance to predict the desired result,
target surface radiance. The following procedure was used effec-
tively to apply Eq. 共4兲 to the average data matrix. First, convert
each element of the averaged thermogram matrix from tempera-
ture to camera level radiance. Next, apply Eq. 共4兲 to each element
to correct for emittance as a function of temperature to obtain true
target radiance values. Finally, convert target radiance to target
temperature for the final images shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7. The
temperature to radiance and radiance to temperature conversions
were performed using second order polynomials fit to the radiom-
eter manufacturer supplied camera calibration data. A commer-
cially available calculation software package was used to develop
the conversion equations and apply Eq. 共4兲 to the data. Conversion
accuracy required the use of second order polynomials best fit to
neighborhoods of the calibration data, hence the coefficients are
too numerous to list. The numerical error of converting from ra-
diance to temperature and back to temperature was found to be
negligible.
Prior to testing, each cutting tool was prepared and inspected.
Preparation included grinding, lapping the target surface, and
placement of two fiducial marks, 0.254 mm 共0.010 inch兲 diameter
by 0.254 mm 共0.010 inch兲 deep, by electronic discharge machin-
ing on the target surface. During initial cutting tests, observation
of the target surface revealed the carbide cutting tool was becom-
ing darker at the cutting edge. Since, accuracy could be affected
by a change in surface properties during testing the cutting tools
were preheated in a furnace to over 500°C to uniformly darken the
target surface and prevent any emittance change during the test.
Isotherm images do not, in general, represent spatial detail well;
consequently a method was derived and employed to reproduce
the cutting tool outline of the image. Each cutting tool was in-
spected before testing using a video microscope capable of accu-
rate positioning to within 0.0025 mm 共0.0001 inch兲 and this in-
formation was used to reconstruct the outline of each tool using
CAD software. The final isotherm was then imported into the
CAD file where the cutting tool outline was located. The isotherm
image was then located and scaled using the two fiducial marks
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 8 Target temperature error as a function of emittance
error
that are readily observed in the thermal image. Additionally, the
contact length of the chip was measured using the video micro-
scope after each test.
4 Results and Data Analysis
The reduced experimental temperature data, gathered from the
infrared images of the target surface, were plotted as isotherms as
shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 with contour lines separated in 25 C
increments. The cutting tool outline and the work piece are clearly
visible, depicted in red, with the cutting tool edge appearing in the
upper right corner. The work piece is to the right of the vertical
lines. The uncut surface is represented by the vertical line extend-
ing to the top of the figures while the vertical line extending from
the cutting tool edge to the bottom of the figures represents the
newly cut surface. The rectangular shape located just above the
cutting tool edge on the rake face represents the chip thickness
and contact length.
An estimate of resolution and scale is derived from the small
red circles, representing the cutting tool fiducial marks, located in
the lower left corner of the isotherm images. As measured from
the image the pixel height and width is 0.018 mm 共0.0007 inch兲
by 0.015 mm 共0.0006兲 inch respectively.
An error budget was performed on both the emittance measure-
ments and the cutting tool target temperature results following
Madding’s 关15兴 methodology. The reference temperature method
used to gather emittance data as described by the following
equation.
L t ⫺L b
␧ t共 L m 兲 ⫽
L m ⫺L b
Where L t is target surface radiance, L m is measured camera level
and L b is reflected background radiance. Equation 共6兲 represents
emittance fractional error and was obtained by application of the
root-sum-square method to Eq. 共5兲.
冑 冋冉 冊冉
⌬␧ t 1 1
⫽ 2⌬L 2 ⫹ (6)
␧t 共 L t ⫺L b 兲 2
共 L m ⫺L b 兲 2
Emittance fractional error was derived from Eq. 共6兲 using radi-
ance data from cutting tool target surface shown in Figs. 5, 6, and
7. The manufacturers quoted a calibration specification of ⫾0.1°C
for the camera used in this study. Therefore, ⌬L, was determined
from radiance value calculated for 0.2°C multiplied by 3.0 to ap-
proximate a three sigma standard deviation for the temperature
range of the experiments. The emittance measurement error was
obtained using Eq. 共6兲 and radiance levels extracted from the cut-
ting tool target surface shown in Fig. 5; These errors are plotted as
a function of target temperature in Fig. 8.
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Fig. 9 Target temperature as a function of target temperature
error
Application of the root-sum square method was also used to
find target temperature uncertainty. Equation 共7兲 is used to ap-
proximate a radiantly linear system.
T⫽A ln共 L t 兲 ⫹B (7)
Equation 共8兲 describes the temperature error as a function of target
radiance level.
A⌬L t
⌬T⫽ (8)
Lt
Target level uncertainty was found by application of the root-sum-
square method to the radiosity Eq. 共2兲 and using Eq. 共8兲 the total
expected target temperature uncertainty was found to be described
by Eq. 共9兲, where the constant A is derived from Eq. 共7兲.
⌬T t ⫽A
冑 ⌬L m
2
⫹ 冉 冊
⌬␧ t
␧t
2
共 L m ⫺L b 兲 2 ⫹⌬L 2b 共 ␧ t ⫺1 兲 2
(9)
␧ tL t
Equation 共9兲 illustrates total target temperature measurement un-
certainty due to emittance, camera level and background level
errors. Equation 共9兲 shows that as emittance decreases, tempera-
ture error increases, and as target level radiance increases, total
target temperature error decreases. Using Eq. 共9兲 and the same
radiance values as before, a plot of total target temperature error
as a function of target temperature was plotted and is shown in
Fig. 9.
5 Discussion
(5)
Test results are shown for three cutting speeds, 1.78 共351兲, 2.46
共485兲, and 3.40 m/s 共671 ft/min兲, in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 respectively.
The isotherm plots provide an accurate, well-defined temperature
distribution over the cutting tool target surface. Accuracy of the
results from Fig. 5 is illustrated in Fig. 9, where as temperatures
冊册
reach 500 C the total temperature error is approximately 5 C. This
figure reveals an important and interesting trend; as temperature
increases, target temperature error decreases. Intrinsically, all ra-
diation thermometers produce this phenomenon. Figure 10 de-
scribes target temperature as a function of emittance measurement
error and shows that at a temperature of 200 C the error is ap-
proximately 4%, dropping to below 1% as the target temperature
increases. Examination of Fig. 10 shows emittance measurement
error had a diminishing effect on target temperature error. Based
on these observations, the radiation thermometer and test proce-
dure used in this study provided accurate temperature data. Since
these trends are inherent to radiation thermometers, they make an
attractive instrument to use for measurement of high temperature
regions as encountered in machining cutting zones.
NOVEMBER 2003, Vol. 125 Õ 671

Fig. 10 Target temperature as a function of emittance error
The temperature resolution produced during testing as depicted
in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 allows for meaningful comparison with past
orthogonal metal cutting simulation. Strenkowski and Moon 关19兴
applied the finite element method to construct an Eulerian model
of an orthogonal machining operation. The smallest element of the
model was approximately 0.0254 mm by 0.1778 mm 共0.001 inch
by 0.007 inch兲 as observed from their results. The resolution pro-
duced by the infrared imaging for this study is approximately
0.0152 mm by 0.0178 mm 共0.0006 inch by 0.0007 inch兲 and well
within this range. The data produced in this study precludes any
temperature comparison with Strenkowski and Moon due to the
different machining conditions and materials. However, new mod-
els could be constructed or validation tests performed that would
allow direct comparison.
The spatial detail of the carbide cutting tool was accurately
reproduced within the thermal images represented in Figs. 5, 6,
and 7. These figures also reveal a cavity effect that is a conse-
quence of digital infrared thermal imaging. Two cavities exist in
the images, 1兲 between the clearance face and work piece, and 2兲
along the rake face where the chip looses contact with the cutting
tool. These cavities produce multiple reflections of radiant energy
from within an enclosure that results in an apparent increase in
emittance as described by Kaplan 关20兴. Accordingly, the isotherms
could be extrapolated to these surfaces with confidence. Since no
cavity exists in the most critical area, along the rake face in con-
tact with the chip, these temperatures are accurately revealed.
Observations made from the isotherm temperature distributions
shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 reveal as expected that generally in-
creased temperatures are produced as cutting speed increases. Fig-
ure 5 represents a cutting tool temperature distribution obtained at
a cutting speed of 1.78 m/s 共351 ft/min兲 with 550 C the highest
recorded isotherm. Figure 6 shows 675 C as the highest recorded
isotherm produced at a cutting speed of 2.46 m/s 共485 ft/min兲 and
Fig. 7 shows 775 C the highest recorded isotherm at 3.40 m/s 共671
ft/min兲. Each of the figures show the highest temperatures located
away from the rake face and the contact area between the cutting
tool and chip. One explanation for this phenomenon is that the
chip conducts heat from the area of contact with the cutting tool
and this heat is carried away as the chip passes over the tool. This
would produce higher temperature regions within the cutting tool
away from the rake face.
As shown, this study provided accurate temperature data for an
orthogonal machining operation performed at recommended cut-
ting speeds on a steel work piece with a carbide cutting tool. The
equipment and procedures used to perform these tests should be
applicable to a wide variety of work piece and cutting tool mate-
rials at almost any cutting speed. The emittance of TiN coated
cutting tools have been measured and found to be in an acceptable
range from 0.1 to 0.2. Other cutting tool materials such as boron
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nitride have produced emittance values from 0.8 to 0.9. Although
these emittance values will undoubtedly differ for other cutting
tools constructed of similar materials they demonstrate the wide
variety of cutting tool materials that may be accurately observed
using digital infrared thermal imaging.
6 Conclusion
Digital infrared thermal imaging applied to orthogonal machin-
ing with the techniques developed during the course of this study
can be used to gather temperature distributions for a wide variety
of cutting tool materials and cutting speeds. The error analysis
performed on the temperature data gathered during this study pro-
vides evidence the isotherms accurately depict the temperature
distributions. This evidence also demonstrates the application of
digital infrared imaging can solve many of the problems associ-
ated with past experimental techniques. The high-resolution
共0.018 mm by 0.015 mm兲 temperature distributions were shown to
be accurate within 1% at higher temperature values and therefore
provide for precise validation of computational simulations. Ad-
ditionally, this technique should be applicable to almost any cut-
ting tool material with measurable emittance. Also digital infrared
imaging was shown to become more accurate as temperature in-
creases, hence accurate temperature distributions obtained from
orthogonal machining at higher cutting speeds, producing gener-
ally increased temperatures, may be captured and studied. Digital
infrared thermometry has limitations however. The method must
have an unobstructed line of sight measurement from the camera
to the target surface and therefore generally not suitable for ob-
lique machining applications. Obtaining critical emittance mea-
surements is involved and generally requires target surface prepa-
ration. Additionally infrared thermometry can only be applied in
dry machining applications as the coolant obstructs the view of
the cutting tool target surface.
Nevertheless infrared digital thermometry as applied to or-
thogonal dry machining offers the potential to study cutting zone
temperature distributions and hence may be used optimize many
critical cutting tool parameters such as rake angle, edge prepara-
tion, surface roughness, and coatings. High temperatures as en-
countered in the cutting zone of machining processes affect mate-
rial properties and in most cases reduce tool life. Since cutting
tool life directly impacts machining efficiency and production
costs understanding the effects of cutting tool geometry, materials,
coatings, and edge preparation is very important. Digital infrared
thermal imaging as applied in this study can be used to gather
accurate, high-resolution temperature distributions from orthogo-
nal dry machining.
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