History[edit]

Early road vehicles used fuelled lamps, before the availability of electric lighting. The Ford
Model T used carbide lamps for headlamps and oil lamps for tail lamps. It did not have all-
electric lighting as a standard feature until several years after introduction. Dynamos for
automobile headlamps were first fitted around 1908 and became commonplace in 1920s
automobiles.

Silent film star Florence Lawrence is often credited with designing the first "auto signaling arm",
a predecessor to the modern turn signal, along with the first mechanical brake signal. She did not
patent these inventions, however, and as a result she received no credit for—or profit from—
either one.[1][2][3] Tail lamps and brake lamps were introduced around 1915, and by 1919 "dip"
headlamps were available. The sealed beam headlamp was introduced in 1936 and standardised
as the only acceptable type in the USA in 1940. Self-cancelling turn signals were developed in
1940. By 1945 headlamps and signal lamps were integrated into the body styling. Halogen
headlamp light sources were developed in Europe in 1960. HID headlamps were produced
starting in 1991. In 1993, the first LED tail lamps were installed on mass-production
automobiles. LED headlamps were introduced in the first decade of the 21st century.[4]

Colour of light emitted[edit]

The colour of light emitted by vehicle lights is largely standardised by longstanding convention.
It was first codified in the 1949 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and later specified in the
1968 United Nations Convention on Road Traffic.[5][6] With some regional exceptions, lamps
facing rearward must emit red light, lamps facing sideward and all turn signals must emit amber
light, while lamps facing frontward must emit white or selective yellow light. No other colours
are permitted except on emergency vehicles.

Forward illumination[edit]
Forward illumination is provided by high- ("main", "full", "driving") and low- ("dip", "dipped",
"passing") beam headlamps, which may be augmented by auxiliary fog lamps, driving lamps, or
cornering lamps.

Headlamps[edit]

Main article: Headlamp

Dipped beam (low beam, passing beam, meeting beam)[edit]

ISO symbol for low beam[7]

Dipped-beam (also called low, passing, or meeting beam) headlamps provide a light distribution
to give adequate forward and lateral illumination without dazzling other road users with
excessive glare. This beam is specified for use whenever other vehicles are present ahead.

UN Regulations for headlamps specify a beam with a sharp, asymmetric cutoff preventing
significant amounts of light from being cast into the eyes of drivers of preceding or oncoming
cars.[8][9] Control of glare is less strict in the United States-based Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) beam standard. It is contained in Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 (FMVSS /
CMVSS 108).[10]

Main beam (high beam, driving beam, full beam)[edit]

ISO symbol for high beam[7]

Main-beam (also called high, driving, or full beam) headlamps provide an intense, centre-
weighted distribution of light with no particular control of glare. Therefore, they are only suitable
for use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other drivers. ECE and
Japanese Regulations permit higher-intensity, high-beam headlamps than allowed under US
regulations.[11]

Auxiliary lamps[edit]

Driving lamps[edit]

ISO symbol for long-range lamps[7]

Auxiliary high beam lamps may be fitted to provide high intensity light to enable the driver to
see at longer range than the vehicle's high beam headlamps[12] may be fitted. Such lamps are most
notably fitted on rallying cars, and are occasionally fitted to production vehicles derived from or
imitating such cars. They are common in countries with large stretches of unlit roads, or in
regions such as the Nordic countries[citation needed] where the period of daylight is short during winter.

"Driving lamp" is a term deriving from the early days of nighttime driving, when it was
relatively rare to encounter an opposing vehicle.[13] Only on those occasions when opposing
drivers passed each other would the low (dipped or "passing") beam be used. The high beam was
therefore known as the "driving beam", and this terminology is still found in international UN
Regulations, which do not distinguish between a vehicle's primary (mandatory) and auxiliary
(optional) upper/driving beam lamps.[8][9][14] The "driving lamp" term has been supplanted in US
regulations by the functionally descriptive term "auxiliary high-beam lamp".[15]
Many countries regulate the installation and use of driving lamps. For example, in Russia each
vehicle may have no more than three pairs of lights including the original-equipment items, and
in Paraguay auxiliary driving lamps must be off and covered with opaque material when the
vehicle is circulating in urban areas.[16]

Front fog lamps[edit]

ISO symbol for front fog lamps[7]

Front fog lamps provide a wide, bar-shaped beam of light with a sharp cutoff at the top, and are
generally aimed and mounted low.[17][18] They may produce white or selective yellow light, and
were designed for use at low speed to increase the illumination directed towards the road surface
and verges in conditions of poor visibility due to rain, fog, dust or snow.

They are sometimes used in place of dipped-beam headlamps, reducing the glare-back from fog
or falling snow, although the legality varies by jurisdiction of using front fog lamps without low
beam headlamps.

Selective yellow fog lamps

In most countries, weather conditions rarely necessitate the use of fog lamps and there is no legal
requirement for them, so their primary purpose is frequently cosmetic. They are often available
as optional extras or only on higher trim levels of many cars. An SAE study has shown that in
the United States more people inappropriately use their fog lamps in dry weather than use them
properly in poor weather.[19] Because of this, use of the fog lamps when visibility is not seriously
reduced is often prohibited in most jurisdictions; for example, in New South Wales, Australia:

"The driver of a vehicle must not use any fog light fitted to the vehicle unless the driver is
driving in fog, mist or under other atmospheric conditions that restrict visibility."[20]

The respective purposes of front fog lamps and driving lamps are often confused, due in part to
the misconception that fog lamps are necessarily selective yellow, while any auxiliary lamp that
makes white light is a driving lamp. Automakers and aftermarket parts and accessories suppliers
frequently refer interchangeably to "fog lamps" and "driving lamps" (or "fog/driving lamps").

Cornering lamps[edit]
A cornering lamp on a 1983 Oldsmobile 98

On some models, cornering lamps provide white steady-intensity light for lateral illumination in
the direction of an intended turn or lane change. They are generally actuated in conjunction with
the turn signals, and they may be wired to also illuminate when the vehicle is shifted into reverse
gear.[21] Some modern vehicles activate the cornering lamp on one or the other side when the
steering wheel input reaches a predetermined angle in that direction, regardless of whether a turn
signal has been activated.[citation needed] In other modern vehicles, viz. the 2016 and later (ND) Mazda
MX-5 "Miata" sports car, in its highest trim level ("Grand Touring"), the regular headlamps act
as a cornering lamp by turning to track movements of the steering wheel and thus illuminate the
direction of a winding road or a turn; there is no separate cornering lamp. Mazda describes this
system as "adaptive lighting".

American technical standards contain provisions for front cornering lamps[22] as well as rear
cornering lamps.[23] Cornering lamps have traditionally been prohibited under international UN
Regulations, though provisions have recently been made to allow them as long as they are only
operable when the vehicle is travelling at less than 40 kilometres per hour (about 25 mph).[21][24]

Spot lights[edit]

Police cars, emergency vehicles, and those competing in road rallies are sometimes equipped
with an auxiliary lamp, sometimes called an alley light, in a swivel-mounted housing attached to
one or both a-pillars, directable by a handle protruding through the pillar into the vehicle.

Until the mid-1940s, these spot lamps could be found as standard equipment on expensive cars.
[which?]
Until the mid-1960s, they were commonly offered by automakers as model-specific
accessory items.[citation needed]

Spot lamps are used to illuminate signs, house numbers, and people. Spot lights can also be had
in versions designed to mount through the vehicle's roof. In some countries, for example in
Russia, spot lights are allowed only on emergency vehicles or for off-road driving.[citation needed]

Conspicuity, signal and identification lights[edit]

Conspicuity devices are the lamps and reflectors that make a vehicle conspicuous and visible
with respect to its presence, position, direction of travel, change in direction or deceleration.
Such lamps may burn steadily, blink, or flash, depending on their intended and regulated
function. Most must be fitted in pairs—one left and one right—though some vehicles have
multiple pairs (such as two left and two right stop lamps) and/or redundant light sources (such as
one left and one right stop lamp, each containing two bulbs).

Front[edit]

Front position lamps[edit]

ISO symbol for position lamps[7]

"Front position lamps",[21] known as "parking lamps" or "parking lights" in the US, Canada,[10] and
Australia and "front sidelights" in the UK provide nighttime standing-vehicle conspicuity.[25]
They were designed to use little electricity, so they could be left on for periods of time while
parked. Despite the UK term, these are not the same as the side marker lights described below.

The front position lamps on any vehicle may emit white or amber light in the US, Canada,
Mexico, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand and much of the Middle East; elsewhere in the world only
motorcycles may have amber front position lamps; all other vehicles must have white ones.[10][21][26]
[27]
Colloquial city light terminology for front position lamps[28] derives from the practice, formerly
adhered to in cities like Moscow, London and Paris, of driving at night in built-up areas using
these low-intensity lights rather than headlamps.[29]

In Germany, the StVZO (Road Traffic Licensing Regulations) calls for a different function also
known as parking lamps: With the vehicle's ignition switched off, the operator may activate a
low-intensity light at the front (white) and rear (red) on either the left or the right side of the car.
This function is used when parking in narrow unlit streets to provide parked-vehicle conspicuity
to approaching drivers.[30] This function, which is optional under UN and US regulations, is
served passively and without power consumption in the United States by the mandatory side
marker retroreflectors.[10]

Daytime running lamps[edit]

Main article: Daytime running lamp

ISO symbol for daytime running lamps[7]

Installation[edit]
LED daytime running lights on Audi A4

Some countries permit or require vehicles to be equipped with daytime running lamps (DRL).
Depending on the regulations of the country for which the vehicle is built, these may be
functionally dedicated lamps, or the function may be provided by the low beam or high beam
headlamps, the front turn signals, or the front fog lamps.

Passenger cars and small delivery vans first type approved to UN Regulation 48 on or after 7
February 2011 must be equipped with DRLs; large vehicles (trucks and buses) type approved
since August 2012 must be so equipped.[31][31][32][33][34] Functional piggybacking, such as operating
the headlamps or front turn signals or fog lamps as DRLs, is not permitted;[35] the EU Directive
requires functionally specific daytime running lamps compliant with UN Regulation 87 and
mounted to the vehicle in accord with UN Regulation 48.[36]

Prior to the DRL mandate, countries requiring daytime lights permitted low beam headlamps to
provide that function. National regulations in Canada, Sweden, Norway, Slovenia, Finland,
Iceland, and Denmark require hardwired automatic DRL systems of varying specification. DRLs
are permitted in many countries where they are required, but prohibited in other countries not
requiring them.[28]

Front, side, and rear position lamps are permitted, required, or forbidden to illuminate in
combination with daytime running lamps, depending on the jurisdiction and the DRL
implementation. Likewise, according to jurisdictional regulations, DRLs mounted within a
certain distance of turn signals are permitted or required to extinguish or dim down to parking
lamp intensity individually when the adjacent turn signal is operating.[10][21]

Intensity and colour[edit]

UN Regulation 87 stipulates that DRLs must emit white light with an intensity of at least 400
candela on axis and no more than 1200 candela in any direction.[37]

In the US, daytime running lamps may emit amber or white light, and may produce up to 7,000
candela. This has provoked a large number of complaints about glare.[38][39]

Dim-dip lamps[edit]

UK regulations briefly required vehicles first used on or after 1 April 1987 to be equipped with a
dim-dip device[40]or special running lamps, except such vehicles as comply fully with UN
Regulation 48 regarding installation of lighting equipment. A dim-dip device operates the low
beam headlamps (called "dipped beam" in the UK) at between 10% and 20% of normal low-
beam intensity. The running lamps permitted as an alternative to dim-dip were required to emit at
least 200 candela straight ahead, and no more than 800 candela in any direction. In practice, most
vehicles were equipped with the dim-dip option rather than the running lamps.[40]

The dim-dip systems were not intended for daytime use as DRLs. Rather, they operated if the
engine was running and the driver switched on the parking lamps (called "sidelights" in the UK).
Dim-dip was intended to provide a nighttime "town beam" with intensity between that of the
parking lamps commonly used at the time by British drivers in city traffic after dark, and dipped
(low) beams; the former were considered insufficiently intense to provide improved conspicuity
in conditions requiring it, while the latter were considered too glaring for safe use in built-up
areas. The UK was the only country to require such dim-dip systems, though vehicles so
equipped were sold in other Commonwealth countries with left-hand traffic.[41]

In 1988, the European Commission successfully prosecuted the UK government in the European
Court of Justice, arguing that the UK requirement for dim-dip was illegal under EC directives
prohibiting member states from enacting vehicle lighting requirements not contained in pan-
European EC directives. As a result, the UK requirement for dim-dip was quashed.[40]
Nevertheless, dim-dip systems remain permitted, and while such systems are not presently as
common as they once were, dim-dip functionality was fitted on many new cars well into the
1990s.

Lateral[edit]

Side marker lights and reflectors[edit]

1974 Plymouth Valiant with headlamps, amber front position lamps, and side marker lights lit

In the US, amber front and red rear side marker lamps and retroreflectors are required. The law
initially required lights or retroreflectors on vehicles made after 1 January 1968. This was
amended to require lights and retroreflectors on vehicles made after 1 January 1970.[42] These
side-mounted devices make the vehicle's presence, position and direction of travel clearly visible
from oblique angles.[42] The lights are wired so as to illuminate whenever the vehicles' parking
and taillamps are on, including when the headlamps are being used.[10] Front amber side markers
in the United States may be wired so as to flash in synchronous phase or opposite-phase with the
turn signals; nevertheless, they are not required to flash at all.[43] Side markers are permitted but
not required on cars and light passenger vehicles outside the US and Canada. If installed, they
are required to be brighter and visible through a larger horizontal angle than US side markers,
may flash only in synchronous phase with the turn signals (but are not required to flash), and
they must be amber at the front and rear, except rear side markers may be red if they are
grouped, combined, or reciprocally incorporated with another rear lighting function that is
required to be red.[21]

Japan's accession to international standards has caused automakers to change the rear side
marker colour from red to amber on their models so equipped in the Japanese market.[44]

Turn signals[edit]

ISO symbol for turn signals[7]

Wilcot Robot Indicators fitted to 1933 Morris Ten.

Turn signals—formally called "direction indicators" or "directional signals", and informally

known as "directionals", "blinkers", "indicators" or "flashers"—are blinking lamps mounted near
the left and right front and rear corners of a vehicle, and sometimes on the sides or on the side
mirrors of a vehicle, activated by the driver on one side of the vehicle at a time to advertise intent
to turn or change lanes towards that side.[21][45][46][47]
Front and side turn signals illuminated.

Electric turn-signal lights date from as early as 1907.[48] The modern flashing turn signal was
patented in 1938 and later most major automobile manufacturers offered this feature.[49] As of
2013 most countries require turn signals on all new vehicles that are driven on public roadways.
[10][21]
Alternative systems of hand signals were used earlier, and remain common for bicycles.
Hand signals are also sometimes used when regular vehicle lights are malfunctioning or for older
vehicles without turn signals.

The Japanese Trafficator deploys to extend from the vehicle's side to indicate a turn in that
direction.

Some cars from the 1920s to early 1960s used retractable semaphores called trafficators rather
than flashing lights. They were commonly mounted high up behind the front doors and swung
out horizontally. However, they were fragile and could be easily broken off and also had a
tendency to stick in the closed position. These can be fitted with flashing lights as an upgrade.

As with all vehicle lighting and signalling devices, turn-signal lights must comply with technical
standards that stipulate minimum and maximum permissible intensity levels, minimum
horizontal and vertical angles of visibility, and minimum illuminated surface area to ensure that
they are visible at all relevant angles, do not dazzle those who view them, and are suitably
conspicuous in conditions ranging from full darkness to full direct sunlight.[10][21]
Side turn signals[edit]

Mirror-mounted turn signal

In most countries, cars must be equipped with side-mounted turn signal repeaters to make the
turn indication visible laterally (i.e. to the sides of the vehicle) rather than just to the front and
rear of the vehicle. These are permitted, but not required in the United States. As an alternative in
both the United States and Canada, the front amber side marker lights may be wired to flash with
the turn signals, but this is not mandatory. Mercedes-Benz introduced the side turn signal
repeaters integrated into the side view mirror in 1998, starting with its facelifted E-Class (W210).
[citation needed]
Since then, many automakers have been incorporating side turn signal devices into the
mirror housings rather than mounting them on the vehicle's fenders. Some evidence suggests
these mirror-mounted turn signals may be more effective than fender-mounted items.[50]

Electrical connection and switching[edit]

These two types of dashboard turn signal tell-tale indicators show drivers the signal they're
sending to others

Turn signals are required to blink on and off, or "flash", at a steady rate of between 60 and 120
blinks per minute (1–2 Hz).[10][21] International UN Regulations require that all turn signals flash in
simultaneous phase;[21] US regulations permit side marker lights wired for side turn signal
functionality to flash in opposite-phase.[10][45] An audio and/or visual tell-tale indicator is required,
to advise the driver when the turn signals are activated and operating.[21][51] This usually takes the
form of one or two green indicator lights on the vehicle's instrument cluster, and a cyclical "tick-
tock" noise generated electromechanically or electronically. It is also required that the vehicle
operator be alerted by much faster- or slower-than-normal flashing in the event a turn signal light
fails.[10][21]

Turn signals are in almost every case activated by a horizontal lever (or "stalk") protruding from
the side of the steering column, though on some vehicles it protrudes from the dashboard. The
outboard end of the stalk is pushed clockwise to activate the right turn signals, or anticlockwise
for the left turn signals. In most cases, the signal stalk is on the outboard, usually left hand side
of the column, in both left and right hand drive cars.[citation needed] Regulations do not specify a
mandatory location for the turn signal control, only that it be visible and operable by the belted-
in driver, and—at least in North America—that it be labelled with a specific symbol if it is not
located on the left side of the steering column.[51][52] The international UN Regulations do not
include analogous specifications.[53]

Virtually all vehicles (except many motorcycles and commercial semi-tractors) have a turn-
indicator self-cancelling feature that returns the lever to the neutral (no signal) position as the
steering wheel approaches the straight-ahead position after a turn has been made. Beginning in
the late 1960s, indicating for a lane change was facilitated by the addition of a spring-loaded
momentary signal-on position just shy of the left and right detents. The signal operates for
however long the driver holds the lever partway towards the left or right turn signal detent. Some
recent vehicles have an automatic lane-change indication feature; tapping the lever partway
towards the left or right signal position and immediately releasing it causes the applicable turn
indicators to flash three to five times.

Some transit buses, such as those in New York, have had, since at least the 1950s, turn signals
activated by floor-mounted momentary-contact footswitches on the floor near the driver's left
foot (on left-hand drive buses). The foot-activated signals allow bus drivers to keep both hands
on the steering wheel while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a
bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on
the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are
intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop.[54] This method of
signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing.

Sequential turn signals[edit]

Play media
Sequential turn signals with OLEDs

Sequential turn signals are a feature on some cars wherein the turn-signal function is provided by
multiple lit elements that illuminate sequentially rather than simultaneously: the innermost lamp
lights and remains illuminated, the next outermost lamp lights and remains illuminated, followed
by the next outermost lamp and so on until the outermost lamp lights briefly, at which point all
lamps extinguish together and, after a short pause, the cycle begins again. The visual effect is
one of outward motion in the direction of the intended turn or lane change. Sequential turn
signals have been factory-installed only on cars with red combination stop/turn lamps.[citation needed]
They were factory fitted to 1965–1971-model Ford Thunderbirds, to 1967–1973 Mercury
Cougars, to Shelby Mustangs between 1967 and 1970, to 1969 Imperials, to the Japanese-market
1971–1972 Nissan Cedric, and to Ford Mustangs since 2010.

Two different systems were employed. The earlier, fitted to the 1965 through 1968 Ford-built
cars and the 1971–1972 Nissan Cedric, employed an electric motor driving, through reduction
gearing, a set of three slow-turning cams. These cams would actuate switches to turn on the
lights in sequence. Later Ford cars and the 1969 Imperial used a transistorised control module
with no moving parts to wear, break, or go out of adjustment.

FMVSS 108 has been officially interpreted as requiring all light-sources in an active turn signal
to illuminate simultaneously.[55][56] However, the 2010 and later Ford Mustangs are equipped with
sequential turn signals.[57]

Turn signal colour[edit]

Until the early 1960s, most front turn signals worldwide emitted white light and most rear turn
signals emitted red. The auto industry in the USA voluntarily adopted amber front-turn signals
for most vehicles beginning in the 1963 model year,[58][59] though the advent of amber signals was
accompanied by legal stumbles in some states[60] and front turn signals were still legally permitted
to emit white light until FMVSS 108 took effect for the 1968 model year, whereupon amber
became the only permissible front turn signal colour. Presently, most countries outside of the
United States and Canada require that all front, side and rear turn signals produce amber light.
Exceptions include Switzerland[61] and New Zealand.[62]

In Canada and the US the rear signals may be amber or red. American regulators and other
proponents of red rear turn signals have historically asserted there is no proven safety benefit to
amber signals, though it has been recognized since the 1960s that amber turn signals are more
quickly spotted than red ones.[63][64][65] International proponents of amber rear signals say they are
more easily discernible as turn signals,[66] and US studies in the early 1990s demonstrated
improvements in the speed and accuracy of following drivers' reactions to stop lamps when the
turn signals were amber rather than red.[66][67][68][69][70]

A 2008 US study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) suggests
vehicles with amber rear signals rather than red ones are up to 28% less likely to be involved in
certain kinds of collisions,[71] and a 2009 NHTSA study determined there is a significant overall
safety benefit to amber rather than red rear turn signals.[72]

There is some evidence that turn signals with colourless clear lenses and amber bulbs may be
less conspicuous in bright sunlight than those with amber lenses and colourless bulbs.[73]

Colour durability[edit]
The colour coating has started to flake off this PY27/7W bulb, a relatively new problem.

The amber bulbs commonly used in turn signals with colourless lenses are no longer made with
cadmium glass, since various regulations worldwide, including the European RoHS directive,
banned cadmium because of its toxicity.[74] Amber glass made without cadmium is relatively
costly, so most amber bulbs are now made with clear glass dipped in an amber coating. Some of
these coatings are not as durable as the bulb envelopes; with prolonged heat-cool cycles, the
coating may flake off the bulb glass, or its colour may fade. This causes the turn signal to emit
white light, rather than the required amber light.

The international regulation on motor vehicle bulbs requires manufacturers to test bulbs for
colour endurance.[75] However, no test protocol or colour durability requirement is specified.
Discussion is ongoing[76] within the Groupe des Rapporteurs d'Éclairage, the UNECE working
group on vehicular lighting regulation, to develop and implement a colour durability standard.
Rather than using an amber bulb, some signal lamps contain an inner amber plastic enclosure
between a colourless bulb and the colourless outer lens.

Rear[edit]

Double taillights mounted on a road-rail vehicle.

Rear position lamps (tail lamps)[edit]

Full LED rear lights on a BMW 7 Series

Conspicuity for the rear of a vehicle is provided by rear position lamps (also called tail lamps or
tail lights). These are required to produce only red light and to be wired such that they are lit
whenever the front position lamps are lit, including when the headlamps are on. Rear position
lamps may be combined with the vehicle's stop lamps or separate from them. In combined-
function installations, the lamps produce brighter red light for the stop lamp function and dimmer
red light for the rear position lamp function. Regulations worldwide stipulate minimum intensity
ratios between the bright (stop) and dim (rear position) modes, so that a vehicle displaying rear
position lamps will not be mistakenly interpreted as showing stop lamps, and vice versa.[10][21]

Stop lamps (brake lights)[edit]

Red steady-burning rear lights, brighter than the rear position lamps, are activated when the
driver applies the vehicle's brakes. These are formally called stop lamps in technical standards
and regulations [77][78][79][80][81] and in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, though informally they
are sometimes called "brake lights". They are required to be fitted in multiples of two,
symmetrically at the left and right edges of the rear of every vehicle.[10][21] International UN
regulations specify a range of acceptable intensity for a stop lamp of 60 to 185 candela.[21] In
North America where the UN regulations are not recognised, the acceptable range for a single-
compartment stop lamp is 80 to 300 candela.[10]

Centre high mount stop lamp (CHMSL)[edit]

In the United States and Canada since 1986, in Australia and New Zealand since 1990, and in
Europe and other countries applying UN Regulation 48 since 1998,[82] a central stop (brake) lamp
mounted higher than the vehicle's left and right stop lamps and called a "centre high mount stop
lamp (CHMSL)", is also required. The CHMSL (pronounced /ˈtʃɪmzəl/)[82] is sometimes
informally called the "centre brake lamp", the "third brake light", the "eye-level brake lamp", the
"safety brake lamp", or the "high-level brake lamp". The CHMSL may use one or more filament
bulbs or LEDs, or a strip of neon tube as its light source.

The CHMSL is intended to provide a warning to drivers whose view of the vehicle's left and
right stop lamps is blocked by interceding vehicles. It also provides a redundant stop light signal
in the event of a stop lamp malfunction. In North America where rear turn signals are permitted
to emit red light, the CHMSL also helps to disambiguate brake lights from rear position lights
and turn signal lights.[citation needed]
The CHMSL is generally required to illuminate steadily and not permitted to flash,[83][84] though
US regulators granted Mercedes-Benz a temporary, 24-month exemption in January 2006 to the
steady-light requirement so as to evaluate whether a flashing CHMSL provides an emergency
stop signal that effectively reduces the likelihood of a crash.[85]

The rear end of a Renault Master. The offset third brake light above the door handle is visible.

On passenger cars, the CHMSL may be placed above the back glass, affixed to the vehicle's
interior just inside the back glass, or it may be integrated into the vehicle's deck lid or into a
spoiler. Other specialised fitments are sometimes seen; the Jeep Wrangler and Land Rover
Freelander have the CHMSL on a stalk fixed to the spare wheel carrier. Trucks, vans and
commercial vehicles sometimes have the CHMSL mounted to the trailing edge of the vehicle's
roof. The CHMSL is required by regulations worldwide to be centred laterally on the vehicle,
though UN Regulation 48 permits lateral offset of up to 15 cm if the vehicle's lateral centre is not
coincident with a fixed body panel, but instead separates movable components such as doors.[21]
The Renault Master and Ford Transit van, for example, uses a laterally offset CHMSL for this
reason.[citation needed] The height of the CHMSL is also regulated, in absolute terms and with respect to
the mounting height of the vehicle's conventional left and right stop lamps.[86] Depending on the
left and right lamps' height, the lower edge of the CHMSL may be just above the left and right
lamps' upper edge.

The 1952 Volkswagen Bus was equipped with only one stop lamp, mounted centrally and higher
than the left and right rear lamps which did not produce a stop lamp function.[citation needed] The 1968–
1971 Ford Thunderbird could be ordered with optional supplemental high-mounted stop and turn
signal lights integrated into the left and right interior trim surrounding the backglass.[87][88] The
Oldsmobile Toronado from 1971 to 1978, and the Buick Riviera from 1974 to 1976 had similar
dual high-mounted supplemental stop/turn lights as standard equipment; these were located on
the outside of the vehicle below the bottom of the backglass.[87][89] This type of configuration was
not widely adopted at the time. Auto and lamp manufacturers in Germany experimented with
dual high-mount supplemental stop lamps in the early 1980s,[82] but this effort, too, failed to gain
wide popular or regulatory support.

Effective with the 1986 model year, the United States National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration and Transport Canada mandated that all new passenger cars come equipped with
a CHMSL. The requirement was extended to light trucks and vans for the 1994 model year.
Early studies involving taxicabs and other fleet vehicles found that a third, high-level stop lamp
reduced rear-end collisions by about 50%. Once the novelty effect wore off as most vehicles on
the road came to be equipped with the central third stop lamp, the crash-avoidance benefit
declined. However, it did not decline to zero, and a CHMSL is so inexpensive to incorporate into
a vehicle that it is a cost-effective collision avoidance feature even at the long-term enduring
crash-reduction benefit of 4.3%.[90]

Emergency stop signal (ESS)[edit]

Toyota, Mercedes-Benz, Volvo,[91] and BMW have released vehicles equipped to convey a
special light signal when the vehicle is braked rapidly and severely. This is officially referred to
as "emergency stop signal", and UN Regulation 48 calls for the lamps providing the ESS to flash
at 4 Hz when a passenger car decelerates at greater than 6 m/s2 or a truck or bus decelerates at
greater than 4 m/s2.[21] Mercedes vehicles flash the stop lamps for the ESS, while vehicles from
the Volkswagen Group of manufacturers (VW, Audi, SEAT and Skoda) flash the hazard
flashers.[citation needed]

Other methods of severe-braking indication have also been implemented; some Volvo models
make the stop lamps brighter, and some BMWs have "Adaptive Brake Lights" that effectively
increase the size of the stop lights under severe braking by illuminating the tail lamps at brighter-
than-normal intensity. As long as the brighter-than-normal stop lamps are within the regulated
maximum intensity for stop lamps in general, this kind of implementation does not require
specific regulatory approval since the stop lamps are under all conditions operating in accord
with the general regulations on stop lamps.[citation needed]

The idea behind such emergency-braking indicator systems is to catch following drivers'
attention with special urgency. However, there remains considerable debate over whether the
system offers a measurable increase in safety performance. To date, studies of vehicles in service
have not shown significant improvement. The systems used by BMW, Volvo, and Mercedes
differ not only in operational mode (growing vs. intensifying vs. flashing, respectively), but also
in such parameters as deceleration threshold of activation. Data are being collected and analyzed
in an effort to determine how such a system might be implemented to maximise a safety benefit,
if such a benefit can be realised with visual emergency braking displays.[92] An experimental
study at the University of Toronto[93] has tested stop lights which gradually and continuously
grow in illuminated area with increasing braking.

One potential problem with flashing stop lamps in the United States (and Canada) is the
regulations that permit flashing stop lamps to be used in lieu of separate rear turn signal and
hazard warning lamps.[94]

Rear fog lamps[edit]

ISO symbol for rear fog lamps[7]

In Europe and other countries adhering to UN Regulation 48, vehicles must be equipped with
one or two bright red "rear fog lamps", which serve as high-intensity rear position lamps to be
turned on by the driver in conditions of poor visibility to make the vehicle more visible from the
rear. The allowable range of intensity for a rear fog lamp is 150 to 300 candela,[21] which is within
the range of a US stop lamp (brake light).[10] Rear fog lamps are not required equipment in the
US, but they are permitted, and are found almost exclusively on European-brand vehicles in
North America. Audi, Jaguar, Mercedes, MINI, Land Rover, Porsche, Saab and Volvo provide
functional rear fog lights on their North American models. Some vehicles from non-European
brands which are adaptions of European-market offerings, such as the first generation Ford
Transit Connect, come standard with rear fog lights, or vehicles with European market
counterparts, such as the second generation Chrysler 300, have an option for them.[citation needed] The
final generation Oldsmobile Aurora also had dual rear fog lights installed in the rear bumper as
standard equipment.[citation needed]

Single rear fog lamp on a Mercedes M Class

Most jurisdictions permit rear fog lamps to be installed either singly or in pairs. If a single rear
fog is fitted, most jurisdictions require it to be located at or to the driver's side of the vehicle's
centreline—whichever side is the prevailing driver's side in the country in which the vehicle is
registered.[21] This is to maximise the sight line of following drivers to the rear fog lamp. In many
cases, a single reversing lamp is mounted on the passenger side of the vehicle, positionally
symmetrical with the rear fog. If two rear fog lamps are fitted, they must be symmetrical with
respect to the vehicle's centreline.[21]

Proponents of twin rear fog lamps say two lamps provide vehicle distance information not
available from a single lamp. Proponents of the single rear fog lamp say dual rear fog lamps
closely mimic the appearance of illuminated stop lamps (which are mandatorily installed in
pairs), reducing the conspicuity of the stop lamps' message when the rear fogs are activated. To
provide some safeguard against rear fog lamps being confused with stop lamps, UN Regulation
48 requires a separation of at least 10 cm between the closest illuminated edges of any stop lamp
and any rear fog lamp.[21]
Reversing (backup) lamps[edit]

Reversing lamps lit on a Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren

To warn adjacent vehicle operators and pedestrians of a vehicle's rearward motion, and to
provide illumination to the rear when backing up,[95][96][97] each vehicle must be equipped with one
or two rear-mounted, rear-facing reversing[97] (or "backup")[96] lamps.[10][21] These are required to
produce white light by US and international UN Regulations.[10][21] However, some countries have
at various times permitted amber reversing lights. In Australia and New Zealand, for example,
vehicle manufacturers were faced with the task of localising American cars originally equipped
with combination red brake/turn signal lamps and white reversing lights. Those countries'
regulations permitted the amber rear turn signals to burn steadily as reversing lights, so
automakers and importers were able to combine the (mandatorily amber) rear turn signal and
(optionally amber) reversing light function, and so comply with the regulations without the need
for additional lighting devices.[98] Both countries now require white reversing lights, and the
combination amber turn/reverse light is no longer permitted on new vehicles.[80] The US state of
Washington currently permits reversing lamps to emit white or amber light.[99]

Rear registration plate lamp[edit]

The rear registration plate is illuminated by a white lamp designed to light the surface of the
plate without creating white light directly visible to the rear of the vehicle; it must be illuminated
whenever the position lamps are lit.[10][21][100]

On large vehicles[edit]

Large vehicles such as trucks and buses are in many cases required to carry additional lighting
devices beyond those required on passenger vehicles. The specific requirements vary according
to the regulations in force where the vehicle is registered.

Identification lamps[edit]

In the US, vehicles over 2,032 millimetres (80.0 in) wide must be equipped with three amber
front and three red rear identification lamps spaced between 6 and 12 inches apart at the centre of
the front and rear of the vehicle, as high as practicable.[10] The front identification lamps are
typically mounted atop the cab of vehicles. The purpose of these lamps is to alert other drivers to
the presence of a wide (and usually, tall) vehicle.[101] This type of identification lamp can also be
found on road trains in Australia.[citation needed]
End-outline marker lamps[edit]

End outline marker lamp

UN Regulation 48 requires large[vague] vehicles to be equipped with left and right white front and
red rear end-outline marker lamps,[21] which serve a purpose comparable to that of the American
clearance lamp, i.e. to indicate clearly the vehicle's overall width and height.

Intermediate side marker lamps and reflectors[edit]

US regulations require large North American vehicles to be equipped with left and right amber
side marker lights and reflectors mounted midway between the front and rear side markers.

Rear overtake lights[edit]

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Until about the 1970s in France, Spain, Morocco, and possibly other countries, many commercial
vehicles and some Soviet road trains from "Sovtransavto" had a green light mounted on the rear
offside.[citation needed] This could be operated by the driver to indicate that it was safe for the following
vehicle to overtake.[citation needed]

Emergency warning devices[edit]

Hazard flashers[edit]

ISO symbol for hazard lamps[7]

Also called "hazards", "hazard warning flashers", "hazard warning lights", "emergency lights",
"4-way flashers", or simply "flashers". International regulations require vehicles to be equipped
with a control which, when activated, flashes the left and right directional signals, front and rear,
all at the same time and in phase.[10][21] Operation of the hazard flashers must be from a control
independent of the turn signal control, and an audiovisual tell-tale must be provided to the driver.

This function is meant to indicate a hazard such as a vehicle stopped in or near moving traffic, a
disabled vehicle, a vehicle moving substantially slower than the flow of traffic such as a truck
climbing a steep grade, or the presence of stopped or slow traffic ahead on a high speed road.

In vehicles with a separate left and right green turn signal tell-tale on the dashboard, both left and
right indicators may flash to provide visual indication of the hazard flashers' operation. In
vehicles with a single green turn signal tell-tale on the dashboard, a separate red tell-tale must be
provided for hazard flasher indication.[10][21][102][103] Because the hazard flasher function operates the
vehicle's left and right turn signals, a left or a right turn signal function may not be provided
while the hazard flashers are operating, although the vehicle may activate the indicator and
return to the hazard flashing phase once the indicator is deactivated.

Retroreflectors[edit]

Red rear side marker

retroreflectors on Ford
F-series trucks without
(top) and with
(bottom) direct
illumination
"Retroreflectors" (also "reflex reflectors") produce no light of their own, but rather reflect
incident light back towards its source, for example, another driver's headlight. They are regulated
as automotive lighting devices, and specified to account for the separation between a vehicle's
headlamps and its driver's eyes. Thus, vehicles are conspicuous even when their lights are off.
Regulations worldwide require each vehicle to be equipped with rear-facing red retroreflectors.[10]
[21]
Since 1968 US regulations also require side-facing retroreflectors, amber in front and red in
the rear.[10] Sweden, South Africa and other countries have at various times required white front-
facing retroreflectors.[citation needed]

Variable-intensity signal lamps[edit]

International UN Regulations[which?] explicitly permit vehicle signal lamps with intensity

automatically increased during bright daylight hours when sunlight reduces the effectiveness of
the stop lamps, and automatically decreased during hours of darkness when glare could be a
concern. Both US and UN regulations contain provisions for determining the minimum and
maximum acceptable intensity for lamps that contain more than a single light source.

Experimental systems[edit]

Multicolour auxiliary signals[edit]

Some jurisdictions, such as the US states of Washington, Oregon and Idaho, permit vehicles to
be equipped with auxiliary rear signal systems displaying green light when the accelerator is
depressed, yellow light when the vehicle is coasting, and red light when the brake is depressed.
[104][105][106]
Such systems have in the past been sold as aftermarket accessories, but are today seldom
seen in traffic.

Research and development[edit]

The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, among other bodies, has
commissioned studies of vehicle signal systems and configurations in an effort to determine the
most promising avenues and best practices for enhanced crash avoidance via optimised vehicle
conspicuity and signal lighting systems.[107]

Interior and convenience lights[edit]

Most cars have at least one "dome light" (or "courtesy light") located in or near the ceiling of the
passenger compartment, to provide illumination by which to fasten seatbelts and enter or exit the
car. These often have an option to switch on when the front (or any) passenger doors are opened.
Many vehicles have expanded this feature, causing the overhead interior light to remain on after
all doors are closed, allowing passengers to fasten seat belts with added illumination. The
extended lighting cycle usually ends when the vehicle's ignition has begun, or a gradual
reduction in light emitted after a couple of minutes if the car isn't started, called "theater"
lighting. Interior lighting has been added on some vehicles at the bottom edge of the dashboard,
which illuminates the floor for front passengers, or underneath the front seats at the rear, to
illuminate the floor for rear seat passengers. This type of convenience lighting approach is also
sometimes used to illuminate interior or exterior door handles, exterior step running boards, or
electric window switches.

LED light sources appear increasingly as interior convenience lights in various locations,
especially with finely focused lighting on console control surfaces and in cabin storage areas.

Map lights are aimed at specific passenger positions and allow for reading without glare
distraction to the driver. Some vehicles have "approach lighting" (puddle lights) in the exterior
mirrors or lower edges of the doors, as well as interior lighting activated via key fob. Many cars
have lights in the trunk (or boot), the engine compartment, and the glovebox and other storage
compartments. Modern pickup trucks usually have one or more white cargo lights which
illuminate the bed of the truck, often controlled in conjunction with the interior dome lighting.

Most instruments and controls on a dashboard in modern vehicles are illuminated when the
headlamps are turned on, and the intensity of light can be adjusted by the driver for comfort.
Saab automobiles, for example, have an aircraft-style "night panel" function which shuts off all
interior illumination save for the speedometer (unless attention is called to a critical situation on
another gauge) to improve the driver's night vision.

On service vehicles[edit]
Emergency vehicle lights[edit]

Main article: Emergency vehicle lighting

Light bar on a British police car

Emergency vehicles such as fire engines, ambulances, police cars, snow-removal vehicles and
tow trucks are usually equipped with intense warning lights of particular colours. These may be
motorised rotating beacons, xenon strobes, or arrays of LEDs.[108] The prescribed colours differ by
jurisdiction; in most countries, blue and red special warning lamps are used on police, fire, and
medical-emergency vehicles. In the United States and some other jurisdictions, amber lights are
for tow trucks, private security personnel, construction vehicles, and other nonofficial special-
service vehicles, while volunteer firefighters use red, blue, or green, depending on jurisdiction. In
the US it is a violation of the DOT (Department of Transportation) Uniform Vehicle Code for
any non-emergency vehicle (Police/Fire/Ambulance) to operate forward-facing red lights of any
kind. Cars in the US only have red tail-lights, and no blue lights; a vehicle displaying a red
(forward-facing) light (flashing or not) coming towards a driver, or from behind the driver (in
rear view mirror) indicates that an official emergency vehicle is coming, requiring the driver to
yield, pull off to the side of the road, or otherwise get out of its way. Some US states allow
emergency vehicles to have blue lights that can be turned on to warn drivers of an emergency
vehicle in action; blue and red lights can be combined, forward- and/or rear-facing, also. In the
UK, doctors may use green warning lamps although these do not allow the user to claim any
exemption from road traffic regulations compared to the blue lights used by statutory emergency
services when responding to calls. Special warning lights, usually amber, are also sometimes
mounted on slow or wide vehicles such as mobile cranes, excavators, tractors, and even mobility
scooters in certain conditions.[vague]

Taxi displays[edit]

An illuminated taxi sign

Taxicabs are distinguished by special lights according to local regulations. They may have an
illuminated "Taxi" sign, a light to signal that they are ready to take passengers or off duty, or an
emergency panic light the driver can activate in the event of a robbery to alert a passersby to call
the police.

Light sources[edit]

Light source placed in a parabolic reflector to achieve a directed beam

Incandescent lamps[edit]
The incandescent light bulb was long the light source used in all automotive lighting devices.
Many types of bulbs have been used. Standardized type numbers are used by manufacturers to
identify bulbs with the same specifications. Bases may be bayonet-type with one or two contacts,
plastic or glass wedge, or dual wire loops or ferrules used on tubular "festoon" lamps. Screw-
base lamps are never used in automobile applications due to their loosening under vibration.
Signal lamps with internal or external coloured lenses use colourless bulbs; conversely, lamps
with colourless lenses may use red or amber bulbs to provide light of the required colours for the
various functions.

Typically, bulbs of 21 to 27 watts producing 280 to 570 lumens (22 to 45 mean spherical
candlepower) are used for stop, turn, reversing and rear fog lamps, while bulbs of 4 to 10 W,
producing 40 to 130 lm (3 to 10 mscp) are used for tail lamps, parking lamps, side marker lamps
and side turn signal repeaters.[citation needed]

Tungsten-halogen lamps are a very common light source for headlamps and other forward
illumination functions. Some recent[year needed] vehicles use small halogen bulbs for exterior
signalling and marking functions, as well.[citation needed] The first halogen lamp approved for
automotive use was the H1, which was introduced in Europe in 1962, 55 W producing 1500 lm.

Light-emitting diodes (LED)[edit]

See also: Headlamp § LED

Light emitting diodes (LED) tail lights of a BMW 330Ci

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly used[year needed] in automotive lamps. They offer very
long service life, extreme vibration resistance, and can permit considerably shallower packaging
compared to most bulb-type assemblies. LEDs also offer a potential safety benefit when
employed in stop lights, because when power is applied they rise to full intensity approximately
250 milliseconds (¼ second) faster than incandescent bulbs.[109] This fast rise time not only
improves the intentional conspicuity of the stop lamp,[citation needed] but also provides following drivers
more time to react to stop lamps. However, this faster rise time has not been shown to make cars
with LED stop lamps less likely to be struck from behind.[110]

LEDs were first applied to automotive lighting in centre high-mount stop lamps (CHMSL),
beginning with the 1984 Chevrolet Corvette. Adoption of LEDs for other signal functions on
passenger cars is gradually increasing with demand for the technology and related styling
updates. In North America, the 2000 Cadillac Deville was the first passenger car with LED
taillights.[111] The 2002 Kia Opirus was an early adopter of LED front turn signals.[112] The 2007
Audi R8 sports car uses two strips of optically focused high-intensity LEDs for its daytime
running lamps. Optional on the R8 outside North America was the world's first LED headlamp,
made by AL-Automotive Lighting. The low and high beams, along with the position (parking)
lamp and front turn signal, are all realised with LEDs. The Lexus LS 600h features LED low
beam, position and side marker lamps in North America, and the 2009 Cadillac Escalade
Platinum uses LEDs for the low and high beams, as well as for the position and side marker
lamps. The Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222) has no non-LED lamps at all, not even in the most
basic trim level.

LED lamps are used for flashing beacon lights on vehicles such as maintenance trucks.[113]
Previously, traditional light sources required the engine to continue running to ensure that the
battery would not become depleted if the lights were to be used for more than a few hours. The
energy-efficient nature of the LED allows the engine to be turned off but the light continue to
flash.

LED lighting systems are sensitive to heat. Due to the negative influences of heat on the stability
of photometric performance and the light transmitting components, the importance of thermal
design, stability tests, usage of low-UV-type LED modules and UV-resistance tests of internal
materials has increased dramatically. For this reason, LED signal lamps must remain compliant
with the intensity requirements for the functions they produce after one minute and after thirty
minutes of continuous operation.[114] In addition, UN Regulation 112 contains a set of tests for
LED modules, including colour rendering, UV radiation, and temperature stability tests.
According to UN Regulations 112 and 123, mechanical, electromechanical or other devices for
headlamps must withstand endurance tests and function failure tests.[115][116]

High intensity discharge (HID)[edit]

Main article: Headlamp § HID

High-intensity discharge, or HID lamps, sometimes referred to as "xenon lamps" are modified
metal halide lamps employing xenon fill gas. Traditional HID lamps such as those used for
general lighting have a long warm-up time. Headlamps must provide light very shortly after they
are turned on, and xenon gas serves to reduce start-up time.[117]

Neon tubes[edit]

Neon lamp tubes were introduced into series production for the centre high-mount stop lamp on
the 1995 Ford Explorer. Notable later uses included the 1998 Lincoln Mark VIII with a neon
tube spanning the width of the trunk decklid, and the BMW Z8, which made extensive use of
neon.[118] Concept cars such as those from Volvo[which?] have included neon lamp features.[citation needed]
Hella offered an aftermarket neon CHMSL in the late 1990s.

The linear format of the neon light source lends itself to centre high-mount stop lamp
installation,[citation needed] and neon lights offer the same nearly instant rise time as LEDs. However,
neon tubes require a ballast.
Distributive lighting[edit]
In distributive light systems, the light from a single source is sent via optical fibres or light
guides to wherever it is needed in the automobile. Light guides are commonly used to
distributively light dashboard displays,[119] and premium vehicles are beginning to use distributive
systems for lighting such items as door locks, window controls, and cup holders.[120] Distributive
exterior lighting has also been explored, with high-intensity central light sources.[121]