Running head: PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING: NONEXAMPLES AND APPLICATION 1

Perkins’ Principles of Teaching: Nonexamples and Application

Melissa Perlman

EDU510 Cognitive Science of Teaching and Learning

Professor Mary Mills

PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 2

Perkins’ Principles of Teaching: Nonexamples and Application

The concept of education as a whole goes far beyond the classroom and grades. Teaching

and learning must be conducted in a way that proves to be beneficial for students long term in a

way that transcends the traditional classroom setting and into the real world. Thorough

understanding and application of concepts is one major component of learning. Skill-building

and critical thinking is another major component. Either of these components without the other

would likely result in a learning experience that is short-term and lacks a balanced approach.

This paper aims to connect Perkins’ (2009) Principles of Teaching to the application of proper

instruction. Perkins’ (2009) principles will be defined and analyzed using nonexamples

supported by evidence. A professional reflection based on this information will allow for

connections to be made which are applicable to a future professional environment.

Part I: Perkins’ Principles Defined: Nonexamples and Support

According to East Carolina University (2014), “Exposing students to both examples and

nonexamples provides the opportunity to compare and contrast the two, which hones their under-

standing of what attributes do and do not apply to the concept they are learning. This teaches stu-

dents to apply what they learn from the teacher-provided examples to situations students may en-

counter on their own. Examples and nonexamples are a key piece of concept learning that en-

courage understanding, applying, analyzing, and evaluating” (p.2). Below is a chart which gives

a comprehensive overview of Perkins’ (2009) Principles of Teaching along with nonexamples

and educator suggestions based on factual support:

Perkins’ Principles of Personal Nonexample Support

Teaching
1. Play the whole game. Learning situation: As a student in the Suggestions to prior
Explanation: Playing the third grade, my father tried to teach me instructor: Playing
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
whole game references the
entire idea or “bigger
picture” behind being an
educator and revolutionizing
the classroom experience. In
order to play the whole
game, subject understanding
is not the only aspect of
education which needs to be
capitalized on. Skill building
and long-term growth are
pieces of the puzzle which
need to be incorporated into
the classroom. The
“threshold” of shallow
concept learning into a
deeper understanding of how
concepts work are integral
pieces of playing the whole
game (Perkins, 2009).
3
how to play chess. He had bought a the whole game is
new board and explained what each parallel to having all
piece was called and what each piece of the pieces of the
did. However, each time I played with puzzle so that you can
him, he beat me with no explanation. I figure out the puzzle’s
did not realize that the bigger picture meaning. Perkins
was strategy and the object of the game (2009) discusses
was not getting the other pieces, which problem finding
is what I thought. Knowing the names which, “…involves
of pieces and how they move is not coming to good
akin to knowing the quintessential formulations of
information about the real purpose problems,
behind the game, which is capturing the formulations that
king. make them
approachable. Often it
also involves
redefining a problem
halfway through
trying to solve it, out
of the suspicion that
one may not be
working on quite the
right problem” (p.26).
With this information,
I would have
suggested that my
father explain right
away that capturing
the king was the
object of the game. I
would have then
suggested that he
follow up with piece
names, piece
purposes, and types of
logical strategies
which are normally
used during gameplay.
Had he stopped me
mid-game to assess
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
2. Make the game worth
playing.
Explanation: Part of playing
the whole game is making
the game worth playing.
Instead of learning concepts
to do well on an exam, a
game becomes worth playing
when the learner understands
the real-world application
behind concepts. Almost like
fill-in-the-blank, as concepts
are uncovered, the
application is what solidifies
the content. Learners need to
understand, even on a basic
level, why comprehension is
so important for their futures
(Perkins, 2009).
4
my strategy or
comment on my
moves, I would have
likely developed
strategic thought to
compliment game-
play.
Learning situation: As a student in Suggestions to prior
sixth grade, I was in a gifted program instructor: If I were
called L.E.A.P. In this program, we the student
were supposed to work on creative experiencing this
projects to stimulate intellectual lesson again, I would
growth. The teacher had told us that we have liked to learn
were supposed to make our own robots, about robots in the
yet we did not have a purpose behind real-world first. I
why we were making the robots. While would have suggested
it was supposed to be a creative project, that we discuss the
it was not explained with much purposes and
direction. I was unaware of what the implications of
purpose of the robot was or why I was robotics in society.
supposed to be creating it. My heart According to Perkins
was not in the project because I did not (2009), “We need a
have an interest or a feeling it would connected rather than
help me at all in my future. disconnected
curriculum, a
curriculum full of
knowledge of the right
kind to link richly to
future insights and
applications” (p.57). A
brainstorming session
surrounding
household items
which could be used
to create a robot and
purposes robots serve
in a household would
have likely motivated
me intrinsically.
Conversation,
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
3. Work on the hard parts.
Explanation: With every
skill or concept being taught,
there is going to be an aspect
which is perceived more
difficult than the others. In
order to learn properly, one
must work through these
difficult parts and take apart
ideas to understand how all
components work together.
Just skimming over hard
parts leaves gaps of
knowledge and shallow
understanding (Perkins,
2009).
5
information gathering,
and understanding the
need for robots in my
life would have given
more background
knowledge to further
fuel my intent for the
project. I would have
been excited and also
feel as if my robot
may serve an actual
purpose.
Learning situation: When I was Suggestions to prior
studying for the LSAT, I was my own instructor: If I were
teacher as well as the learner when to study for the LSAT
preparing for the exam. I would take again, I would likely
practice exams and score them to see hire a tutor. I know
how well I would do. However, instead what my weaknesses
of going through why my logic behind are, so instead of
my answers was wrong, I would simply working on reading
move onto the next test to see if I and comprehension, I
would do any better. Instead of learning would ask to be taught
the skills to approach logic, I simply about the rules of
was afraid of the hard parts and did not formal logic. Once I
improve. I found that I never got better mastered said rules, I
with the hard parts, which were formal would then want to go
logic and reasoning. I kept practicing onto practice tests
reading comprehension, but in reality, focusing on the hard
that was the section which needed the parts, not already
least amount of attention. going over easier
things I already had
mastered. “Addressing
the hard parts has a
great deal to do with
timing also: when and
where and how much
of it to do. Good work
on the hard parts is
one of the
fundamental
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
4. Play out of town.
Explanation: In order to
learn, one must step outside
of comfort zones. An
educator cannot just relay
concepts without hands-on
practice coming into play.
Leaving the “normal”
classroom setting and
venturing out to acquire
more knowledge, culture,
and experience are key to
development. Learning must
occur in various settings so
more knowledge can be
accrued and transferred
(Perkins, 2009).
6
structural challenges
of teaching and
learning” (Perkins,
2009, p.83). I would
suggest that the tutor
help me set up a study
schedule and advise
on how best to fit
studying into my daily
routine so that I was
integrating my
knowledge in ways
that would not create
burn-out like my prior
attempts did.
Learning situation: In my junior year Suggestions to prior
of high school, my classmates and I instructor: As a
attended Model United Nations (U.N.). student, I would have
We had been assigned the country of appreciated learning
Bahrain and spent time learning about more information
that country only. We did not spend any about other countries
time researching the actual history or which would be in
intent behind what the United Nations attendance at the
aims to do, nor did we socially prepare conference. I was only
for the interactions we would have with informed about
students from other schools. When we Bahrain, which was
attended the conference, we were very only moderately
ethnocentric regarding our country and helpful at the event
did not know how to interact well itself. Learning about
during mock settings. real-time issues and
relationships between
countries would have
been helpful so that I
could have branched
out socially and
connected with other
students who attended
Model U.N. as well.
As an opportunity to
learn how to
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
5. Uncover the hidden
game.
Explanation: There is much
underneath pure
comprehension in the field of
education. Concepts are
typically multi-faceted and
7
collaborate and
socialize, it would
have been helpful to
watch actual footage
of the United Nations
solving issues so I
would have been able
to practice my
knowledge outside of
the classroom. Perkins
(2009) discusses
transfer, “…a matter
of ‘playing out of
town,’ applying the
games we learn and
bits and pieces of
those games not just
in their original
contexts, but
elsewhere, in some
other setting where
they may be helpful”
(pp.110-111). If I had
been properly
prepared for Model
U.N. I would have
likely developed a
skill set in
compromising,
debating, and
problem-solving,
which I could in
various situations.
Learning situation: When I was in my Suggestions to prior
senior year of college, I was interning instructor: Perkins
at with an attorney/probate judge. (2009) states“…
Instead of shadowing her to understand getting really good at
what it was like to be in her position, I the overall game
was told to answer phone calls and means learning the
work on court documents. While I games underneath the
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
as more is unearthed, more is
understood in a way which is
whole. As more knowledge
is built upon, strategies and
nuanced information are able
to come to light (Perkins,
2009).
6. Learn from the team…
and the other teams.
Explanation: Learners must
take knowledge from the
source and work to
understand it on their own.
However, using external
sources to clarify insights
and to grasp knowledge
further is expected. In
essence, one must learn
8
learned some physical, solid surface also, layers,
knowledge, I did not learn much about dimensions, and
the hidden game. perspectives that can
make big differences
in understanding and
performance” (p.135).
If I were to intern
again, I would have
asked to shadow more
so that I could see the
social interactions that
took place between
the attorney and her
clients. On the
surface, the law seems
to be all about
paperwork and court
dates. However, I
would have
appreciated an
experience where I
learned about the
underlying concepts
of working in the
public eye, such as
networking,
empathizing with
clients, and creating a
positive reputation.
Learning situation: In my sophomore Suggestions to prior
year of college, I was mandated to take instructor: Perkins
public speaking. The first speech I did (2009) aptly mentions,
in front of my professor was awful. The “…so many
teacher did not go over how to deal participation
with “stage fright” or issues that may structures afford
arise when speaking in front of people, opportunities to learn
so I did not know what to expect. After from the team,
delivering my speech, the teacher because vigorous use
critiqued me in front of the class and of this principle may
gave me a poor grade for having to be fundamental to
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
innately within themselves
while learning from those
around them to fully master
content (Perkins, 2009).
7. Learn the game of
learning.
Explanation: Learners must
figure out a way to learn
which works best for them.
This is something that may
not happen right away.
However, over time and
while comprehending new
subjects, learners figure out
how to understand in ways
unique to them (Perkins,
2009).
9
walk out to compose myself before educational
restarting my speech. transformation”
(p.190). If I had been
the educator in this
situation, I would
have discussed all
aspects of delivering a
speech properly. I also
would have taught my
students about
probable instances of
nerves that are likely
to come up when
delivering one’s first
public speeches. After
a speech was
delivered, I would
have encouraged
social interaction and
classroom feedback so
that the student would
get constructive
criticism and learn
straight from their
peers.
Learning situation: When I was in the Suggestions to prior
third grade, lack of organizational skills instructor: Perkins
hindered my ability to learn in class. (2009) discusses the
My teacher and parents organized my “how” aspect of the
things for me, yet my notes were game of learning,
constantly lost and my grades suffered. “With the game of
I was not taught how to organize learning, as with
myself and dealt with this issue finding your way
throughout my primary school years. around the
neighborhood, people
are only going to learn
what they need to by
doing some of the
driving” (p.194). In
the third grade, I
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 10

would have likely

benefited from
learning why
organization was
important and how to
do it. If my teacher
and parents had
figured out exactly
what I had a hard time
keeping organized and
why, instead of doing
it for me, I would
have figured out on
my own which ways
of organizing suited
me best.
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 11

Part II: Personal Reflection

Perkins’ (2009) seven guidelines revolving around the concept of “playing the whole game”

paints a picture of what educators aim to achieve when instructing students. An educator greatly

disservices his or her students by purely explaining a concept and handing out an exam to test

mastery. In order for true learning to take place, instruction must be calculated, thorough,

comprehensive, and collaborative (Perkins, 2009). Based on what I now know regarding

gameplay, I feel confident that as a future educator I will teach in a way that is thorough, to say

the least. I am actually appreciative of the fact that I am not yet a formal educator. Learning ideas

behind Perkins’ gameplay are helpful because I am analyzing how to not educate before learning

how to educate. I personally feel that one of the best ways to learn is to learn the incorrect way

first. Knowing how to not teach allows me to recognize mistakes which educators make so that I

can learn from these mistakes and not make them in my future classroom.

Regarding methodology, I have done more research on ways to best implement

nonexamples in my future instructional delivery. I feel that visuals paired with verbal discussion

will be especially helpful when teaching my students. The Frayer Model is a tool which I plan on

utilizing further down the line because it allows for critical thinking to occur which paves the

way for follow-up conversations and more complete concept comprehension. McKenzie (2014)

defines this model as, “… [a] foursquare model in which students and teachers define the word,

list its characteristics, and give examples and non-examples of the target word” (p.13). In order

to make concept formation even more solidified, I intend on using this model to aid students in

developing collaborative skills by way of frequent formative assessment (Keely, 2013).

I now have a greater understanding of the purpose of metacognitive strategies in the

classroom. Florida Center for Instructional Technology (n.d.) explains, “Two important
PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 12

characteristics of any effective metacognitive strategy are that it must be memorable and it

must accurately represent the learning task. It also can be helpful for students who have learning

problems when the form the strategy takes has some meaningful connection to its corresponding

learning task” (para.3). As a future educator, I recognize that strategies like PEMDAS mean

nothing unless I first teach my students the components of an equation. If a student does not

understand when facing an equation they must first work inside of the parentheses and then

follow with exponents, multiplying, dividing, adding, and subtracting, the acronym itself is

useless. A strategy or “trick” to use in tandem with a concept is not a proper learning tool unless

the concept itself has already been taught and comprehended (Florida Center for Instructional

Technology, n.d.).

Conclusion

Sota (2013) states, “A definition isn't just a string of words to be memorized and

repeated; it's an attempt to state the meaning of a concept. A formula isn't a string of variables;

it's a relation between concepts -- a principle. Understanding a concept is not the same as

recalling a definition, and knowing a principle is not the same as recalling a formula” (para.7).

In order for intellectual growth and solid skill foundation, educators must commit to playing the

whole game. While the game has varying components which differ from one another, if any

component is not properly utilized, the entire game is not played as it should be. In turn,

important aspects of learning have the potential to slip through the cracks. This knowledge alone

is important for educators, both current and future. Learning requires a balance of knowledge

which is constantly being analyzed and utilized. It is up to the educator to make sure concepts are

understood in a way that truly helps students develop cognitive and social skills which they can

take into their adult futures (Perkins, 2009).

PERKINS’ PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 13

References

East Carolina University College of Education. (2014). Concept learning: Examples &

nonexamples: Compare & contrast. Instructional Strategy Lessons for Educators

Secondary Education (ISLES-S). Retrieved from

https://www.ecu.edu/cs-educ/TQP/upload/ISLES-S-Concept-Declarative-Aug2014.pdf

Florida Center for Instructional Technology. (n.d.). Metacognitive strategies. MathVIDS.

Retrieved from http://fcit.usf.edu/mathvids/resources/metacognative.html#impact

Keeley, P. (2013). Is it a rock? Continuous formative assessment. Science & Children, 50(8), 34-

37.

McKenzie, E. (2014). Vocabulary Development using Visual Displays. Dimensions Of Early

Childhood, 42(2), 12-17.

Perkins, D. N. (2009). Making learning whole: How seven principles of teaching can transform

education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Sota, Melinda. (2013). The stuff of problem solving: Discovering concepts and applying

principles. Edutopia. Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/problem-solving-

concepts-principles-melinda-sota