CB, p.

142,
COHERENCE AND COHESION p.170-1, p.196

COHERENCE &  In the Writing paper you are tested on your ability to

COHESION 
write coherently and cohesively.
When parts of a text are logically connected, readers
STRATEGIES perceive the text as coherent.
 Cohesion devices (reference, substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction and lexical cohesion) mark those logical
connections explicitly and successfully.
'Cambridge love
linking devices'  We say that a text is coherent if we can see logical
connections between the various parts of the text. We
indicate these connections by using cohesion devices.

lexical, grammatical

COHERENCE AND COHESION COHERENCE AND COHESION

CB, p.142, p.170-

COHERENCE AND COHESION C-C STRATEGIES 171, p.174, p.196

 ideas tie together smoothly and clearly

 Reference/Pronoun
 paragraphs and sentences
 Substitution
 combination of methods ↔ Listing points
 Ellipsis
↔ Adding information
 Synonyms
 do not rely on a single method → show variety ↔ Contrast, Compare
 Repetition
 do not overuse linking words/phrases → could become ↔ Reason, Cause
irritating for the reader  Conjunctions
↔ Results
 linking words are not just used at the beginning  Linking devices
↔ Time sequence
↔ Condition
↔ Inference
↔ Reformulation

1
 CB, p.142, p.170- CB, p.142,
C-C STRATEGIES 171, p.174, p.196 C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196

+ LECTURE
 Introducing the topic NOTES
 SYNONYMS words that have essentially the same
 Introducing the conclusion meaning, and they provide some variety in your word
 Making points choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea
being discussed
 general, facts
 giving opinions
 arguments for Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred
 arguments against origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a
set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of
 Giving examples
the people who tell them.
 Modifying sentences
 Impersonal phrases

http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Cohesion.html

CB, p.142, CB, p.142,

C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196 C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196

 REFERENCE is the use of pronouns to refer back or  SUBSTITUTION to avoid repeating certain words in a
forward to full forms used earlier or later in the text. sentence; replace a noun, a verb or even a phrase.
 e.g. this, that, these, those; he, she, it, they, we

I was making a sandwich for Sue, but she said she

Ralph spent all morning washing the car. It needed a didn't want one.
clean and he knew this was the only time he had
available. We had planned to take the scenic route but we were
advised that to do so would add an extra hour to our
Jane saw him walking towards her - Raori Johnson, the journey.
boy she had met the summer before.

CB, p.142, CB, p.142,

C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196 C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196

 ELLIPSIS we simply omit words that we wish to avoid  REPETITION helps to focus your ideas and to keep your
repeating reader on track

A. Are you coming to the party?
B. I'll try (to come to the party) but I'm not sure I can
(come to the party)
A. Frances isn't staying with Patricia after all.
B. Why (is Frances) not (staying with Patricia)?
The problem with contemporary art is that it is not
easily understood by most people. Contemporary art
is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the
viewer wondering what she is looking at.

http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Cohesion.html

2
 CB, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,
C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.196
p.174 C-C STRATEGIES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 LINKING ADVERBIALS connect one sentence in a logical

 CONJUNCTIONS to link ideas in the text. way to another; usually appear at the beginning of a
 coordinating: and, or, but, so, nor, yet sentence and are followed by a comma.
 subordinating: link a subordinate to a main clause
↔ Listing points ↔ firstly, finally
 after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, because, in
order that, since, whereas, while, … ↔ Adding information ↔ besides
↔ Contrast, Compare ↔ on the other hand
I love living here yet I still feel homesick … ↔ Reason, Cause ↔ for this reason
I'm not keen on football, nor is Amy. ↔ Results ↔ consequently
↔ Time sequence ↔ eventually
As far as I'm concerned, he can take over
responsibility for the work next week. ↔ Condition ↔ provided that
Alfonso offered to help me with the translation so that ↔ Inference ↔ that implies
I could spend more time with my children. ↔ Reformulation ↔ in other words

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 LISTING POINTS  ADDING INFORMATION, EMPHASISING

• First of all, To start with, To begin with, additionally in addition

as well as besides (this)
• Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly, … also again
more important on top of that
• Finally, Lastly, Last, Last but not least moreover what is more
furthermore apart from this
• In the first place, In second place similarly in the same way
in particular specifically
• Then, Next
not only X but also Y
to make matters worse
as a matter of fact, in fact
another important aspect of X is …

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 CONTRAST, COMPARE  CONTRAST

By understanding similarities and differences whereas while

between two things, we can increase our although even though
understanding and learn more about both. in contrast even so
Comparison may be a preliminary stage of evaluation. by contrast despite (this)
nonetheless in spite of (the fact)
For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B,
nevertheless yet
we can decide which is more useful or valuable.
however notwithstanding
Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or alternatively instead
contrast will begin with an introductory sentence conversely on the contrary
expressed in general terms. but still

on the one hand … on the other hand

it is true that …
it may be the case that …
Academic Phrasebank p.90

3
 CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,
LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 CONTRAST  CONTRAST

whereas/while ≈ but nevertheless, however

used to compare things, people or ideas and show how they used when saying something seems different or surprising
are different after your previous statement
nevertheless - usually at the beginning or end
while ≈ although however - can be used in the middle if between commas
also used in the same way as although
even so
means 'although I know that is true'; can be used to begin a
new sentence or after but in a second clause

in contrast
links two contrasting ideas in separate sentences; normally
used at the beginning of a sentence

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 COMPARE  REASON, CAUSE, RESULT

In comparison with Likewise accordingly as a result (of this)

Compared with In like manner consequently as a consequence of
By the same token Similarly in consequence therefore
In the same way In the same manner hence thus

Similarities for this/that reason because

Both X and Y share a number of key features because of this because of X
There are a number of similarities between X and Y since as, so
The effects of X on Y are similar to those in Z
due to owing to
Differences
in view of the fact that given the fact that
X is different from Y in a number of respects
There are a number of differences between X and Y in view of X given X
Significant differences have been found in …

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 REASON, CAUSE, RESULT  TIME SEQUENCE

Verbs indicating causality after (a while) afterwards in the future

eventually while subsequently
• may cause, can lead to, can result in, can give rise to
thereafter at that time
• caused by, driven by, resulting from, stemming from when concurrently since (then)
• can be attributed to later soon so far
no sooner as soon as then
Nouns indicating causality hardly before (that time) shortly
• one reason why X … is that … in the end over the next (2 days)
at first
• a consequence of X is … meanwhile last
• the most likely cause of X is …
at last next immediately
• X is a key factor in … scarcely
• X is a major influence on …
• X has a significant impact on …
• X has a positive effect on …

Academic Phrasebank p.100-102

4
 CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,
LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING ADVERBIALS p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 TO GENERALISE  INFERENCE

As a rule For the most part if not if … then

Generally In general in (that) case that implies
On the whole In most cases
Usually  REFORMULATION
in other words put simply
 TO INTRODUCE A FACT that is to say briefly rather

After all Clearly  CONDITION

Naturally Evidently
if if only
Obviously Of course
as long as provided (that)
It is evident that
unless

CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 INTRODUCTION PARAGRAPH

LINKING DEVICES, Many people contend that …

Many people feel that …
WORDS AND PHRASES People argue that …

We often hear that …

ACADEMIC ENGLISH It is argued that …

It is often claimed that …
It is widely believed that …
It is commonly agreed that …

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 INTRODUCTION PARAGRAPH  CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

A key aspect of x is … To conclude To sum, to summarise

x is of interest because … In conclusion In summary
x is a classic problem in … In short On balance
A primary concern of x is .. In brief On the whole
The issue of x has received considerable critical attention
All things considered,
Traditionally, … Taking all this into account,
Over the past century, … Taking everything into consideration,
Recent trends in x …
Recently, ….
In the last few decades, …

Academic Phrasebank p.8-9

5
 CB, p.137, p.142, CB p.177, 178
LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES
 INTRODUCING A TOPIC, TRANSITION
 INTRODUCING A GENERAL TOPIC
Regarding x, In terms of x,
We often use reporting verbs such as believe, claim, report,
As regards x, In the case of x,
say and think in impersonal passive structures in formal
With regard to x, On the question of x, situations, when we don’t know or don’t wish to specify the
With respect to x, Concerning x, subject.
As for x, As far as … is concerned,
To turn to x, IT+ BE + VERB + THAT
• It is thought that a solution will be found. (present)
• It was claimed that the idea had been stolen. (past)
SUBJECT+ BE + REPORTING VERB + INFINITIVE
• An announcement is thought to be imminent.
say, calculate, think, consider, suppose, reckon,
acknowledge, show, estimate, understand, report, feel,
believe, know, presume

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 GIVING OPINIONS  SOFTENING  PRESENTING ARGUMENTS FOR

I believe maybe The main/first/most important advantage of ...

I think presumably One major advantage of ...
probably
In my opinion, … possibly A further advantage ...
In my view, … perhaps One/Another/An additional advantage of ...
As I see it, … in a way One point of view in favour of ...
to some extent
It is often suggested/believed/argued that ...
I strongly believe that …
I honestly think that … Some/Many people suggest/feel/argue that ...
I can honestly say that … Some/Many people are in favour of ...
Some/Many people are convinced that …

Academic Phrasebank p.82

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 PRESENTING ARGUMENTS AGAINST  CONFLICTING VIEWPOINTS, CONCESSION

One major disadvantage of ... Although it is true that ..

The main/most important disadvantage/drawback of ... It may appear that ….
It may be the case that …
One/Another/An additional disadvantage of ...
I admit that …
One point/argument against ... Admittedly, …
Some/Many people are against ... One cannot deny that …

It is argued that …
People argue that …
Opponents of this view say …
There are people who oppose …
Opposing views claim that …

6
 CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,
LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 BEING CRITICAL  ADDING EMPHASIS  EVALUATIVE WRITING

criticises … really Admittedly Explicitly

questions… definitely All things considered Even so
As a general rule Eventually
challenges … actually As far as we know Fortunately
clearly Astonishingly Fundamentally
is critical of … certainly Broadly Generally speaking
casts doubt on … literally By and large Interestingly
points out that … Characteristically Ironically
Clearly In essence
takes issue with … Coincidentally In general
raises a number of Conveniently In particular
Curiously In practice
Disappointingly In reality
Equally In retrospect/hindsight
Essentially In theory
Academic Phrasebank p.82 http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Cohesion.html

CB, p.137, p.142, CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196 LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 EVALUATIVE WRITING  GIVING EXAMPLES AS SUPPORT

In view of this Probably for example to demonstrate

More interestingly Remarkably for instance to illustrate
More seriously Seemingly
More specifically Significantly
namely as way of illustration
Naturally Surprisingly including such as
On balance Theoretically thus as evidence of …
Obviously To all intents and purposes
On reflection Typically specifically in particular
Overall Ultimately
Paradoxically Understandably
notably chiefly
Potentially Undoubtedly mainly mostly
Predictably Unfortunately
Presumably With hindsight a … example of x is …
Primarily a classic, useful, notable, important, well-known …
http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Cohesion.html Academic Phrasebank p.105

CB, p.137, p.142,

LINKING DEVICES p.170-1, p.186, p.196

 GIVING EXAMPLES AS SUPPORT

Another example of what is meant by x is …

This is exemplified in …
COHERENCE DEVICES
The distinction is further exemplified in … --
An example of this is …
PRACTICE EXERCISES
x is a good illustration of …
x illustrates this point clearly …
this can be illustrated briefly by …
by way of illustration, ….

the evidence of x can be clearly seen in the case of …

this is evident in (the case of) …
Academic Phrasebank p.105

7
EXX - BATCH I *self-study EXX - BATCH II
 ex 1 = CB p.142 ex 3 pronouns/repetitions **  ex 11 = CB p.137 ex 4 which one not possible
 ex 2 = CB p.142 ex 4 synonyms **  ex 12 = CB p.137 ex 5 classify
 ex 3 = CB p.142 ex 5 ellipsis **  ex 13 = CB p.148 ex 3 find/identify
 ex 4 = CB p.142 ex 6 conjunctions (complete)  ex 14 = Maxi p.93 ex 2 complete from box
 ex 5 = Maxi p.11 ex 2 synonyms [see PDF]  ex 15 = Maxi p.97 ex 1 alternative
 ex 16 = CB p.139 ex 4 alternative
 ex 6 = CB p.105 ex 2 conjunctions (match)  ex 17 = extra alternative in text
 ex 7 = CB p.105 ex 3 conjunctions (alternative)  ex 18 = extra complete from box
 ex 8 = CB p.105 ex 4 conjunctions (as)  ex 19 = extra synonym expressions
 ex 9 = Maxi p.72 ex-2 join sentences  ex 20 = extra open cloze
 ex 10 = CB p.107 ex 4 conjunctions (complete)  ex 21 = extra open cloze

maxi p.72 ex-2 maxi p.72 ex-2

[EX 9] CONJUNCTIONS [EX 9] CONJUNCTIONS
Join the pair of sentences using the conjunctions in
brackets.

MAXI, p.93, Ex-2 MAXI, p.93, Ex-2

[EX 14] Complete the texts below with the words in the box. [EX 14] Complete the texts below with the words in the box.

apart from -- as a result -- clearly -- consequently -- apart from -- as a result -- clearly -- consequently --
despite -- given -- nor -- whereas despite -- given -- nor -- whereas

8
 maxi p.97, ex-1
[EX 17] Choose the correct alternatives to complete the
[EX 15] Choose the correct alternative in each sentence. text.

A British scientist has won the Newton Medal for

creating a method of making objects seem invisible.
Just (1) so/as/like Harry Potter and his invisibility cloak,
John Pendry first came up with the idea in a paper he
published in 2006, (2) whereas/while/whenever he was
working on finding a way of absorbing radar. (3)
Although/Despite/Alternatively his research has not yet
led him to create an actual cloak of invisibility, his work
on ‘metamaterials’ has pushed the boundaries of
physics. ‘Metamaterials’ are materials which can bend
light around an object so that it appears to be invisible.

[EX 17] Choose the correct alternatives to complete the [EX 18]
text. as a result -- consequently -- first -- following that -- furthermore --
however -- in addition -- nevertheless -- therefore
(4) Consequently/Accordingly/Respectively, one of
the applications of these materials being considered
is the possibility of being able to cloak or protect
large structures from seismic waves. (5)
Besides/Furthermore/However, scientists are
working on ideas for cloaks to protect objects from
heat or magnetic fields – the possibilities are
endless.

[EX 18] [EX 19] Write a word or phrase from the box on each line to
replace the underlined.
as a result -- consequently -- first -- following that -- furthermore --
however -- in addition -- nevertheless -- therefore

alternatively -- conversely -- for instance -- furthermore --

however -- that is -- therefore

1 Food labels are often misleading or confusing. For that

reason, it is better to prepare your own food.

2 There is no doubt that convenience food has led to

unhealthy eating habits. As well as that, we are slowly
forgetting how to cook.

3 We think of low-fat food as being more unhealthy, which

is untrue. On the contrary, such foods are often packed with
sugar.

9
[EX 19]
alternatively -- conversely -- for instance -- furthermore --
however -- that is -- therefore
4 There is certainly some hysteria surrounding food scares.
Having said that, consumer paranoia is all too often proved
right.
5 Fast food puts a strain on our organs and fails to provide
us with the nutrients we need. In other words, it is killing us.
6 Gerry could join a weight loss club. As an alternative
option, he could buy some exercise equipment.
7 An obese person cannot just start high-intensity
exercises. Gentle activities are the best way to begin, such
as short walks.
[EX 20] Complete the text. Use only one word for each gap.
You would think that this would put people off having
cosmetic surgery; on (6) ____________ contrary, demand for
surgery seems to be on the rise. Enhancing one’s looks
appears to have become an addiction for some people. The
cosmetic surgery industry is largely unregulated and, in (7)
____________ of this, governments are now being urged to
enforce better regulation.
[EX 20] Complete the text. Use only one word for each gap.
There’s (1) ____________ doubt that most women enjoy
looking good. (2) ____________ this reason, they spend
billions on creams and make-up to keep them looking young
and fashionable. Apart (3) ____________ the creams and
make-up, increasing numbers of young women are opting for
the surgical alternative to enhance their looks. (4)
____________ this is both an expensive and somewhat risky
process, it’s amazing how many people think it’s the best
thing to do, (5) ____________ the horror stories they read
about when things go wrong.
[EX 21] Complete the text. Use only one word for each gap.
(1) ____________ the time our grandchildren are born, what
state do you think the world will be in? I am doing my best to
recycle everything I can but it is not clear if enough people
are doing this to make any significant difference. As (2)
____________ those people who are not recycling, they
need to be made aware of the damage they are doing to the
environment. Unfortunately, (3) ____________ things are at
the moment, the state of the world does not say much about
our regard for the planet. As (4) ____________ as we
continue to disregard the value of nature, things can only get
worse. For the time (5) ____________ , we still have an
amazing planet – but how long will it last?
10