TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

TEACHERS COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

ED 630

CURRICULUM STUDIES
 UNIT ONE

“The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not
learned but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents,
parents and children are students together.”

Eric Hoffer

“Education has to liberate man, to make him more of a human being.”

J. Henze

CURRICULUM AS A PROGRAMME OF EDUCATION

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define education and curriculum.

 Clearly discuss the relationship between education and curriculum.

 Give a critique on how curriculum is understood by different scholars and educationists.

 Demonstrate an understanding of curriculum dimensions.

 Discuss the curriculum elements.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICICULUM STUDIES

It is essential for you to know from the outset that Curriculum is an area of vital importance to the
professional teacher and anyone who is involved in an educational programme especially in a
school. Over the past decades the study of curriculum has become an established part of teacher
education and all other programs that are followed by all educationists. Similarly, most
educationists undertaking postgraduate studies and professional development activities have been
exposed to the concepts associated with curriculum. One of the basic skills every facilitator or
educator should try to acquire is the ability to plan or design training programs. All training or
educational programs require planning of some kind. But report from the field indicate that many
of the programs being conducted are not systematically planned. In addition, several programs do
not seem to be directly related to the training needs of the participants.

This course is therefore intended to equip the trainers/educators/teachers with knowledge and skills
necessary in the effective and systematic design and implementation of training/education
programs. However, the understanding of curriculum would be incomplete without having a clear
understanding of education.
After all a curriculum is the means for achieving educational goals. It is for this reason that in
this study you will have to start by understanding what education is.

1.2 THEORETICAL AND FUNCTIONAL DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION AND

CURRICULUM

1.2.1 What is Education?

The understanding of the concept of curriculum would be incomplete without having a clear
understanding of education. It is clear to state that the curriculum is the means for achieving
educational goals. It is for this reason that one needs to understand what education is before
exploring the concept of the curriculum.

It is essential to note that Curriculum is an area of vital importance to the professional teacher and
anyone who is involved in an educational program especially in a school. Over the past decades
the study of curriculum has become an established part of teacher education and all other programs
that are followed by all educationists. Similarly, most educationists undertaking postgraduate
studies and professional development activities have been exposed to the concepts associated with
curriculum

What is Education? May be this is not the first time that you have engaged yourself in answering
this question. However, revisiting your answers to this very important question will be of help to
you to understand the various purposes of education. This is hardly a new argument. In ancient
Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already with the student.
(As you may know, the word education comes from the Latin word educere meaning “to lead
out”). There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people talk about education they mean
the same thing. It is for this reason that a definition for education is important to explore.

No single definition or meaning however can be assigned to the term education. Similarly, to
become educated is a complex process, which cannot be sufficiently explained as an event. Thus,
you should be clear from the outset that without understanding the meaning of the term “education”
you can be in no position to explain, assess or evaluate what our institutions of education are doing.
Similarly, without the conception of what education is, empirical research into educational
effectiveness of programs and strategies cannot begin.

However, according to Farrant (1980) education is the total process of human learning by which
knowledge is acquired, faculties trained and skills developed. In addition, Mbiti (1981) defines
education as a deliberate attempt to acquire and to transmit the accumulated, worthwhile skills,
attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one human generation to the next. He further
asserts that education includes all activities which are worthwhile and which can be taught or
learned through a variety of meaningful ways.
According to Fafunwa (1984) defines education as “the aggregate of all the processes by means of
which a person develops abilities, skills and other forms of behaviour of positive and sometimes
of negative value to the society in which he lives.

Education is a process of acquiring, developing and transmitting desirable accumulated and new
knowledge, wisdom, values, attitudes and skills as a result of growth, maturation and learning
which can be best utilized for life in a changing society. “In its broad sense, education refers to
any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an
individual…In its technical sense education is the process by which society, through schools,
colleges, universities, and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage–its
accumulated knowledge, values, and skills–from one generation to another.” It is clear to note that
Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers.” It
inculcates certain values and principles and also prepares a human being for social life.

In Education the means used in educating must be morally justified. Thus for someone to be seen
as educated s/he should have admirable qualities. However, what education hopes to achieve is not
what it does at times.

1.2.1.1 PURPOSE OF EDUCATION

There are various purposes and functions that education serves. It is for this reason to indicate that
knowledge and skills acquisition is broad hence the need to plan for what one needs to acquire.

In line with the above, what is the purpose and aim of a modern education? Or, put more simply,
why do people go to school? Young children with no doubt attend to their studies in part due to
compulsion, but what of the majority of young adults who sacrifice time, money, and other pursuits
to attend the educational institution of their choice? For whatever reason, it seems to be a common
attitude that the whole idea of education is to become successfully and lucratively employed.

On the contrary, there are several purposes of education. “The sole purpose of education is to
educate all students and give everyone equal opportunity as a means to succeed in life” (.
Cummings 2013: 214). Additionally, according to Martin (1945) “Education must also train one
for quick, resolute and effective thinking. To think incisively and to think for one's self is very
difficult”. Through knowledge and skill, all individuals can achieve greatness. In addition,
common values such as punctuality, following rules, cooperation, learning to work and get along
together as well as a sense of responsibility are all-important factors of education. The
combinations of knowledge and skills as well as the common values will help our young students
bloom into adults and become responsible and productive citizens.

Equal opportunity to all individuals is very important in Education. It is only fair that everyone,
regardless of race and ethnic background, should all have an equal opportunity to succeed in life.
A prime example of how things used to be was stated by the author, W.E.B. DuBois, who in 1907
co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), argued
against what they viewed as a position of accommodation or compromise and protested that it was
wrong for Blacks to be given only one educational direction (industrial) and Whites several?
(Webb, Metha, and Jordan, 2003:181)

Education has a variety of functions including the following:

1. Intellectual function, this is to enable men awaken in and have a taste of knowledge. It is
also to develop intellectual powers of learners.

2. Productive function which provides individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that
could be used for economic activities in a society. Vocational training contributes to this
function.

3. Social function in this context, education is considered as a process of preserving and

transmission of cultural heritage. Beside education helps learners acquire skills for
interpersonal

4. Education is also a means of individual development. It therefore serves a personal

function.

1.2.1.2 EDUCATIONAL, AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Aims, goals and objectives are crucial in the curriculum development process. We shall therefore,
at this early stage in the module, explain the meaning of these terms. We shall also discuss how to
obtain curriculum objectives and the best way of stating them. Let us begin with Aims.

1.2.1.2.1 Educational aims

Aims serve a visionary function in curriculum; a rallying point for all curriculum activities. Aims
also have a global quality and a broad framework. They help in guiding and directing educational
planning. They also establish the philosophy on which curriculum is based and express the values
expected. Thus, aims constitute the first stage of curriculum planning.

Education is not a single aimed activity. It has multiplicity of aims. Some Scholars say, that the
information of character is the aim of Education when others say that the preparation for a full life
is the aim of Education. Again, someone says that, Education aims at the formation of a sound
mind in a sound body. Apart from this, scholars are also in opinion that the aim of Education is
Adjustment, acquisition of ability for livelihood and the making of good citizens are the aim of
Education. According to Aldrich (2011) in the primitive days, the process of education was
informal. Basically, it was meant for acquiring different skills for self-preservation. But modern
education is conscious and deliberate. Thus, it is obvious that as a conscious attempt, education
cannot be conceived of as without any purpose. Education is a purposeful activity. By education
we intend to bring certain desirable changes in the students. As conscious effort it has definite
aims and objectives. Education is an organized and deliberate endeavour to modify the behaviour
of an individual with a specific end in view. Aims constitute the first stage of curriculum planning.

There are four dimensions of aims which are

1. Intellectual which focus on development of intellect.

2. Social which deals with interpersonal relationships.

3. Personal which deals with self-development.

4. Productive which address economic aspects of the society, both micro and
macroeconomics.

Education is an integral part of the social system and responds to the requirements of society. This
therefore, means that for the curriculum to be progressive, relevant, dynamic and responsive, a
number of considerations must be met. The aims of education are meant to provide general
direction to the educational process. They are formulated by keeping in view the needs of situation.
Human nature has multiple dimensions with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational
aims are correlated to ideals of life. The aims of education have changed from age to age and place
to place. Additionally, according to Milner, (2017) “the aim of Education must touch the whole
philosophy of life of man, but it not so”. “The aim of Education may different in time, condition,
individual and society (Milner, 2017:136). Thus, aims of education are dynamic. Educational aims
enable us to determine curriculum, relevant teaching strategies, tactics, techniques together with
structuring of conducive learning conditions and experiences. Aims provide direction to our
educational efforts. The ‘ends’ of education are determined on the basis of ‘aims of education’. It
is only after fixing the aims of education we can devise curriculum, methods and devices and
harness them for attainment of desired goals.

In order to know the aims of education, we must know the nature of aims. Aims of education are
not fixed, eternal and universal. These are changeable and relative. “The nature of the aims of
education can properly be understood in the light of two distinct philosophies of life-idealism and
pragmatism” (Milner 2017: 109). Idealism stands for absolute, ultimate, eternal and universal
values. It advocates high ideals of life, which are mainly spiritual in nature. Idealism pleads
“knowledge for knowledge’s sake.” In an idealist society, education is for the general and moral
development of a person. According to idealism, the aims of education are spiritual and idealistic
in nature and they are predetermined, absolute, unchangeable and universal. The aim of idealist
education is to realize these pre-existing, absolute and universal values. It is “Education for
complete living.”

Pragmatism deals with life as it is and not as it should be. It is also known as the realistic approach
to life. In realism, the existing or prevailing social, political and economic conditions of life are
taken into consideration. According to Milner (2017:245), “the existing conditions of life
determine the aims of pragmatic education”. Additionally, “Pragmatism does not believe in
absolute and eternal values: philosophy of life is always reflected in the aims of education”
(Malone, 2016: 286). Plato considered that the guardians of the state should have high
philosophical ideals. Locke emphasized “the disciplined and well-ordered mind.” Hegel stress on
idealistic aim of education, for instance glorification of the state and the fulfilment of the will of
the absolute. In a materialist society, educational aims are based on the materialistic outlook of the
people. In such a society moral or spiritual values have nothing to do with education. The idealist
society tries to glorify those values and emphasize moral upliftment of personality.

Some educationists are of the opinion that education should have a utilitarian aim. “It means that
it should help an individual to earn his own livelihood. They stress that education should be useful
rather than ornamental. Certain critics, however, have contemptuously called it the ‘bread and
butter aim’ but there is nothing mean about this aim” (Benfield 2014: 263). Earning one's own
livelihood is an essential function of human life. It, therefore, cannot be ignored if we are to impart
education for life. The socio-political ideologies also determine the aims of education. A
democratic government, a fascist government, a communist government- each one formulates its
own ends and means of education. “Democratic ideals of life are flexible and change with the
changing conditions of life” (Milner, 2017). Hence, in a democracy aim at the highest development
of the innate potentialities of the individual. In fascism the individual exists for the state and
education aims at glorification and welfare of the state. Man is regarded to be the creature of the
state. Social and economic issues also serve as determinants of educational aims and objectives.
Education must prepare the future generation for the economic and social system of the country.
In determining its educational objectives, every country has to take into consideration its economic
conditions. Thus we find, variability is the nature of educational aims. The Secondary Education
Commission (1952) puts it: “As the political, social and economic conditions change and new
problems arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine carefully and re-state clearly the objectives
which education at definite stage should keep in view.

From the above discussion herein are some of the many aims of Education;

 The Vocational Aims of Education

The vocational aim is also known as “the utilitarian aim or the bread and butter aim.” The above
stated ideals of education are useless unless these aims enable us to procure the primary needs of
our life- food, shelter and clothing. Education must help the child to earn his livelihood. Education,
therefore, must prepare the child for some future profession or vacation or trade. The vocational
aim is a narrow aim of education. Therefore, the vocational aim is not a complete aim by itself.

No nation can progress in the absence of economic progress. The first duty of the state is to provide
a system and means of education which imparts some vocational and professional skills to the
learners so that they are able to earn their livelihood at the same time as they contribute to the
nation’s economic growth. Education must aim at increasing the productive or vocational
efficiency of young students for increasing national wealth of the country. Therefore, another aim
of education should be the development of an attitude towards appreciating the dignity of work
and productive efficiency of the individual.

 Development of Social, Moral and Spiritual Values

The success of democracy, its strength and stability are contingent upon people’s developed sense
of social responsibility and a keener appreciation of moral and spiritual values hence, the aim of
education should be the strengthening and deepening of the sense of social responsibility and a
keener appreciation of moral and spiritual values.

Education must make efforts upwards developing these values in people. In a democratic country,
it is necessary to inculcate social, moral and spiritual values in the people. Knowledge in the
absence of essential values may be dangerous. The success of democracy, its strength and stability
are contingent upon people’s developed sense of social responsibility and a keener appreciation of
moral and spiritual values hence, education must make efforts upwards developing these values
among people.

Character is the cream of life and, as such, it should be the aim of education. Vivekananda and
Gandhi both emphasized character building in education. Character formation or moral education
is concerned with the whole conduct of man. The Secondary Education Commission (1951:52) has
rightly remarked: “character education has to be visualized not in a social vacuum but with
reference to contemporary socio-economic and political situation.” Therefore, we can conclude
that only character building cannot be the aim of education.

The idealist thinkers have opined that the spiritual development of an individual should be the
supreme aim of education. Mahatma Gandhi has attached great importance to spiritual values in
education.

Adjustment is the primary rule of human life. Without adjustment to environment none can
survive. Life is a struggle for adjustment. In the words of Horney: “Education should be man’s
adjustment to his nature, to his fellows and to the ultimate nature of the cosmos.

 Promoting National Consciousness

Zambia is a land of different classes of peoples, communities, languages, religions and cultures.
The achievement of social and national integration is an important aim of our educational system.
“The main role of education should, therefore, be to enable our students to discover ‘unity in
diversity’ and in this way, foster a sense of national solidarity and national consciousness among
them” (Kasonde, 2007). It means harmonising religions, language, caste, and class and community
differences as they exist. There is no contradiction between national consciousness and
development of international understanding. Education should promote international outlook
through the study of humanities and social sciences while simultaneously developing national
consciousness.
  Development of Physical Resources

In the past, social life was very simple. The son usually adopted the profession of his father and
therefore, there was seldom any need of specialized training, outside home, in ordinary occupations
and callings of life. In modern times; however, with great advancements in the fields of technology
and industrialization, the simple social structure of the past has no place. Parents are so busy in
offices, fields or factories that they seldom find any time to impart the necessary education and
training to their own children in the vocation, they are themselves engaged in. The result is that
educational institutions have to perform his function also, along with imparting general education.
The modernisation of agriculture and rapid industrialisation should also be an important aim of
education. “To achieve this purpose education should be linked with productivity, science should
be considered a basic component of education, work- experience should be considered important,
vocational education should be expanded, scientific and technical education should be improved”
(Milner, 2017) .

 Development of Human Resources

This aim implies changes in the knowledge, skills, interests, and values of the people as a whole.
In a democracy the individual is an end in himself and the primary purpose of education should be
to provide him with the widest opportunity of developing his potentialities to the fullest, through
social reorganisation and emphasis on social perspectives. Cultivation of essential values in the
people, development of dedicated and competent leadership and educated electorate are essential
towards strengthening democracy. Education, therefore, must develop such human resources
required for the defence of democracy. “Earning one's own livelihood is an essential function of
human life. It, therefore, cannot be ignored if we are to impart education for life. More than
seventy-five per cent of parents send their children to school, only with the aim that they may be
able to stand on their own feet rather than be drags on others “(Benfield, 2016). John Dewey says,
“To find out what one is fitted to do and to secure an opportunity to do it, is the key to happiness”.

Democracy can succeed only if most of its members have developed mature personalities through
physical, mental, social, ethical and spiritual development. These aims are social or national
objectives which are to be achieved through education. These are imperative towards strengthening
the society. These aims may be considered national goals of education or educational aims of
national development. Our education should develop a strong tradition of striving towards the
generation of a sense of national unity and national consciousness, amongst pupils.

 The Knowledge or Information Aim of Education

Educationists who hold the knowledge or information aim of education justify their stand with
powerful arguments. They argue that knowledge is indispensable for all right action and it is the
source of all power. It is knowledge, which makes a realist a visionary successful in any profession.
“The fundamental purpose of education is to transfigure the human personality into a pattern of
perfection through a synthetic process of development of the body, the enrichment of the mind,
the sublimation of the emotions and the illumination of the spirit” (Guliwe, 2002). Additionally, It
is a preparation for a living and life, here and hereafter. “To quote an old Sanskrit adage:
“Education leads to liberation – liberation from ignorance, which shrouds the mind; liberation from
superstition, which blind the vision of truth” (Guliwe 2002).

 The Culture Aim of Education

The cultural aim of education has been suggested to supplement the narrow view of knowledge
aim. The cultural aim of education is no doubt a nice aim as it produces men of culture. But it is
ambiguous and has too many meanings. It cannot serve as the major aim of education.

 The Leisure Aim of Education

“Free and unoccupied time” of an individual is generally known as leisure. It is a time when we
can use it in a creative way. During leisure we can pursue an activity for own sake and not for
earning a living, which is dull and monotonous. During leisure we can also regain our lost energy
and enthusiasm. Leisure can make our life dynamic and charming.

 The Citizenship Training Aim of Education

A citizen has to perform multifarious civic duties and responsibilities. Children should be so
trained by education that they can successfully discharge their various civic duties and
responsibilities. The Secondary Education Commission in India (1951-1952) has greatly
emphasized citizenship training in schools. Such training includes the development of certain
qualities to character such as clear thinking, clearness in speech and writing, art of community
living, co-operation, toleration, sense of patriotism and sense of world citizenship.

 The Complete Living Aim of Education

Some educationists have insisted upon the need of an all-comprehensive aim of education. This
viewpoint has led to the development of two aims- “the complete living aim” and the “harmonious
development aim.” According to Horney “there is no one final aim, subordinating all lesser aims
to itself. There is something in all these aims but not everything in any one of them.”

 The Social Aim of Education

From the above discussion it is clearly evident that no individual can live and grow without social
context. Individual life became unbearable to man and that is why he formed society. Individual
security and welfare depend on the society. Individual improvement is conditioned by social
progress. Education should make each individual socially efficient. A socially efficient individual
is able to earn his livelihood.
Thus, the understanding of education is key to the study of curriculum since curriculum is
the means of achieving educational goals.

It is important that you bear in mind that as discussed above those are just but some of the
definitions that can help you to have a clear understanding of what education is all about.
Admittedly, they are many scholars who have defined education. However, no matter what the
definition of education may be, it is vital to note that education is always a positive process. It is
all about the acquisition of worthwhile or desirable skills, attitudes, knowledge and values.

Thus, we can finally say that;

Education is a process of acquiring, developing and transmitting desirable accumulated and

new knowledge, wisdom, values, attitudes and skills as a result of growth, maturation and
learning which can be best utilized for life in a changing society.

“In its broad sense, education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual…In its technical sense education is
the process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities, and other institutions,
deliberately transmits its cultural heritage–its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills–
from one generation to another.”

It is clear to note that Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of

man’s innate powers.” It inculcates certain values and principles and also prepares a human
being for social life.

Note: In Education the means used in educating must be morally justified. Thus for someone to be
seen as educated s/he should have admirable qualities. However, what education hopes to achieve
is not what it does at times.

1.2.3 What is a Curriculum?

In order to achieve the aims and objectives of education, an instrument that serves as a vehicle of
operation is required, that instrument is the curriculum which can be defined as all the learning
experiences and intended learning outcomes systematically planned and guided by the school
through the reconstruction of knowledge of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor development
of the learner (Aneke , 2016). Curriculum is the instrument through which the society via the
schools educates its citizens, both adult and young. Therefore, the quality of education of every
society is subject to the quality of the society’s curriculum. Curriculum is planned, and
implemented in accordance with the societal needs. “Need” is the gap between what is and what
ought to. Therefore, whatever the society wants is designed, and programmed through its
curriculum which is handed over to the implementer (The teacher) for transmitting and inculcating
to the learners. In line with the above, Agangu (2009) in Aneke (2015) maintained that curriculum
is the mechanism through which the educational system inculcates into the learner, the knowledge,
skills and attitudes which the society has prescribed. Curriculum is the vehicle that contains the
good (contents), the teacher is the driver who delivers the goods (Contents) to the consumers of
the goods learners. Therefore, the teacher is at the centre of activities in curriculum
implementation.

The activity of all nations educational system is controlled by its curriculum. Such activities must
fall under any or all of the three programmes of curriculum viz; programme of studies, programme
of guidance and programme of activities. Alebiosu (2005) in Obilo and Sanugoleye (2015) is of
the opinion that curriculum is the instrument that dictates the affairs of every educational system.
“Curriculum is the planned and guided experiences and intended outcomes formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience under the auspices of the school for the
learner’s continuous and wilful growth and personal social competence” ( Izuagba 2009:2).
Cognizance of the fact that no nation develops more than its education and curriculum being the
educational container of the nations, its implementation should therefore be regarded as serious as
the curriculum itself. This is because no matter how lofty the curriculum is designed, if it is not
effectively implemented, the objective of the education cannot be achieved

The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense,
curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it
refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well.
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes
characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. The definitions are influenced by modes of
thoughts, pedagogies, and political as well as cultural experiences. The curriculum, in fact, is the
fundamental problem which determines the ‘warp’ and ‘woof’ of the process of education. What
to do and how to do is the very essence of curriculum. Lewis (1972) defined curriculum as “a set
of intentions about opportunities for engagement of persons to be educated with other persons and
with things (all bearers of information process, techniques and values) in certain arrangements of
time and space.” A curriculum means, the total situation (all situations) selected and organized by
the institution and made available to the teacher to operate and to translate the ultimate aim of
education into reality.

Curriculum is that which the pupil is taught. It involves more than the act of learning and quiet
study. It involves occupations, productions, achievement, exercise, and activity. The term
curriculum is derived from the Latin word ‘currere’, which means path. In the sense, curriculum
is the path through which the student has to go forward in order to reach the goal envisaged by
education. Usually the term curriculum is understood as a group of subject prescribed for study in
a particular course. Thus, the term curriculum in recent years has come to mean all the planned
activities and experiences available to the student under the direction of the school. Curriculum is
dynamic and changes according to the needs of the pupil and society. Curriculum should stand for
all the experiences that can be included in the study of a particular subject which are thought to be
essential for the realization of the set goals or objectives of that subject and it is essential for
teachers and educational administrators to design and organize the curriculum according to the
flexible tests of the pupils. This unit will discuss about the principles of curriculum development,
types of curriculum along with the theories associated with the construction of curriculum

Curriculum is the instrument the school uses to bring changes in the learners’ behaviour and this
is what education is all about. Education is expected to bring about certain desirable changes in
the behaviour of the learner. It is necessary that the curriculum be evaluated at regular intervals
because these desirable changes are dynamic. Also the needs of the society which the curriculum
is meant to serve are always changing. The people that are involved in the planning of the
curriculum should try to find out if the desired change in behaviour of the learner is actually being
achieved. The aim by which the curriculum was developed will be achieved if there is regular
evaluation of its implementation. An evaluation of the curriculum as in this study is an evaluation
of the educational goals to find out how far the set objectives of education in secondary schools
satisfy the needs of the society.

There are a number of definitions about what the curriculum is. In simple terms the curriculum can
be described as a plan for learning. The curriculum outlines how the set educational goals will be
achieved. Thus it is a means of achieving educational goals. According to Onwuka (2004),
“curriculum as a series of planned and unplanned learning activities which a child is exposed to in
the course of his development”. According to this definition, the aim of is to make the learner
develop fully his potential so as to function effectively in the community. The author continued by
saying that curriculum is the instructional document with which the school uses in educating young
people. It is the systematic and planned attempts made by the schools to change the behaviour of
members of the society in which it situates. The author says that curriculum is never static, rather
it is dynamic. When analysed, the intended objectives, the learning experience, the method of
instruction, the method of evaluation, all parts of or steps in curriculum development have
continued to change.

In addition, Offorma (2004) defined curriculum as a deliberately and systematically planned

attempt to change the behaviour of the young and inexperienced and also to enable them to gain
the insight that will enable them to build a better society. Thus curriculum is a continuous process
of a series of activities undertaken by the school to improve upon the life of the individual and
society. Offorma (2004) sees curriculum as the sum total of the school planned programme of
studies or learners both in and outside its premises.
Over the past decades many definitions of a curriculum have been provided but because key
players in education represent a diversity of values and experience, it is difficult to get wide public
or professional consensus. Educators define curriculum in different ways in part because they bring
to that task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. Paradoxically, the term
„curriculum‟ has a long history despite its apparently recent common usage. Curriculum was
considered by writers on education such as Plato, Aristole, J.A. Comenius and Friedrich Froebel,
although the usage of the term has not been popularized until this century.

Curriculum definitions have developed along a continuum from narrow to broad ones. There is
also a myriad of curriculum definitions by different scholars.

Consider the following selected definitions of curriculum:

 Curriculum is what is taught in school.

 Curriculum is a set of subjects.

 Curriculum is content.

 Curriculum is a set of materials.

 Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of school and directed by
the school.

 Curriculum is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.

 Curriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel.

To define a curriculum as „what is taught in schools’ is of course, very vague. Persons often talk
about „school curriculum‟ in this general way and they tend to mean by this the range of subjects
taught and the amount of instruction time given to each in terms of hours or minutes.

A curriculum defined as „content’ is an interesting emphasis and brings into question another
term, namely the „syllabuses. A „syllabus‟ is usually a summary statement about the content to be
taught in course or unit, often linked to an external examination. It is typically a list of content
areas. A syllabus is clearly a subsection of curriculum and as such is subsumed within the broader
concept. This emphasis on what content to be taught is a critical element of a syllabus but a
curriculum includes more than this. Characterizing curriculum as subject matter is the most
traditional image of curriculum which depicts it as the combining of subject matter to form a body
of content to be taught. Such content is the product of accumulated wisdom, particularly acquired
through the traditional academic disciplines. You will discover that most teachers when asked to
describe their school’s curriculum they provide a litany of subjects or subject matter taught to
students.
Defining a curriculum as a „set of performance objectives’ or student learning is a very practical
orientation of curriculum. This approach focuses upon specific skills or knowledge that it is
considered should be attained by learners. Proponents of this approach argue that if a teacher
knows the targets which learners should achieve, it is much easier to organize elements to achieve
this end. The strength of this approach is that it focuses upon the learners who are after all the
ultimate beneficiaries. You should also understand that this approach can lead to an overemphasis
upon behavioral outcomes and objectives. Also a curriculum document which is simply a listing
of objectives would have to be very large.

To define a curriculum as „that which is taught both inside and outside school, directed by the
school‟ indicates that all kinds of activities that occur in the classroom, playground and
community, comprise the curriculum. This emphasis has merit in that it demonstrates that school
learning is not just confined to the classroom. However, you will realize that it seems to indicate
that the only important learning experiences are those which are directed by school personnel.

To define a curriculum in terms of „what an individual learner experiences as a result of

schooling’ is an attempt to widen the focus. The emphasis here is upon the student as a self-
motivated learner.

The definition which refers to a curriculum as „everything that is planned by school personnel’
is yet another orientation which emphasizes the planning aspect of curriculum. Few would deny
that classroom learning experiences for students need to be planned although some unplanned
activities will always occur (and these can have positive or negative effects).

Educators and Scholars define curriculum in different ways, in part because they bring to that task
different perceptions of what curriculum should be. As seen in the previous paragraphs some
educators see the curriculum as a list of subjects to be studied, while others see it as entire course
content. Still others perceive curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences offered by
teachers. Another group state that curriculum is a written plan of action. The following are some
of the well-known definitions that we can consider.

The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word currere, which means to run or to run the
course. Based on this origin, some authorities have defined curriculum as a course of study subject
matter. This definition has been found limiting and many authorities have modified it. The
following are some of the definitions of curriculum that you will find very useful by renowned
scholars in curriculum studies and education.

1.3. OTHER CURRICULUM DEFINITIONS

MOE (2000) considers curriculum as the specification of the desired knowledge, competencies,
skills, values, and attitudes which school children in Zambia need to acquire. Includes overall plan
of how schools can achieve the goals, syllabuses, timetables, recommended textbooks, exam
requirements and other MOE directives affecting teaching and learning.

Ralph Tyler (1949): -„All the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school
to attain its educational goals.‟

Taba (1962): -„a plan for learning.”

D. K. Wheeler (1978): -„the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of
the school.‟

Kerr (1968): -„all the learning, which is planned and guided by school whether it is carried on in
groups or individually.‟

E. Eisner (1985): -„a course, or a classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events
that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students”.

G. Saylor (1981): -„a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated.

Oluoch (1982): -„all that is planned to enable the students acquire and develop the desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes.

M. Skilbeck (1984): -„the learning experiences of students, in so far as they are expressed or
anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the implementation of these
plans and designs in school environments.‟

A. Glatthorn (1987): -„plans made for guiding learning in schools usually represented in
retrievable documents of several levels of generality and the actualization of those plans in the
classroom as experienced by the learners and as recorded by an observer; those experiences take
place in a learning environment which also influence what is learned.‟

J. Wiles & J. Bondi (1989): -„a goal or set of values, which are activated through a development
process culminating in classroom experiences for student.

M. Print (1993): -„all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational
institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum in implemented.

Conclusively we can say that;

 Curriculum is a comprehensive plan for an educational/training program/course to

offer new/improved manpower to fulfil the rising needs of a dynamic society.

 Curriculum is all the selected, organized, integrative, innovative and evaluative

educational experiences provided to learners consciously or unconsciously under the
school authority in order to achieve the designated learning outcomes.
  Curriculum amounts to Total instructional experience as detailed in written
curriculum, delivered in the taught curriculum and measured in the learned and
assessed curriculum. Focus on development of whole personality

 Curriculum is all the selected, organized, integrative, innovative and evaluative

educational experiences provided to learners consciously or unconsciously under the
school authority in order to achieve the designated learning outcomes.

1.4 CURRICULUM DIMENSIONS

In order to have a holistic understanding of what a curriculum is, it is important that you reflect on
the following curriculum dimensions. There are three dimensions of the curriculum. These are the
formal dimension, the non-formal dimension and the informal dimension.

1.4.1. Formal dimension

This dimension refers to the learning experiences and activities that the students undertake
formally either inside a classroom, outside the classroom or outside the school compound but taken
as formal class work. The formal dimension of a curriculum is prescribed by the curriculum
specialist. The activities in this dimension are well structured. They may include;

 Courses of study in colleges or universities

 Subjects, for example Civic Education, Mathematics or Science in secondary, primary

schools or Creative and Language activities in early education centers.

1.4.2 Non-formal dimension

This dimension consists of planned learning activities that are undertaken in a school, but which
are not part of the formal course of study. The non-formal dimensions of a curriculum is also
selected and organized just like the formal dimension but it does not have many formalities. It is
not done necessary in the classroom and they are no restrictions on time limit. These activities
include clubs, games, sports, drama, debates and many others. They were previously referred to as
extra-curricular implying that they were outside the regular learning activities but now they are
known as co-curricular meaning that they go side by side with the other aspects of the curriculum.

1.4.3 Informal dimension

This is the unintended or emerging curriculum. In the school, the teacher or parent may know or
not know about it. This dimension of the curriculum is not necessarily on the timetable but it
influences the learner in a very strong way. The informal curriculum is very difficult to control
because the learner picks it from the „junk yard‟. It may include such aspects as drugs, prostitution,
marriage, dances, role models, etc. The informal dimension is sometimes planned and guided by
the school when it includes activities such as observation of school rules and behavior of teachers
as role models. The task of the head teacher, the teacher or whoever is in charge of an educational
institution is to remove the negative effects of this dimension by planning it so as to reinforce the
formal curriculum. The informal aspects of a school curriculum are very important because they
help the learner in character building or formation.

Before we go on to conclude on how you should view and define a curriculum let us sample some
of the definition from scholars in the field of curriculum studies.

1.5. CURRICULUM COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS

Curriculum consists of four widely agreed upon elements or components. The understanding of
curriculum development, implementation, evaluation and reform will not be possible without
understanding curriculum elements since these are the ingredients of all curriculum processes.
These are:

1.5.1 Curriculum intent

The framework assumptions about the learner and society, the curriculum intent, is made up of
aims, goals and objectives. Curriculum objectives are the criteria for the selection of content,
learning activities and experiences and the evaluation procedures.

Note that objectives are simply Statement of performance to be demonstrated and are derived from
instructional goal and stated in measurable and observable terms. Objectives provide more specific
guidance in making decisions on various aspects of the curriculum. Objectives are thus written
using measurable and observable terms.

Why do we need objectives?

 They guide decisions about selection of content and learning experiences.

 They clarify what skills and abilities are to be developed at what levels.
 They enable the teacher to communicate with students what they need to achieve; and make
accountability and evaluation easier.

1.5.2 Curriculum content

The content with its selection, scope and sequence. Content is the subject matter of the teaching
and learning process. It includes; facts, concepts, generalization and values.

The term subject matter / content refers to the data, concept, generalizations and principles of
school subjects such as mathematics, biology or chemistry that are organized into bodies of
knowledge sometimes called disciplines. For instance, Ryman (1973) specifically defines content
as: Knowledge such as facts, explanations, principles, definitions, skills and processes such as
reading, writing, calculating, dancing and values such as the beliefs about matters concerned with
good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly.
Selection of content and learning experience is one crucial part in curriculum making. This is
mainly because of explosion of knowledge has made the simplicity of school subjects impossible.
As specialized knowledge increases it is necessary either to add more subjects or to assign new
priorities in the current offerings to make room for new knowledge and new concepts.

New requirements for what constitutes literacy have also emerged. In secondary schools the usual
method of accommodating new demands has been to introduce new subjects or to put new units
into existing subjects.

Improved educational technology such as use of television, radio, tapes, presumably permits an
expansion of what can be learned in a given period of time. New technical aids for self-teaching,
for communicating information and for learning a variety of skills are shifting the balance of time
and effort needed for acquiring a substantial portion of the curriculum

1.5.2.1 What then are the criteria for selection of content?

There are several criteria that need to be considered in selecting content. These include the
following:

 Validity

The term validity implies a close connection between content and the goals which it is intended to
serve. In this sense, content is valid if it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to promote.

 Significance

Significance of curriculum content refers to the sustainability of the material chosen to meet certain
needs and ability level of the learners.

 Needs and Interests of the Learner

The needs and interests of the learners have to be considered in the selection of content, to ensure
a relevant curriculum to the student’s world. Also ensures the students will be more motivated to
undertake the curriculum.

 Utility

In this context, subject matter of a curriculum should be selected in the light of its usefulness to
the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the future.

 Learnability

Curriculum content should be learnable and adaptable to students‟ experiences.

One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and of the focus of learning
experience to the abilities of the learners. For effective learning the abilities of students must be
taken into account at every point of the selection and organization.

 Consistency with Social Realities

If the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning, its content and the outcomes it pursues
need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the times.

1.6 LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES.

According to Tyler (1949), A learning experience is the interaction between the learner and
conditions within the external environment to which s/he can react and respond. These are
activities that are performed and experiences of the learner so as to move towards the attaining of
definite objectives.

Learning takes place through the active behaviours participation of the students; it is what the
student is involved in that he/she learns not what the teacher does.

The problems of selecting learning experiences is the problem of determining the kind of
experience likely to produce given educational objectives and also the problem of how to set up
opportunity situations which will evoke or provide within the student the kinds of learning
experiences desired.

1.6.1 General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences

1. Provide experiences that give students opportunities to practice the behavior and deal with
the content implied.

2. Provide experiences that give satisfaction from carrying on the kind of behavior implied in
the objectives.

3. Provide experiences that are appropriate to the student‟s present attainments, his/her
predispositions.

4. There are many particular experiences that can be used to attain the same educational
objectives.

5. The same learning experience will usually bring about several outcomes.

1.7 EVALUATION.

As with most terms in curriculum studies, there are a variety of definitions given to evaluation.
Evaluation, simply described, is the process of establishing the extent to which the objectives of a
program have been achieved. It can be also be defined as “an objective process for determining
the performance of a program.” Thus, evaluation is a judgmental process, aimed at decision –
making. Doll (1992) also defines evaluation as a broad and continuous effort to inquire into the
effects of utilizing educational content and process to meet clearly defined goals.

Yet another definition states that “evaluation is a process of collection and provision of data for
the sake of facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development. (Shiundu &
Omulando, 1992, p. 185) Thus, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data in a
systematic manner for the purpose of assessing quality, effectiveness and worth of a program.
The process of curriculum development and implementation should raise issues like:-

 What are the objectives of the program? Are these objectives relevant to the needs of the
individual and society?

 Can these objectives be achieved?

 What are the methods being used to achieve these objectives?

 Are the methods the best alternatives for achieving these objectives?

 Are there adequate resources for implementing a curriculum?

The evaluation of the curriculum involves the judgment or worth of the quality of curriculum
materials, the teaching learning process, the implementation strategies and the assessment
procedures. It may also involve the evaluation of evaluations.

Curriculum evaluation is the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data for the sake of
facilitating decision making at various stages of the curriculum development and implementation
processes. Evaluation of curriculum materials such as syllabuses; textbooks, teacher guides and
radio program, goes on all the time throughout the curriculum development process.

Curriculum developers are expected to systematically gather evidence during stages of the
curriculum development and implementation processes for the purpose of improving the
curriculum and reviewing aspects of the curriculum that are too difficult for the learners to
comprehend. Thus this component of the curriculum provides for effective assessment procedures
that can be used for the purpose of value judgment.

1.7.1 Functions of Curriculum Evaluation

 Identifying Educational Needs

The first function of curriculum evaluation is to identify educational needs. Before new curriculum
is developed, it is normally necessary for curriculum specialists to carry out a needs assessment to
identify appropriate educational objectives. This is because the curriculum of schools and colleges
in any country must be a reflection of the felt needs of the community if education is to be relevant
to the needs of society.

 Curriculum Revision

A second function is to revise the curriculum. The process is known as formative evaluation. Its
major aim is improvement of the curriculum that is being developed. At the national curriculum
development centers, the curriculum goes through a variety of stages before the final product. One
of these stages focuses on an evaluation of the objectives and content of the curriculum before
learning activities are created.

Once the curriculum has been implemented, the curriculum developer and evaluator visit the
classroom to watch the class use the materials and to observe the teacher and talk with him/her
about the materials

 Determining if Objectives have been achieved

A third function of curriculum evaluation is as a means of determining whether the curriculum

brings about desirable changes in learners‟ knowledge, skills, values and attitudes as well as
finding out the effects of the curriculum on learners.

1.8 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

As pointed out earlier, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data in a
systematic manner for the purpose of assessing quality, effectiveness and worth of a program.
For evaluation to be carried out effectively the teacher has to be involved in the process.
Teachers should provide data on the progress of students and of materials. Teachers are best
placed to judge the quality of materials, the depth to which the topics have been or should be
dealt with and the sequencing of the topics. They should be required to document their
experiences and those of the learners. Teachers should therefore have skills for observing and
documenting their observations, constructing appropriate tests and examinations, and reporting
their findings in a systematic manner. These skills need to be provided during pre-service or
teacher development program, which will be discussed in another chapter later.

Field officers and educational administrators also have a key role to assist the teachers and to
coordinate the teachers‟ contributions in the area of evaluation. The subject panels that are
organized at local levels in some countries can, if properly utilized, be a very effective system of
initiating and sustaining teacher participation in this process. Through subject panels many more
teachers can be incorporated in curriculum development and evaluation than is possible through
the National panels operated at curriculum development institutions in the various countries. A
few questions can be discussed on the role of teachers in curriculum development and
evaluation. These are:

I. How effectively are the teachers involved in curriculum evaluation?

II. To what extent are teachers providing feedback to the curriculum Coordinators at the
national curriculum development institutions?

III. Are curriculum coordinators seeking information from the teachers?

IV. To what extent is the feedback from the teachers incorporated in the curriculum and
curricular materials?

V. Do teachers have adequate skills, time and resources for observing, testing, measuring,
gathering other relevant data and documentation?

VI. How well are teachers prepared for developing curriculum and implementing new
curricular?

VII. How coordinated is the flow of information between teachers, field officers, inspectorate,
teacher training institutions and the National Examination Bodies?

Involvement of teachers in curriculum development and evaluation could, in the long-run lead to
relevant, cost effective and self –sustaining education program. Teacher participate in a
multiplicity of curriculum activities at classroom and school levels. These are the verious
substance of their daily teaching tasks and include such activities as selection of specific content,
selection of teaching strategies, formulation of specific objectives, use of audio-visual teaching
learning resource and so forth.

Regardless of the country and continent in which one teaches, it has become obvious in recent
years that all teachers are participating more in curriculum decision-making at the school level.

The nature of the participation any be seen in the various roles that teachers adopt in the decision
making process

Teachers may participate in any combinations of four curriculum decision making role at the
school level as:

1.8.1 Teachers as Curriculum Implementers

As „Implementers‟ or „Receivers‟, the teacher’s role is to apply curriculum developed elsewhere.

In this role the teacher has a significant responsibility and involvement in the curriculum
development phase of the curriculum process. In this phase teachers play a vital part in
implementing, monitoring, supervising and evaluating the curriculum.
Thus, teachers‟ support and training in curriculum changes and other innovations is essential for
the effective implementation of any curriculum. Hence it is important that teachers interpret the
curriculum correctly.

1.8.2 Teachers as Curriculum Adapters or Modifiers

Teachers could also adopt the role of „adapter or modifier. An externally developed curriculum is
interpreted and changed to meet the needs of a particular school population. This modification
occurs because teachers on the school’s staff perceive that the curriculum concerned does not
always meet the needs of their students.

It is fair to say that most teachers, most of the time, adapt the written curriculum they receive in
some ways.

Indeed, some centrally prepared curriculum documents are deliberately constructed in a way that
provides teachers with options to adapt or modify the curriculum to the school’s context

1.8.3 Teacher as the Curriculum Developer

The „curriculum developer‟ role involves the teacher in designing and developing, usually as a
member of a group, a curriculum to meet learner needs.

Through the use of techniques such as situational analysis and needs assessment, teachers have
been able to determine the nature of appropriate curriculum to meet those needs

1.8.4 Teacher as Curriculum Researcher

Finally, teachers may undertake the role of „curriculum researcher‟. Here the staff may be
involved in improving one’s own practice, testing curriculum materials, evaluating new
curriculum, testing teaching strategies and collecting data on student record needs.

In recent years an increasing number of teachers have become involved with action research, a role
which has made them involved both with curriculum research and curriculum reflection

Action research is a process of change aimed at the improvement of an individual’s group or groups
own practice. It is not engaged in because someone else that there is need for change. It is a process
entered into by the teacher because he or she wishes to improve his/her own practice, and
understand in a more critical manner the reasons and basis for such practice and the context in
which it takes place

1.9 TEACHER’S QUESTIONS ON TRADITIONAL CURRICULUM PRACTICES

In participating in one or more of these roles at a school level teacher will find themselves
inevitably questioning traditional curriculum practices and decision making procedures. Some of
the questions that may stimulate discussion:
 1. Who makes major curriculum decisions at the school level?

2. Who should make these decisions?

3. To what degree do teachers identify with or have „ownership‟ over the curriculum in a
school?

4. What curriculum decision should be made at the school level? And what should be left to
external organizations?

5. What should the curriculum include? What should it exclude?

6. What emphasis should be placed on specific subjects, or areas of learning within a

curriculum?

In conclusion you can say that the teacher’s role in the curriculum can be described as, Nacino,
Oke and Brown(1994:35) puts it that: “The curriculum is not so much what is found in the printed
guide(syllabus or scheme of work) as the what the teacher makes of it in the classroom. It is his/her
adaptation of it to meaningful learning experiences that really counts. He or she should use the
guide as framework and must feel free to express his teaching methods in the way that can best
help make him/her a success in the classroom”

Curriculum can be of great success or a dismal failure, depending on the teachers. Teachers are the
key persons who can make the curriculum design achieve what it was designed to achieve. If they
are dedicated, hardworking and imaginative they can enliven what would otherwise be dull and
lifeless. It will require a lot of imagination and inventiveness on the part of all teachers to make
the syllabus vital and stimulating in the classroom. In addition, the teacher’s efforts as a team will
to a very large extent determine whether the learners total experience in school will later be
pleasantly remembered or best forgotten. Outside the classroom the teacher also has an important
part to play in the curriculum. The teacher’s informal contacts with learners in the dining-room or
the sports field will give him/her valuable information about the characters and personalities in
his/her students.

The students for their part will also be making value judgments about the teacher. To some extent
the teachers teaches what she is herself; long after students have forgotten the content of the
subjects they were taught they will remember their teachers as caring, kind, lazy or even
indifferent.

Of all the personnel involved in curriculum implementation and design, the teacher is almost
certainly one of the most important. The teacher is the one who implements the ideas and
aspirations of the designers. What do you think about the above ideas about the teacher? The
teacher also has a role in curriculum design as a source of feedback to the school authorities and
ministry representatives. If certain recommended practices or elements of the syllabus are not
satisfactory, the teacher should endeavor to see that they are changed or eradicated.
Educational administrators sometimes lose touch with what is happening in actual classrooms and
need this important element of feedback from the teachers to keep them informed
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