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Kf;fpa Fwpg;Gfs;:
 9 k; tFg;G Kjy; 12 k; tFg;G tiu cs;s tuyhW ghl gFjpfisAk; , QR-

lvi
SCANNER gFjpfisAk; Kf;fpakhf gbf;fNtz;Lk;. (2019-2020)
ka
 muR Njh;T Ke;ija (2001-2019) tpdhj;jhs;fisf; Kf;fpakhf gbf;fNtz;Lk;.

Unit -1
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Sources of Indian – History – Geography of Indian- Harappan civilization – vedic
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age – Jainism and Buddhism – mauryas – Chandra gupta- Ashoka – mayuran

administration – kanishka-Guptas– Sumudra Gupta –Chandra gupta II –
classical age – Harshavarthana.
 gz;ila fhy ,e;jpah vd;gJ fp.gp. 1206 tiuapyhdJ.

 ,ilf;fhyk; vd;gJ 1206 - 1773
 etPd fhyk; vd;gJ 1773(1600) - 1947
 rk fhyk; vd;gJ - 1947 - Till now
 Kjy; E}w;whz;by;; Njhd;wpa fhe;jhuf;fiy kdpj cly; mofpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLj;JjJ.
 m[e;jh Xtpaq;fs; ngsj;jHfs; ,e;jpahtpw;F tpl;Lr;nrd;w epue;ju Xtpaf;fiy
ed;nfhilahFk;
 gz;ilf; fhy mwptpay; E}y;fisg; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s Mhpagl;lhpd;
Mhpagl;bah MFk;
 fp.gp. 499 y; vOjg;gl;l ,e;E}y; fzpjk; (k) thdtpay; gw;wpa jfty;fs; cs;sd.
 tpHjthf;gl;lh vd;w ngsj;j kUj;Jt Nkij 6k; E}w;whz;by; tho;e;j kUj;JtH
%thpy; xUtuhff; fUjg;gLfpwhH.
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 ,tH m\;lhq;f rk;fpUjh vd;w E}ypy; kUj;Jtj;jpd ;8 gFjpfisf;
Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shH.
 5 rpj;jhj;jpy; xd;whd Nuhkfh rpj;jhe;jj;jpy; thdtpay; Kiwfs; gw;wp
$wg;gl;Ls;sd.
 rkzHfspd; khngUk; rpe;jidahsuhd N`kre;jpuNrhyq;fp kd;dhpd;
Kjyikr;ruhf,Ue;jhH N`kre;jpuH vOjpa E}y; - Fkhughy rhpjk;
 goq;fhyj;ij mwptpay; Jiz nfhz;L Jy;ypakhf fzf;fpLk; Kiw NubNah
fhHgd; Kiw
 ,kakiy njhlq;Fk; - ghkpH Kbr;R
 gioa fw;fhy Xtpak; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l ,lk; - gpk;gpl;fh
 ,e;jpahtpy; trpj;j goq;fhy kdpj ,dj;jpd; ngaH - epf;hpl;Nlh
 fq;if Mw;Wld; Nrhd; MW ,izAk; ,lk; - ghlypGj;jpuk;
 fq;ifapd; Nkw;Nf mike;js;s efuk; - nly;yp
 ,e;Njh- Nuhkhdpa tzpfj;jpw;F topahf ,Ue;j fztha; - ghyf;fhl;L fztha;
 ,kakiyapy; fh\;kPH gPlG+kp> Neghs gPlG+kp> \py;yhq; gPlG+kp cs;sJ.
 kfjg; NguuR Njhd;wpaJ. fq;ifr; rkntspapy;jhd;.
 MizKbr; rpfuk; - 2695 kP ePsKilajhFk;
in
 jf;fhzk; Nkw;fpy; caHe;Jk; fpof;fpy; jho;e;Jk; fhzg;gLk;.
s.
 Nfhjhthp> fpU\;zh> tlngz;iz> fhtphp> kfhejp> jhkpuguzp Mfpa ejpfs;
fpof;F Nehf;fp gha;e;J tq;ff; flypy; fyf;fpd;wd.
 es
eHkij> jgjp kl;Lk; Nkw;F Kfkhf Xb mugpf; flypy; fyf;fpd;wd.
 fpU\;zh Nfhjhthp ghAk; gpuNjrj;jpy; ghkpdp> tp[aefu muRfs; Njhd;wpd
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 fhtphp> itif> tlngz;iz> njd;ngz;iz> ghyhW Mfpa ejpfs; ghAk;>
gFjpapy; Nru> Nrho> ghz;ba kd;dHfs; rpwg;ghf Mz;ldH.
ex
 ,e;jpa fiy tsHr;rpapy; rpwg;gplk; ngw;w gy;yt kd;dHfSk; ,q;NfNa Ml;rp

nra;jdH.
lvi
 ,e;jpa flw;fiu gFjpapd; ePsk; - 7516 . 6fp.kP MFk;.
 ,kakiyapy; rpe;J> fq;if> gpuk;kGj;jpuh Mfpa %d;W tw;whj caH ejpfspd;
ka
gpwg;gplk; MFk;
 nghpa ghiytdk; fr; Xuj;jpypUe;J Nkw;Nf Y}dp MWtiu
w.
gutpcs;sJ.(,uh[];jhd;)
 rpwpa ghiytdk; n[arhy;kH - N[hj;G+H ,ilNaAs;s Y}dpapy; ,Ue;J
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tlf;NfAs;s jhho;epyq;fs; tiu nry;fpwJ.

 jf;fhzj;jpd; ,kakiy:tpe;jpa rhj;G+uh> kiyj;njhlH
 ,k;kiyj;njhlH kuhj;jpaH vOr;rpf;Fk;> tsHr;rpf;Fk; rhjfkhdJ.
,yf;fpa Mjhuk;.
 Ntjq;fspy; Kjd;ikahdJ - hpf;Ntjk;
 gz;ila ,yf;fpaq;fSs; kpfTk; njhd;ikahd - Ntjk; hpf; Ntjk;
 10 murHfspd; NghH gw;wp $Wk; Ntjk; - hpf;Ntjk;
 Hpf; Ntjk; 1028ghly;fisAk; 10 kz;lyq;fisAk; nfhz;lJ
 10 tJ kz;lyk; GU\#f;jk;
 rhkNtjk; vd;gJ - ,irf;fiy gw;wpaJ
 mjHtz Ntjk; - ke;jpuk;> khak;> gpy;yp#dpak; gw;wpaJ
 cyfNk tpae;J ghuhl;Lk; mwpa jj;Jtk; nfhz;lJ - cgepljk;
 cgep\; vd;gjd; nghUs; mUfpy; cl;fhU
 Ntjq;fSf;F tpsf;Fk; $Wgit- gpuhkzq;fs;
 gz;ila njhy;fijfs; - Guhzq;fs;
 Guhzq;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 18
 tuyhw;Wf;F gad;gLk; Guhz njhFjp - tk;r rhpjk;

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 jj;Jtq;fs;> cUt topghL> %lek;gpf;if IjPfq;fs; ,tw;iw $WtJ - Guhzq;fs;
 Ntjq;fs; 6 tif.
1. Rpf;\h - (cr;rhpg;G fiy) nghdbf;];
2. fy;gk;(rlq;F Kiw)
3. tpahf;fuzk; - ,yf;fzk;
4. epUf;jh - nrhy; Muha;r;rp
5. re;jh]; - ghl;L
6. N[hjp]; - thdtpay;
 nkshpaHfisg; gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Guhzk; - tp\;Z> thA
 ngsj;j ,yf;fpaq;fspy; tuyhWf;F gad;gLtJ - [hjff; fijfs; (550)
 Kjy; re;jpuFg;jiug; gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Guhzk; - thA
 Gj;j rka E}y; - Gj;j rl;lk; > Gj;j rka ,yf;fpak; 3 tifg;gLk; (3$il) jphpgPlfk;
1. Rj;j gPlfk; (Gj;jhpd; cgNjrk;)
2. tpda gPlfk; (Gj;j Jwtpfspd; rl;l jpl;lk; xOq;F Kiw)
3. mgpjk;k gPlfk; (Gj;jhpd; jj;Jtq;fs;)
 Gj;j rka E}y;fs; ghyp nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;Ls;sd
 ghyp nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;l Gj;j rka ,yf;fpa E}y;fspy; jiyrpwe;jJ - kpype;jghdh>
in
,e;E}iy vOjpatH - Gj;j NfhrH
s.
 Gj;jH gpwg;gplk; gw;wpa tuyhw;iw mwpa cjTk; E}y; -[hjff; fijfs;
 Gj;j rkak; gw;wp $Wk; jkpo; ,yf;fpa E}y; - kzpNkfiy
 es
Muz;aq;fs; vd;gJ tho;f;ifia Jwe;J KdpatHfs; ,aw;w Ntz;ba flik gw;wp
$WfpwJ.
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 rkz rka ,yf;fpaq;fs; - mq;fq;fs;> cgmq;fq;fs;> G+Htq;fq;fs;
 rkz rka ,yf;fpaq;fs; vOjg;gl;l nkhop - gpuhf;fpUjk;
ex
 rkz rka ,yf;fpaq;fs; E}y;fs; nghJthf Mfkrpj;jhq;fs; vd miog;gH

 jkpopy; vOjg;gl;l Kjy; rkz rka fhg;gpak; - rPtf rpe;jhkzp
lvi
 ghprp\;l gHtd; vDk; rkz rka E}ypypUe;J re;jpuFg;j nkshpaHfspd; G+HtPfk;
gw;wp mwpayhk;. ,J rka rhHgw;w ,yf;fpak;
ka
 nfsby;aH (m) rhzf;fpaH vOjpa E}y; - mHj;jrh];jpuk; (nkshpa Ml;rpKiwia

gw;wpa E}y;)
w.
 tprhfjj;jH vOjpa E}y; - Kj;uhl;rrk;> Njtp re;jpuFg;jk; (,J re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH

Ml;rp gPlk; Vwpaij ehlfkhf tpsf;FfpwJ)
ww
 ghzH vOjpa E}y; - `H\rhpjk;> fhjk;ghp

 gjQ;ryp vOjpa E}y; - kfhgh\;ak;
 gpy;fzH vOjpa E}y; - tpf;ukhq;f Njtrhpjk; (6k; tpf;fukhjpj;jd; gw;wpa $Wk; E}y;)
 fy;fzH vOjpa E}y; - uh[juq;fpdp(fh\;kPhpd; tuyhw;W E}y;)
 n[arpk;kH vOjpa E}y; - Fkuh; ghyrhpjk;
 fhspjhrH vOjpa E}y; - rhFe;jyk; (rk];fpUj ehlf E}y;)
(NkfJ}J> hpJrk;`huk; - ghly;fs;) (khstpf mf;dpkpjuk;> tpfuk Chtrpak; -
ehlfk;)> (uFtk;rk;> Fkhu rk;gtk; - fhg;gpa E}y;fs;)
 thf;gjp vOjpa E}y; - nfslthF
fy;ntl;Lfs;:
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpw;F Kd; fy;ntl;L vOjpa nkhop - gpuhf;fpUjk;
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpw;F gpd; fy;ntl;L ngUk;ghYk; vOjpa nkhop - rk];fpUjk;
 ,e;jpa fy;ntl;Lfspy; Kjd;ikahdJ - mNrhUila fy;ntl;L
 mNrhfhpd; gpwg;gplk; gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - Ukpz;ilf;
 fypq;f fhuNtyid gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - `jpFk;gh
 rKj;jpudpd; ngUikia gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - myfhghj; J}z; fy;ntl;L
 ,uz;lhk; GypNfrpapd; ngUik gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - ma;N`hNs fy;ntl;L

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 aNrhtHkd; ngUik gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - fpHdhH
 2k; Fkhu Fg;jhpd; ngUik gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - khz;l#H
 ];fe;j Fg;jhpd; ngUik gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - gpjhhpJ}z;
 Kjyhk; guhe;jf Nrhodpd; ngUik gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - cj;jpuNk&H
 F\hzHfis gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Kjd;ik rhd;W - ehzak;
 `H\H fhy ehzak; nfhz;L rkaj;ij mwpayhk;
 rKj;jpuFg;jhpd; ehzak; %yk; ,ir Gyik mwpayhk;
 ];fe;j Fg;jhpd; ];tHzk; ehzak; %yk; Ml;rp Kiwia mwpayhk;
 ehza rPhj ; pUj;j ,sturH - KfkJ - gpd; -Jf;sf;
 jw;fhy ,e;jpa ehzaj; je;ij - n\H\h
 tq;fhs Mrpaf; fofk; - 1784y; rH tpy;ypak; N[hd;\; Njhw;Wtpj;jhH
 tq;fhs Mrpaf; fofk; vd;gJ - gioa epidT rpd;dq;fis guhkhpj;jy;
 fd;dpq;`hk; ,e;jpa njhy;nghUs; jiytuhf epakpf;fg;gl;l Mz;L - 1862
 ,e;jpa njhy;ypay; Jiwia cUthf;fpatH - 1904y; fHrd; gpuG
 ,e;jpahtpy; GijnghUs; Muha;r;rp Jtq;fpaJ - 1921
 ùg;gh tpy; mfoha;it Nkw;nfhz;ltH - jahuhk; r`hdp - 1921
 nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; mfo;tha;it Nkw;nfhz;ltH – R.T. ghdH[p
in
 njhy;nghUs; Jiwapd; jiytd; - rH[hd; khH\y;
s.
 nùNlhl]; vd;gtH fpNuf;f tuyhw;whrphpaH
 tuyhw;wpd; je;ij - nùNlhl];
 es
,e;jpahtpd; Gtpapaiyg; gw;wp nghpg;GS]; Fwpg;G vOjpAs;shH - ,thpd; E}y;
nrq;flw; gazr; nryT
pr
 gpspdp vd;gtH fpNuf;f mwpQH ,tH ,aw;if tuyhW vDk; E}iy vOjpdhH
 ,tH 1stE}w;whz;il rhHe;jtH (,e;jpa nrb> nfhb tpyq;F gw;wp vOjpAs;shH.
ex
 lhykp 2k; E}w;whz;il rhHe;jtH Kjd; Kjypy; cyf tiuglj;ij tiue;jtH

 Gtpapay; ty;YdH - lhykp
lvi
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpa te;j rPdg; gazp gh`pahd; - (399 y; te;J 414 tiu
,Ue;jhH)
ka
 gh`pahd; vOjpa E}y; - Ngh- Nfh - fp

 ahj;hpfHfspd; ,sturH - Athd;Rthq;
w.
 `H\H fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpah te;jtH - Athd; Rthq;

 Athd; Rthq; vOjpaE}y; - Nkiy cyfpd; Mtzq;fs;
ww
 Nry;Af]; epNfluhy; ,e;jpah mDg;gg;gl;l fpNuf;f J}JtH - nkf];jdp];

 Nkf];jdp]; vOjpa E}y; - ,z;bfh
rkz rkak;
 rka vOr;rpkpf;ff; fhyk; /mwpthHe;j vOr;rpia fz;l fhyk; - fp.K. 6k; E}w;whz;L
 ghurPfj;jpy; %l ek;gpf;iffis vjpHj;jtH-n[huh];lH-n[huh];ludprk;
 rPd; kf;fs; fd;G+rpa]; jj;Jtq;fis tuNtw;wdH.
 fd;G+rpa]; xU rpwe;j MrphpaH> rPdhtpy; Njhd;wpa jj;JtQhdp
 n[huh];lH gpwe;jJ- tlNkw;F <uhdpy;
 #hpad;-xsp-neUg;G ,tw;wpd; cUtfkhd m#uk];jh> flTis topgLk;gb
$wpatH - n[huh];lH
 rkzKk;> ngsj;jKk; Njhd;wpa fhyk; - fp.K. 6k; E}w;whz;L
 rka rkaj;ij tbtikj;jtHfs; - 24 jPHj;jq;fuHfs;
 rkz rka nfhs;iffisg; gutr; nra;j nghpNahHfs; - 24 jPHj;jq;fuHfs;
 rkz rkak; Njhd;w fhuzk; - gy rhjpg;gphpTfs;> capH gypaply;> %lek;gpf;if
 rkz rkaj;jpd; Kjy; jPHj;jq;fuH - hp\gNjtH
 rkz rkaf; fUj;Jf;fspd; tpj;jpid Cd;wpatH - hp\gNjtH

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 hp\gNjthpd; milahsk; - vUJ
 gH\t ehjhpd; milahsk; - glnkLf;Fk; ghk;G
 kfhtPuhpd; milahsk; - rpq;fk;
 m[Pjehjhpd; milahsk; - ahid
 rkz rkaj;ij cUthf;fpatH /filrp jPHj;jq;fuH/24 tJ jPHj;jq;fuH “ kfhtPuH
 rkzH vd;gjd; nghUs;- Jwtpfs;
 Gyd;fisAk;> fUkq;fisAk; rkzH n[apj;jtH vd;gjhy; - i[dH vdg;gl;lhH
 rkzH flTs; gw;ww;wtH Mjyhy; epHf;fpe;juH> epfz;lH vdgg;l;lhH
 rkz kjk; - i[dkjk;> MUfjkjk;> epUz;lkjk;> mNefhe;jthj jk;> rpahj;thj
kjk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ
 Rkz rka flTs; - mUfd;
 mUfid tzq;fpNahhpd; rkak; - mUfj rkak;
 rkz rkaf; nfhs;iffis Kjd;Kjypy; cyfj;jpy; gug;gpatHfs; -
hp\gNjtH/ MjpehjH/ ghurptH
 kfhtPuhpd; fhyk; - (599 - 527 - 72 Mz;Lfs;)/
(539 - 467 - 72 Mz;Lfs;) /
in
(534 - 462 - 72 Mz;Lfs;)
s.
 23 MtJ rkz rka jPHj;jq;fuH - gH\tehjH fp.K.817- 717
 gH\tehjhpd; jhahH - thkh
 gH\tehjhpd; kidtp - gpughtjp es
 gH\tehjh; 30 tJ tajpy; Jwtp MdhH- 83/84 ehl;fs; fle;jtk; nra;jhH
pr
 70 Mz;Lfs; tlehl;by; Nghjpj;J 100 tJ tajpy; fp.K. 717y; rk;Nkj kiyapy;
ex
capH ePHj;jhH
 Mhpajj;jk; vd;w ,lj;ij jiyikaplhf nfhz;bUe;jhH
 gH\tehjhpd; Jwtps; - 4>91>000 NgH
lvi
 Nghjidfs;- jPq;fpiof;fhik> cz;ikia NgRjy;> gw;wpd;ik> jpUlhik
ka
 ];Ntjk;guH rkz gphpTf;Fj; jiytH - gH\ehjH

 kfhtPuUf;F 250 Mz;Lfl;F Kd;G tho;e;jtH - gH\ehjH
w.
 kfhtPuH gpwe;j ,lk; - gPfhH khepyk;> itrhyp khtl;lk;> Fe;j fpuhkh fp.gp. 599/ 539/
534 > ,aw;ngaH - tHj;jkhdH
ww
 kfhtPuhpd; je;ij - rpj;jhHj;jH> [dj;hpfh vd;Dk; rj;jphpa Fyj;jpd; jiytH


kfhtPuhpd; jha; - jphpryh itrhyp ehl;L ypr;rhtp murd; nrf;fl;lh vd;ghpd; kfs;
 kfhtPuhpd; kidtp - aNrhjh> kfs;- mNdh[h gphpajH\pdp (mNdh[h khpajHrdh)
 JwT Nkw;nfhz;lJ - 30 tJ tajpy; ( 6Mz;Lfs; Nfhryh; JwtpSld; fopj;jhH)
 kfhtPuH fhl;by; fLe;jtk; Ghpe;jJ - 12 Mz;Lfs;
 JwT Nkw;nfhz;l 13 tJ Mz;by; Md;k Qhdk; ngw;whH> mtUil 42tJ tajpy;
 m[PtpfH vd;w rkz gphpTf;F jiyik jhq;fpatH - NfhryH
 Hp[Pghypfh ejpf;fiuapy; [phpk;gpfh fpuhkk; vd;w ,lj;jpy; rhy; kuj;jpy; Qhdk;
ngw;whH
 nka;Qhdk; ngw;wgpd; tHj;jkhdH - [PdH vd;wiof;fg;gl;lhH
 [PdH vd;gjd; nghUs; - ntw;wpahsH/ Gyd;fis ntd;wtH/ jd;id ntd;wtH
 30 Mz;Lfs; Nghjid nra;jhH> 70 tJ tajpy; gPfhhpy; cs;s ghthefH/gtGhp
vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy; ghpepHthzk; mile;jhH
 Nfhryhpd; NtWngaH - nkhf;fyp/kw;fyp - fp.K. 527/fp.K. 467
 jPh;j;jq;fuH vd;gjd; nghUs; - kdpjd; mwpnthsp ngw;W gpwg;G ,wg;G tl;ljpypUe;J
tpLgl;ltH

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 kfhtPuhpd; Nghjidfs; - jphpuj;dh]; %d;W uj;jpdq;fs;/Kk;kzpfs;
ed;dk;gpf;if - kfhtPuhpd; fUj;jpYk; NguuwptpYk; ek;gpf;if itj;jy;
ey;ywpT - ,t;Tyif ahUk; gilf;ftpy;iy> ,aw;ifahf Njhd;wpaJ> flTs;
,y;iy vd;gij Vw;Wf; nfhs;tJk;
ed;dlj;ij - 5 tpujq;fs; filgpbj;jy;
 fUnghUs; mopAk; jd;ik cilaJ> Md;kh mopahjJ Kw;gpwtpapy; nra;j
tpidapd; gadhf kWgpwtp Vw;gLfpwJ > flTs; ,y;iy ,y;yNt ,y;iy
 kdpjdplk; kiwe;J fplf;Fk; caHe;j Fzq;fSk;> ew;gz;GfSk; - flTs; jd;ik
 ghtk; nra;jhy; kWgpwtp Vw;gLfpwJ
 Nkhl;rk; mila Jwtwk; G+z;L> cliytUj;jp> cz;zh Nehd;gpUe;J fLe;jtk;
Ghpjy; Ntz;Lk;
 cz;ikia mwpa gl;bdp fple;J capHePj;jy;> jw;nfhiy nra;J nfhs;SjYk;
jtwpy;iy -vd;W $WgtH - kfhtPuH
 Ntjq;fs;> rka rlq;Ffis kWj;jhH
 rkzk; Ntfkhf gutpa ,lk; - Nkw;F ,e;jpah> fHehlfk;
 kfhtPuH filgpbj;j nfhs;if - ghpRj;j epHthzk;(clypy; Mil mzptij
in
ePfF
; jy;)
s.
 kdpjdpd; Jd;gj;jpw;Ff; fhuzk; - kdpjHfs;jhd; > nghUs;< Md;kh ,uz;Lk;
epue;jukw;wJ - kfhtPuH
es
 mfpk;ir> ve;j caphpdq;fisAk;> Jd;GWj;jhikia typAWj;jpdhH
 rkzrkaj;jpd; Kf;fpa nfhs;if- mfpk;ir
pr
 jq;fs; thia rpWJzpahy; fl;bf;nfhz;L caphpdq;fs; nfhs;sg;gLtij
jLj;jtHfs; - rkzHfs;
ex
 kdpjd;> kuk;> nrb> gwit> tpyq;Ffs;> ePH ,tw;Wf;F Jd;gk; Neuhky; fhj;jtHfs; -
rkzHfs;
lvi
 jhtuk;> jz;zPH> cNyhfk;> gwit - capUs;sit vd kfhtPuH $WfpwhH
 gl;bdprhT vd;Dk; jw;nfhiyia Vw;gtHfs; - rkzHfs;
ka
 rkzHfspd; ,yf;fpak; - mq;fk;> cgmq;fk;> G+Htq;fs;> fy;grh];jpuk;
 rkzrka jkpo; ,yf;fpak; gpuhf;fuj nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;Ls;sJ - rpyg;gjpfhuk;>
w.
tisahgjp> rPtf rpe;jhkzp> njhy;fhg;gpak;> ed;D}y;
ww
 Ie;Jtpujk;> Kjy; tpujk; - mfpk;ir>tha;ik> fsthik> gpuk;krhHak;> nghUs;

gw;wpd;ik
 gQ;rkfhtpujk; / Ie;J tpujq;fs; - kfhtPuH JwtpfSf;F Nghjpj;jJ
 kfhtPuH vd;gjd; nghUs; - ngUtPuH
 kfhtPuH JwtpfSf;F Nghjpj;jJ - 5 xOf;fq;fs;
 kfhtPuhpd; rPlHfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;ftH - cghyp- ,uh[fpU`k;
 gQ;ruj;jpdf; nfhs;if- nfhy;yhik> ngha;ahik> fsthik> vg;nghUisAk;
nfhs;shik> fw;GldpUj;jy;
 tHj;jkhdhpd; kUkfd; - [khyp>(mNdh[h it kze;jtH)
 kfhtPuhpd; rka jj;Jtk; - etgjhHj;jk;
 capH caphpyhjJ> Mfhak;> fhyk;> Gz;zpk;> ghtk;
 rkz rkak; tpsf;Fk; milahsk;/rpd;dk; - ];t];jpfh gputpr; rf;fuk;
 rkzHfs; ,y;yq;fspYk;> Nfhtpy;fspYk; fhzg;gLk; jj;Jtf; Fwp - ];t];jpfh
 rkzHfs; 46 tifahd Fw;wq;fse;e czit ahrpj;J msthf cz;z Ntz;Lk;
 rkzk; tsHr;rp - gj;jpughF - fHehlfj;jpy;
ee;jHfs; /nkshpaHfs; - kfjk;
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fhuNtyd; - fypq;fk;
F\hzHfs; - kJuh
 ,uh\;bu$l mNkhftHkd; rkz rkaj;jtH
 kfhtPuH Nghjid nra;j ,lk; - mq;fk;> kjpiy> kfjk;
 kfhtPuhpd; rPlHfs; - 11NgH
 kfhtPuH kiwTf;Fgpd; RjHkd; rkzg; gs;spfSf;F jiyik jhq;fpdhH
 rkzrkag; gphpTfs; - 3
 1. jpfk;guH jpf;F + mfk;guH - jpf;F jpiria cLj;JtH> Mil mzpahjH>
kfhtPuiug; gpd;gw;wpa gphptpdH
 2. ];Ntjk;guH - ntz;zpw Mil cLj;jpNahH/gH\tehjiug; gpd;gw;wpatH
 3. ];jhdfthrp rkak; - rkz> Mfk E}y;fis topg;gl;ltHfs;
 rkz rpw;gq;fs;- cjafphp> mjpFk;gh> fpHdhH> rutzngynfhyh Mfpa ,lq;fspy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ
 rkz rkaj;jhy; tsh;r;rp fz;l nkhopfs; - fd;dlk;> kfjp
 rkz rkaj;ij Mjhpj;jtHfs; - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH> fhuNtyd;> kNfe;jputHkd;
 rka rkz Nfhapy;fs; cs;s ,lk;- mGkiy> jpy;thuh> rkzH Nfhapy;
in
 fpHdhH> rpj;jd;dthry;> rutzngyNfhyh> fOFkiy
s.
 kfhtPuH $wpa fl;Lg;ghl;L newpfs; - nfhy;yhik
 rkz rkak; typAWj;JtJ - capuf;fk;/ mfpk;ir
 es
rkz rka Xtpak; cs;s ,lk; - cjafphp> vy;Nyhuh
 tl ,e;jpahtpy; jq;fptpl;l jpfk;guHfspd; jiytH - ];J}yghF
pr
 12 mq;fq;fs; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ - 2tJ rkz khehl;by;
ex
 Mil mzptijAk;> Ntshz;ik nra;tijAk;> NghhpLjiyAk; jtpHj;jtHfs; -

rkzHfs;
lvi

rkzHfspd; Kf;fpaj;njhopy; - tzpfk;
 Kk;kzpfis Nghjpj;jtH - kfhtPuH
ka
 NfhkjP];tuH rkzH rpw;gk; cs;s ,lk; - ruztngyNfhNyh

 12 mq;fq;fs; ,Wjp tbtk; ngw;wJ - ,uz;lhtJ rkz rka khehl;by;
w.
 rkz rkaj;jpd; Kjy; khehL fp.K. 3k; E}w;whz;by; ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; - ];J}yghF

jiyikapy; eilngw;wJ
ww
 2tJ rkz rka khehL - ty;ygpapy; fp.gp. 5k; E}w;whz;by; ele;jJ

 kfhtPuH cz;zh Nehd;gpUe;J ,we;jhH
 Qhdk; ngw;wgpd; kfhtPuH - [PdH Gyd;fis ntd;wtH> ifty;ah - vy;yhk;
mwpe;jtH> kfhtPuH - ngUtPuH vd miof;fg;gl;lhH
 kfhtPuhpd; Mjp Nghjidfs; - G+Htq;fq;fs;
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; njhFf;fg;gl;l rkz E}y; - fy;g#j;jpuk;
 kfhtPuH ehse;jhtpy; jq;fpapUe;jNghJ Nfhry ehl;L nkhf;fhyp Gj;jd; vd;gtiu
re;jpj;jhH. ,tH kfhtPuUld; 6 Mz;Lfs; ,Ue;jhH> m[PtpfHfs; rkaj; jiytH
 gj;jpughFTk;> mtUila rPlHfSk;> njhFj;j rkz Nfhl;ghLfs; - 14 G+Htq;fq;fs;
 rkz rkaj;ij Mjhpj;jtH kfj kd;dH gpk;gprhuH> m[hjrj;U> re;jpuFg;j
nkshpaH
 njd;,e;jpahtpy; - fhuNtyd;> rhSf;fpaH> ,uh\;bu$lHfs;> jkpo;ehl;by; -
fsg;gpuHfs;> $d;ghz;bd;. kNfe;jputHkd;
 rkzfy;tp Nfe;jpukhf ,Ue;j ,lk; - fhQ;rPGuk;
 Ntj rkaj;jpw;F vjpuhd kWg;gpaf;fj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - kfhtPuH
 rkzk; mbg;gilapNyNa flTs; ek;gpf;if mw;w ehj;jpf khHf;fk;

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 flTs; gilj;jtH vd;w Ntjf;$w;iw kWj;jtH - kfhtPuH
 gpugQ;rKk;> cyfKk; ,aw;ifapd; tpisT
 rkz rkak; tHj;jfHfspilNa nry;thf;Fg; ngw;wJ
 tptrhapfsplk; guttpy;iy - fhuzk; rkzH tptrhaj;ij tpsf;fp itj;jNj
 tpahghuk; ghptHj;jidapy; <Lgl;l tHj;jfHfshy; rkz rkak; efurkakhapw;W
 ,y;yw gw;iw iftpl;ltHfs; - epHf;fpe;jtHfs;
 rkz rkak; Vw;Wf;nfhs;shj Nfhl;ghL - tHzhrpuk jHkk;
 gl;bdp fple;J capH Jwf;f Ntz;Lk vdf; $Wk; rkak; - rkzk;
 kfhtPuhpd; Nghjidfisj; njhFj;J ntspapl;ltH - gj;jpughF/ rk;Ajtp[ah (14
G+Htq;fq;fs;)
 kfhtPuH fhyj;jpy; tho;e;j kfj ehl;L kd;dd; - gpk;gprhuH
 rkz rkaj;ij mur rkakhf Kjypy; mwptpj;j ehL - F[uhj; (Fkhughyd;)
 Rkz kjj;jpw;F MjuT mspj;j nkhfyha kd;dH - mf;gH
 rutzngyNfhyh NfhkjP];tuH rpiyia mikj;jtH - rhKz;luhah
 rkz tka G+Htq;fs; - 14 mq;fq;fs; . 12
 gl;bdpr; rhT vDk; jw;nfhiy ry;Nyrd Kiwia Vw;gtHfs; - rkzHfs;
in
ngsj;j rkak;
s.
 Mrpa N[hjp vd;W miof;fg;gl;ltH - Gj;jH
 Gj;jhpd; 4 NgUz;ikfs; gdhurpy; Nghjpj;jtH
 es
,g;Nghjidfis rl;lr; rf;fuk; / ehf;F nghUs; Mhpa rj;jpakhFk;
 Gj;jhpd; ,aw;ngaH - rpj;jhHj;jH
pr
 je;ij - Rj;NjhjdhH> jha; - fkhkhap
ex
 Gj;jH gpwe;jJ - fp.K. 567/fp.K. 563 > ,we;jJ - fp.gp. 487/483

 Gj;jH gpwe;j ,lk; - Neghsk; khepyk; g];tjpkhtl;lk; fgpyt];J tl;lk; -
lvi
Yk;gpdptdk;> fpuhkk; - njuha;fhl;by; > Fyk; - rhf;fpa Fyk;
 Gj;jH gpwe;j 7 tJ ehspy; jha; ,we;jhs;
ka
 khahNjtpapd; rNfhjhp/Gj;jhpd; rpj;jp - gpu[hgjp nfsjkp

 ,sikapy; Gj;jH tsHf;fg;gl;lJ - gpu[hgjpnfsjkp
w.
 16 tJ tajpy; - aNrhjiu/ gj;jfr;rhid> Rgj;jpufh> gpk;gh Nfhgh vd;w ngaH

nfhz;ltiu kze;jhH
ww
 Gj;jhpd; 21 tJ tajpy; ,uhFyd; kfd; gpwe;jhd;

 Gj;jUf;F tho;tpy; rypg;G Vw;gl;lJ - Mlk;guk;> RfNghf tho;fi ; f
 Gj;jUf;F ehl;lkpoy;yhjJ - Ntl;ilahLjy;> tPz; Mlk;guk;
 Gj;jH MHtk; nfhz;lJ - cyf elg;Gfis mwpe;J nfhs;Sjy;
 ,sikapy; Gj;jiu ghjpj;jJ - Vio vspathpd; Jd;g tho;fi ; f
 29 tJ tajpy n ; gUe;JwT / ngUe;Jwtuj;ij Nkw;nfhz;lhH
 Gj;jhpd; gpwg;gplk; gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - Uk;kpz;il
 Gj;jhpd; je;ij fgpyt];Jit jiyefuhf nfhz;l rhf;fpa ehl;bd; murd;
 efHtyk; tUk;NghJ Gj;jh; fz;l 4 epfo;rr ; pfs; - 1. NehAw;w kdpjd;> 2.
cwtpdh;fshy; iftplg;gl;l tajhd kdpjd;> 3. ,we;jthpd; cly;> 4. gpr;irf;fhud;
 Kjypy; ,uh[fpU`k; nrd;W - Mujfyhkh vd;gtiu re;jpj;jhH (Gj;jhpd; Kjy; FU
- Mujfyhkh)
 gpwF cUj;jpuhfh vd;gthpd; rPluhdhH (,uz;lhtJ FU)
 gpwF cUNtyh fhl;by; fLe;jtk; - 6 Mz;Lfs; 5 gpuhkhz JwtpfSld; fLe;jtk;
Ghpe;jhH> mg;nghOJ R[hjh vd;w ,laH Fyg; ngz; mspj;j ghiy mUe;jpdhH
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 gpwF gpuahif/ Gj;jfia vd;Dkplj;jpy; ieuQ;rdh ejpapy; Fspj;J Nghjpkuk; /
murkuj;jbapy; jpahdk; 49 ehl;fs; jpahdk; nra;jhH> 49 tJ ehspy; Qhdk; ngw;whH
 Gj;jH Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;jJ - fHkh
 Gj;jH Nghjid nra;j ,lk; - khd;G+q;fh> mNahj;jp> gPfhH
 jjhfjh - vd;gjd; nghUs; - cz;ikia mwpe;jtH
 Gj;jH - vd;gjd; nghUs; - nka;awpT ngw;wtH
 Gj;jH 35 tJ tajpy; Nfts Qhdk; /Md;k Qhdk; ngw;whH
 Kjy; rka nrhw;nghopT - thuzhrp-fhrp-rhuehj;- khdtdk;/khd;G+q;fh
 Kjy; nrhw;nghopT - jHkrr;rf;fu ghptHj;jNd(jHkr;rf;fuj;ij Row;wp epy;)
 Nghjidfs; - 4 nghpa cz;ikfs; Nghjpj;j ,lk; - thuzhrp
 1. Jd;gk; epiwe;jJ
 2. MirNa Jd;gj;jpw;Ff; fhuzk;
 3. Miria xopj;jhy; Jd;gj;jpypUe;J tpLglyhk;
 4. vz;tif topfisg; gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lk; (my;yJ)
 1. Neha; > gpdp> %k;G > rhf;fhL miltJ - JHf;fh
 2. Neha;f;F fhuzk; - Jd;gk;- rKjhah
in
 3. Neha; jPHf;Fk; tha; - Mir - epNuhyh
s.
 4. Neha; jPHf;Fk; top - m\;lkhHf;fk; - khHf;f
 vz;tif topfs; - ml;lrPyk; / eLtop/ kj;jpakpf khh;ff ; top/ nghd;top
 Gj;jh; JwtpfSf;F Nghjpj;j tpjpKiwfs;
es
 gl - rKfhuk; - $Ltpl;L $L khWjy;
pr
 fHkh - Kw;gpwtpapd; tpisaWj;jy;
ex
 80tJ tajpy; - F\pefH vd;w ,lj;jpy; ghpepHthzk; mile;jhh; (If;fp;a khfhzk; -

Nfhuf;G+H- fh]pah vd;Dk; F\pefH (cj;jpugpuNjrk;))
lvi
 2tJ> 3 tJ nrhw;nghopT - uh[fpU`k;> itrhyp> ehse;jh> ghlypGj;jpuk;
 Gj;jkjj;jpd; rhuk; vd;gJ Mhparj;jpuq;fs;
ka
 Gj;jH - gpk;gprhuH> m[hjrj;Uit Gj;j rkaj;ij jOTk;gb nra;jhH

 Gj;juhy; kjkhw;wk; mile;jtH - Njtjj;jH
w.
 Nghjpkuk; cs;s ,lk; - cUNtyh fpuhkj;jpy; epuQ;rdh ejpf;fiuapy; (cUNtyhtpd;

jw;Nghija ngah; - Gj;jfah)
ww
 Gj;jkj;jpd; NtWngaH - ghypngsj;jk;> jpUkiw ngsj;jk;> njd;dhl;L ngsj;jk;>

Njuthjk;> ];jtputhjk;
 Gj;jH Nghjid nra;j fhyk; - 45 Mz;Lfs;
 Gj;jhpd; jtj;ij rpijf;f Kad;w Njtij - khuh
 Gj;jhpd; Nghjidfs; Nghjpf;fg;gl;l nkhop - ghyp
 fUj;JwT vd;gij Gj;jH Nghjpf;ftpy;iy mfpk;iria Nghjpj;jhH
 Gj;jH jk; JwtpfSf;F Nghjpj;j 10 mwf;fl;lisfs; - jrkhHf;fk; /jrrPyk;
 45 Mz;Lfs; Gj;jH jk; rkaj;ij Nghjid nra;jhH
 Gj;j rka kiwE}y; /jphpgPlfk; ghyp nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;Ls;sJ
 Rj;jgPlfk; - 5 gphpTfs; cilaJ
 tpda gPlfk; Kjy; Gj;j khehl;by; njhlq;fpaJ - 2 gphpTfs; nfhz;lJ
 mgpjk;k gPlfk; - 7 gphpTfis nfhz;lJ
 Gj;j rkaj;jpw;F <Hf;fg;gl;l mur Fyq;fs; - fgpyt];J> kfjk;> Nfhryk;
 flTis gilg;gtH /tpjpia gilg;gtH vd;gjpy; cld;ghby;iy> Md;kh ,y;iy
vJTk; epue;jukpy;iy
 Ntjk; / ahfk; cd;djkhdit> Gdpjkhdit vd;gij kWj;jhH
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 rhjpia epuhfhpj;jhH - kdpjHfs;jhd; tpjpia cUthf;Ffpd;wdH
 Miria xopf;f Gj;jH $wpaJ - vz;tif topfs;
 epHthzk;/Nkhl;rk; kdpj tho;tpd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk;> Miria xopg;gjd; %yk;
xUtd; epHthzk; mila KbAk;
 fHkh nfhs;ifia Gj;jH Nghjpj;jhH> flTs; cz;lh ,y;iyah vd;w fUj;jpid
$w kWj;Jtpl;lhH
 md;ig gw;wpa vz;zj;jpw;f Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;jhH
 kf;fs; midtUk; rkk; vd;gij Nghjpj;jhH
 Gj;jH $wpa ,y;ywj;jhH gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba xOf;fq;fs; - 5
 Gj;jH $wpa Jwtpfs; gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba xOf;fq;fs; - 5
 xOf;f newpfs; gw;wp Gj;jH Nghjpj;jJ - vz;tif topfs;
 Gj;jhpd; nfhs;iffisg; gug;gpa ngsj;j Jwtpfspd; mikg;G - ngsj;jrq;fk;
 Kdpjdpd; nfhs;iffNs mtdJ tho;f;ifia epHzapf;fpwJ vd;W $WfpwhH
 Gj;j rkaj;ij gpd;gw;wpa murHfs; mNrhfH> fdp\;fH> `H\H
 irj;jpak; - topghl;Lf;$lk;
 tpfhuk; - Gj;j Jwtpfs; jq;Fk; ,lk;
in
 Gj;j rka vOr;rpia r%fg;Gul;rp vd;w mioj;jdH
s.
 Gj;j rkaj;jpd; ,U gphpTfs; - `Pdahdk;- rpWtop /rpwpa thfdk;> kfhahdk; -
ngUtop / nghpathfdk;
 Gj;jiu nja;tkhff; Fk;gpl;l gphpT - kfhahdk;es
 Gj;jhpd; nfhs;iffis Vw;W> cUt topghL nra;ahjtHfs; - `Pdahdk;
pr
 Gj;jkjk; gutpa ntspehLfs;- gHkh> jpngj;> ,yq;if> rPdh> [g;ghd;> jha;yhe;J
ex
 ngsj;j Jwtpfspd; tpfhuq;fs; klq;fs; epiwe;j khepyk; - gPfhH

 ngsj;j rka tuyhw;iw tpthpf;Fk; E}y; - [hjff;fijfs;
lvi
 Gj;j rka Xtpaq;fs; - m[e;jh> vy;Nyhuh

 fhe;jhuf;fiy rpw;gk; - Gj;jrkaj;ijr; rhHe;jit
ka
 ngsj;j rkaj;Jwtpfspd; gpuhHj;jidf; $lq;fs; - irj;jpaw;fs;

 ngsj;j rka klhyaq;fs; - tpfhuq;fs;
w.
 kzpNkfiy> Fz;lyNfrp E}y;fs; - ngsj;j rkaE}y;fs;

 jphpgPlfk;/ Kg;gPlfk;/ %d;W $ilfs;
ww
 ,yq;if tPufhtpak - kfhtk;rk;> jPgtk;rk; -ngsj;j rka ,yf;fpak;

 Gj;jH mwptzHT ngw;w ,lk; - fah
 Kjy; Gj;j rka khehL - fp.K. 487y; ,uh[fp`k; - m[hjrj;U ( tpdagPlfk;
njhFf;fgl;lJ)
 2tJ khehL - itrhyp - fhyNrhfH - 387y;
 3 tJ khehL fp.K. 240y; mNrhfH ghlypGj;jpuk; -nkhf;fhyp Gj;jjp];]h
 4tJ khehL fp.gp. fp.gp. 100 fdp\;fH/Fz;lytdk; - tRkpj;jpuH jiytH
 5tJ khehL `H\H fp.gp. 643- fd;Ndhrp
 6 tJ khehL `H\H fp.gp. 643 - gpuahif
 kfhahz Gj;j rkagphpT cUthdJ 4 tJ ngsj;j khehl;by;
 gPlfk; vd;why; - rl;lE}y; vd;gJ nghUs;
 kfhahz Gj;j rkaj;jpd; Kjy; jiytH - ehfH[PdH
 Rj;jgPlfk; - Gj;jhpd; Nghjidfs; mlq;fpa E}y;> Gj;jhpd; rkag;gpurhq;fs;
 Tpda gPlfk; - Gj;j rq;f tpjpfs; / Gj;j rka rl;lj;jpl;lk;
 mgpjk;k gPlfk; - jj;JtQhd jHf;fq;fs;;
 Gj;j rq;fj;jpy; Kjypy; ,Ue;j cWg;gpdHfs; - 60 NgH
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 Gj;j rkaj;jpy; Kjd; Kjypy; NrHe;jtHfs; - fhrp kd;dd;- ahrd;> kfj kd;dd; -
gpk;gprhud;> Nfhry ehl;L - gpNrd[pj;
 Gj;j rq;fj;jpy; ,Ue;j Mz; Jwtpfs; - gpf;Ffs; > ngz; Jwtpfs; - gpf;Fzpfs;
 Gj;jH ,wg;gjw;F Kd; ‚Re;jh‛ vd;w nfhy;yd; tPl;by; gd;wp ,iwr;rpia cz;L
nrwpf;fhky; ,we;jhH
 Gj;jhpd; khzhf;fHfs; - rhhpGl;lH> nkhf;fyd;dH> kfhfhrpk;> cghyp> Mde;jH>
fj;jpahadH
 ngsj;j klhyaq;fis mopj;jtd;- Igf; jsgjp - ,f;jpaUjPd; gf;jpahH fpy;[p
 Gj;jKk; mtUila jHkKk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - Dr. B.R. mk;Ngj;fhH
 Gj;jkjk; ,uz;lhf gphpe;jJ - 4tJ ngsj;j khehl;by;
 jphpgPlfk; E}y;tbtpy; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ - tl;lfhkpdp mgad; fhyj;jpy;
 Gj;juhy; Nghjpf;fg;gllJk;> mNrhfuhy; gug;gg;gl;lJkhd rkak; - `Pdahdk;
 Gj;jhpd; ,wg;Gf; fhuzk; ‚Re;jh‛ gd;wp khkprj;ij nfhLj;jjhy;
 ,e;jpahtpy; nray;gl;l Kf;fpa ngsj;j gy;fiyf; fofk; - ehse;jh
 `Pdahd ngsj;j rkak; jisj;j ehL - ,yq;if
 Nghjp kuj;ij mopj;jtd; - tq;fhs kd;dd; - rrhq;fd;
in
 Gj;j rkaj;jtH mjpfKs;s khepyk; - kfhuh\;buh
s.
NguuRfspd; Njhw;wk; / kfjj;jpd; vOr;rp
 kfh[dgjq;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 16
es
 [dgjq;fis cs;slf;fpa nghpa mikg;G - kfh[dgjq;fs;
 kfh[dgjq;fs; Njhd;wpaJ - tl,;e;jpah
pr
 tphp[p ehl;bd; jiyefH - itrhyp
ex
 mte;jpapd; jiyefh; - c[;[apdp

 Nfhryj;jpd; jiyefH - mNahj;jp
lvi
 Nfhryj;ij Ml;rp Ghpe;jtd; - kfhNfryd;

 Nfhry;jpd; Gfo;tha;e;j murd; - gpuNrd[pj;
ka
 16ngUk; ehLfisg; gw;wp $Wk; Gj;j ,yf;fpak; - mq;Fj;jhuepfak;

 tj;rk; mike;Js;s ejpf;fiu - aKid
w.
 tj;rk; murpd; jiyefH - Nfhrhk;gh

 kfh[dgjq;fspy t ; spikahd muRfs; - Nfhryk;> kfjk;> tj;rk;> mte;jp
ww
 16 ngUk; muRfspy; gpw muRfis ntd;W Nguurhf vOr;rp ngw;wJ - kfjk;

 gPfhH> ghl;dhit Rw;wpAs;s gFjp - kfjk;
 kfjj;jpd; Kjy; jiyefH - rpuh];tjp
 kfj;jpd; ,uz;lhtJ jiyefH - ,uh[fpU`k;
 kfj;jpd; %d;whtJ jiyefH - ghlypGj;jpuk;
 %d;W jiyefuk; nfhz;l gFjp - kfjk;
 t[;[p murpd; jiyefuk; - itrhyp
 ghlypGj;jpuk; /FRkGuk; efiu fl;batd; - cjad;
 ghlypGj;jpuk; Nfhl;iliaf; fl;batd; - m[hjrj;U
 kfjj;jpd; Kjy; Nguuir epWtpatd; - gpk;gprhud;
 gpk;gprhud; - mhpaq;fh Fyj;J murd;
 gpk;gprhudpd; NtWngaH - rNudpaH
 kfj;jpy; typik kpf;f muir Vw;gLj;jpatd; - gpk;gprhud;
 jpUkz cwTfs; %yk; kfjj;ij tphpTgLj;jpatd; - gpk;gprhud;
 ,uh[fpU`k; efiu epWtpatd; - gpk;gprhud;
 gpk;gprhudpd; jiyefuk; - ,uh[fpU`k;
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 gpk;gprhud; kze;J nfhz;l ypr;rhtp ,sturp- nry;yz;zh
 gpk;gprhud; kze;J nfhz;l kj;uh ehl;L ,sturp - Nfkh
 kfhtPuUk; Gj;jUk; ahhpd; rkfhyj;jtH - gpk;gprhuH
 fhyNrhfH fhyj;jpy; kfjj;jpd; jiyefH - ghlypGj;jpuj;jpw;F khw;wg;gl;lJ
 gpk;gprhud; kze;J nfhz;l Nfhry ehl;L murp - NfhryhNjtp
 gpk;gprhud; kfd; - m[hjrj;U fp.K. 500 -473
 m[hjrj;Utpd; NtWngaH - Fdpfh
 ,e;jpa ehl;bd; khf;fpaty;yp vd;wiof;fg;gLgtd; - m[hjrj;U
 jd; je;ijia rpiwapyile;J nfhd;wtd; - m[hjrj;U
 Nfhryk;> mte;jp> itrhypia Nghhpl;L kfjj;Jld; ,izj;jtH - m[hjrj;U
 ghlypGj;jpuk;> Nfhl;ilia fl;batd; - m[hjrj;U
 Gj;jUk;> kfhtPuUk; ghpepHthzkile;jJ - m[hjrj;U fhyj;jpy;
 m[hjrj;U gyKiw Gj;jiu re;jpj;jhH
 m[hjrj;U gpd;gw;wpa rkak; - rkzk;
 m[hjrj;Uit njhlHe;J Ml;rpf;F te;jtd; - cjad;
 MHaq;fh tk;rj;ij njhlHe;J ML;rpf;F te;jtH - rpRehfd;> rpRehf tk;rj;ij
in
Njhw;Wtpj;jtd;
s.
 rpRehfid njhlHe;J Ml;rpf;F te;jtd; - fhyNrhfd;
 2tJ Gj;j khehl;il fp.K. 383y; itrhypapy; $l;batH - fhyNrhfH

es
kfjj;jpd; jiyefH - ghlypGj;jpuj;jpw;F khw;wg;gl;lJ - fhyNrhfH fhyk;
 ee;j tk;rj;ij epWtpatuhy; nrhy;yg;gl;l rpRehf tk;rj;jtH - fhyNrhfd;
pr
 rpRehfiuj; njhlHe;J Ml;rp Ghpe;jtH - ee;jHfs;
ex
 ee;jtk;rj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpj;jtd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;

 9 ee;jHfs; 100Mz;Lfs; Ml;rpGhpe;jdH - 375 - 325
lvi
 Filrp ee;j tk;r kd;dH - jdee;jd;
 Nry;tnropg;G kpf;f ee;jd; - jdee;jd;
ka
 rHt#j;jpuhe;jpfh vdg;gl;ltd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;

 ,uz;lhk; guRuhkd;> Vfuh[d; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
w.
 ee;jHfspd; nry;t nropg;G gw;wp $Wk; rq;f ,yf;fpak; - mfehD}W

,e;jpahTk;> ghurPfKk; - mnyf;rhz;lH gilnaLg;G
ww
 MhpaHfspd; Gdpj E}y; - hpf;Ntjk;

 ghurPfHfspd; Gdpj E}y; - n[d;l;mnt];jh
 ghurPf mf;Nkdpa Nguuirj; Njhw;Wtpj;jtH / jiyrpwe;jtH - Kjyhk; iru]; fp.K.
558- 530
 ,e;jpahtpw;F vjpuhf gilnaLj;j Kjy; ghurPf ehl;ltH - Kjyhk; iru];
 Kjyhk; iru]; ntd;w gFjpfs; - ypgpah> ghf;Bhpah> ghgpNyhdpah> mrPhpah
 Kjyhk; iru];f;Fg; gpd; Ml;rp Ghpe;jtHfs;- Kjyhk; fk;igr];
 %d;whtJ kd;dd; - Kjyhk; Nlhpa]; fp.K. 522- 486
 Kjyhk; Nlhpa]; ahH jiyikapy; flw;gil xd;iw mDg;gp rpe;Jtpy; fly;top
fz;Lgpbf;f Kad;whd; - ];ifyhf;];
 rpe;J ehl;il (fp.gp. 518y;) ghurPf mf;Nkdpa NguuRld; ,izj;jtH - Kjyhk;
Nlhpa];
 gQ;rhg;> rpe;J ,uz;Lk; ghurPfj;Jld; ,izj;jtH Kjyhk; Nlhpa];
 Kjyhk; Nlhpair njhlHe;J nrHr]; fp.K. 486 - 455
 mHj;jnrHnr]; fp.K. 405 - 359 ,tHfhyj;jy; mf;Nkdpa NguuR FWfp fhzg;gl;lJ
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 %d;whk; Nlhpa]; fp.K. 350- 330 ,tH fhyj;jpy;jhd; khrpNlhdpa kd;dH
mnyf;rhz;lH fp.K. 330y; `Hngy;yhg; Nghhpy; ntw;wp ngw;whH
 ghurPfHfspd; jq;f ehzak; - lhhpf;
 ghurPfh;fspd; nts;sp ehzak; - rPnfy;
 ghurPfHfspd; vOj;J Kiw - fNuh\;b
 Nguuir Vw;gLj;jp Ml;rp nra;Ak; Kiwia ,e;jpaHfs; ghurPfHfsplkpoUe;J fw;wdH
 Mnyf;rhz;lH khrpNlhdpa kd;dH ,uz;lhk; gpypg; vd;gthpd; kfd; - fp.K.
355/356y; gpwe;jhH
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; FU /MrphpaH - mhp];lhl;by;> mhp];lhl;by; MrphpaH - gpshl;Nlh
 mnyf;rhz;liuf; ftHe;j mhp];lhl;bypd; jj;Jtk; - - JzpNthL gpur;ridf;Fj;
jPHT fhz;gJ
 mHngy;yhg;NghH fp.K. 331/330 - %d;whk; Nlhpai] ntd;W ghurPfj;ij
ifg;gw;wpdhH
 mnyf;rhz;lH - rpwpa Mrphpa> rphpah> vfpg;ij ntd;wJ - 334
 ghurPfj;jpy; mnyf;rhz;lH epWtpa efuk; - mnyf;rhz;bhpah
 ghurPfk; KOtJk; mnyf;rhz;lH trk; te;jJ - fp.K. 328f;Fs;
in
 ghurPfj;jpd; NguurH vd;w gl;lk; #l;bf; nfhz;ltH - mnyf;rhz;lH
s.
 mnyf;rhz;lH ifg;gw;wpa Nfhl;ilfs; - krhfh> Mh;jh];
 mnyf;];rhz;lH gilnaLg;gpd;NghJ ,e;jpahit Ml;rpGhpe;jtHfs;
es
 1. `k;gp - jl;rrPyj;jpd; murH - Rthjp rkntspia Mz;ltH
 2. nghpaNghu]; - [Pyk; - rPdg; ejpf;F ,ilg;gl;l gFjp
pr
 3. rpwpa Nghu]; - rPdg; ejp - uhtp ejpf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gFjp
ex
 4. nksrpfd; - rpe;J> nrstjp gfjpfis Mz;lhH

 mnyf;rhz;lH ,e;jpahit Nehf;fpg; Gwg;gl;lJ - fp.K. 328y;
lvi
 mnyf;rhz;lH gilfs; ,e;JF\; kiyia fle;jJ - 327 Nk

 fhG+Yf;F mUfpy; gilj;jsk; xd;iw epWtpdhH
ka
 mnyf;];rhz;lH rpe;J ejpiaf; flf;f cjtp Ghpe;jtH - mk;gp

 mnyf;];rhz;lH ntd;w kiyrhjp jiytd; - `];jp
w.
 mnyf;];rhz;lH ntd;w Nfhl;il - k];]fh> MH;E}];

 mnyf;];rhz;lH ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaf;ff; fhuzk; - 1. xg;gw;w tPud; vd;w
ww
Gfiog;ngw> 2. cyif nty;y Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nguhir

 mnyf;];rhz;lhH ,e;jpahit jhf;f - epf;Nfah vd;w ,lj;jpy; fhty; ,lkhff;
nfhz;lhH
 mnyf;rhz;lH gilfs; rpe;J ejpiaf; fle;jJ - Xfpe;j; ejpiaf; fle;J fp.K. 326
gpg;uthpapy;
 mnyf;];rhz;lUf;F gzpe;J mthpd; Nkyhjpf;fj;ij Vw;w ,e;jpa murH - mk;gp
 mnyf;];rhz;lHpd; J}Jf;FOit mk;gp re;jpj;j ,lk; - epf;Nfah
 i`lh];g]; ejpg;NghH (m) [Pyk; ejpg;NghH- fp.K. 326 [Piy - Nghu];fF
; k;
mnyf;];rhz;lUf;Fk; > Nghu]; 9 tpOg;Gz;fSld; ifjhdhH
 mnyf;];rhz;lhpd; gilfs; [Pyk; ejpf;fiuia fle;j ,lk; - fhhpr;rkntsp
 mnyf;];rhz;lhplk; jd;id xU Nguurdhf kjpf;;f Ntz;Lk; vd miw$ty;
tpLj;jtd; - Nghu];
 Nghu]; Njrpa eyk; fhj;jtd; - NghUf;F Kd;
 [Pyk; ejpg;NghH 8 kzpNeuk; ele;;jJ - 17000 NgH khz;ldh;> 70000 NgH rpiwgl;ldH
 mnyf;];rhz;lhHpd; ngUe;jd;ik ntspg;gl;lJ - Nghuir kPz;Lk; Ml;rpGhpa
mDkjpj;jJ

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 mnyf;];rhz;lhpd; giltPuH gpah]; ejpf;fiuf;F mg;ghy; nry;y kWj;Jtpl;dH
 mnyf;]r ; hz;lH giltPuHfs; NrhHTw;w ,lk; - gpah]; ejpf;fiu
 gpah]; ejpf;fiuf;F mg;ghy;; nry;y kWf;ff; fhuzk; - jha;ehlhd fpNuf;f
ehl;Lf;Fr; nry;y> ,e;jpahtpd; ntg;gepiy xj;Jtutpy;iy> NkYk; NghH Ghpa
tpUg;gkpy;iy
 mnyf;];rhz;lH gpah]; ejpf;fiuapy; 12 fy;J}z;fis el;L ehL jpUk;gpdhH
 [Pyk; - rPdg; ejpf;Fl;gl;l gFjpfis Ms mnyf;];rhz;lH jk; MSeuhf
%j;jNghuir epakpj;jhH
 Mnyf;rhz;lH gilfs; ;,e;jpahtpypUe;J jpUk;gpaJ / kPs; gazk; - fp.K. 326
mf;NlhgH
 gQ;rhig Ms mnyf;];rhz;luhy; epakpf;fg;gl;ltH - gpypg;Ngh];
 mnyf;];rhz;lH rpe;Jtpy; epWtpa efH - glhyhit epWtp mjw;F ,uz;lhk;
mnyf;rhz;bhpah vdg; ngahpl;lhH
 mnyf;rhz;lH ky;ygha;> m];buhNdhNkha; $l;lj;jpdiu ntd;wJ - fp.K. 325
[dthp
 [pl;Nuhrpahtpd; ahj;jhpia mnyf;];rhz;lH njhlq;fpaJ - fp.K. 325 mf;NlhgH
in
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; kPs; gazk; 3 gphpthf nrd;wJ.
s.
 1. flw;gil jsgjp - epahf;f];- fly;topahf xU gphpT
 2. fpNubuh]; jiyikapy; Ky;yha; fztha; topahf
 3. Nfj;Nuh\pah topahf ghurPfk; nrd;wJ es
 mnyf;];rhz;lH kuzk; mile;jJ fp.K. 323 [Pd;> 33 tajpy; ghgpNyhdpy;
pr
 mnyf;];rhz;lhpd; ,e;jpa NguuR kiwe;jJ fp.K. 317y; R. rj;jpehja;aH
‘ntd;wtUf;F Nghjpf;f Neukpy;iy> nty;yg;gl;ltH mwpe;J nfhs;Sk; epiyapy;
ex
,y;iy‛ vd $WfpwhH
 mnyf;];rhz;lHpd; ntw;wpfis gilnaLg;Gfs; vdf; $Wtijtpl jhq;Fjy; vdf;
lvi
$WtNj nghUe;Jk; - V.A. ];kpj;
ka
 mnyf;];rhz;lH ,e;jpa gilnaLg;G fp.K. 326 [Piy

nkshpaH fhyk; fp.K. 324 -185 (fp.K. 325 - 184)
w.
 nkshpaH vd;Dk; nrhy; re;jpuFg;j nkshpaHpd; jha; %uh vd;gthpd; epidthf

nkshpaH vd;whapw;W
ww
 Gj;j rka topr; nra;jpfs; nkshpaHfis NkhhpaH vd;fpwJ

 Nfhryehl;L tpJjhgd; gilnaLj;J NkhhpaHfis tpul;bajhy; gdp kiyapy;
tho;e;J te;jdH. mq;F kapy;fs; mfTtjhy; kA+uefuk; vd ngahpl;ldH
 kapypdq;fs; mjpf> kapy; tsHg;NghH Mjyhy; nkshpaH vd miof;fg;gl;ldH
 %uh vd;gJ ghyp nkhopr;nrhy; - nghUs; kapy;> ,r;nrhy; kUtp NkhhpaH/nkshpaH
“ kapy; ehl;lurd; vd;whapw;W
 ,e;jpahtpd; khf;fpaty;yp - nfsby;aH/rhzf;;fpaH / tp\;ZNfhgH
 nfsby;aH vOjpa E}y; - mHj;jrh];jpuk; - XH murpay; mwptpay; E}y;
 15 gFjpfisAk; 150cl;gphpTfis nfhz;lJ - mj;jpahak;
 mHj;jrh];jpuk; 1905y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ> 1909y; rhkrh];jphp E}y; tbtpy;
vOjpdhH
 Ml;rpapy; murpjo; njhFg;G> fiyf;fsQ;rpak; - mHj;jrh];jpuk;
 nkf];jdp]; vOjpa E}y; ,z;bfh> ghlypGj;jpu efuhl;rp gw;wp $WfpwJ
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpad; mitf;F nrYf;f]; epNfluhy; mDg;gg;gl;l fpNuf;fj;
J}Jtd; - nkf];jdp]; fp.K. 302y; te;jhH
 tprhfjj;jH vOjpaE}y; - Kj;jpuhl;rrk;> Njtp re;jpuFg;jk;> 2k; re;jpuFg;jH fhyj;jpy;

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 jpt;tpah tjdk; - Mhpa#ud; vOjpdhH
 nkshpa murpd; Kf;fpa rpd;dk; - kapy;
 jz;lePjp (Ml;rpiag; gw;wpa E}y;)> tHj;j ePjp ( tHj;jfk; nghUshjhuk; gw;wpa E}y;)
 nkshpag; Nguuirj; Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH fp.K. 324 -299
 ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpy; Kjy; Nguuir epWtpatd;- re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
 ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpy; Kjy; khkd;dH - mNrhfd;
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; tpLjiy tPuH - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
 re;jpuFg;jH ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLj;j Mz;L - fp.K. 305
 nrYf;f]; epNflhplkpUe;J ngw;w gFjpfs; - mhpah> muf;Nfrpah> nfl;Nuhrpah<
gNuhgdprlha;> 500 ahidfis re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH ghprhf nfhLj;jhH
 Nkh$H kd;dd; gioaid ntd;wtd; - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
 nkshpaHfisj; jkpofj;jpypUe;J tpul;batd; - Nrhod; ,sQ;Nrl; nrd;dp
 ghlypGj;jpuj;ij kl;LNk tpsf;fpatH - nkf];jdp];
 nrYf;f]; epNflUld; nra;J nfhz;l cld;gbf;if - jphpgujPNrR
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH rhzf;fpaH cjtpAld; jdee;jiuj; Njhw;fbj;J nkshpag;
Nguuirj; Njhw;Wtpj;jhH
in
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH gQ;rhgpy; mnyf;];rhz;liu re;jpj;jhH
s.
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH nrYf;f]; epNflhpd; kfs; n`yd; vd;gtiu kze;jhH
 ee;j tk;r filrp kd;dd; - jdee;jH
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpahpd; mikr;rH - rhzf;fpaH es
 nkshpaHfspd; jiyefuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk;
pr
 nkshpaHfspd; Ml;rp nkhop - gpuhf;fpUjk;
ex
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH Kb Jwf;ff; fhuzk; - nfhba gQ;rk;

 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH jOtpa rkak; - rkzk;
lvi
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH ,Wjp fhyj;jpy; gj;jpughF rkz KdptUld; njw;F ,e;jpah
nrd;W (rputzngyNfhyh) mq;F ry;Nyrd Kiwapy; capHJwe;jhH
ka
 mth; ,we;j kiy re;jpug];jp /re;jpufphp kiiy vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ

 nkshpaH ehzak;- Jisaplg;gl;l ehzak;
w.
 Gfo;ngw;w RjH]dh Vhpia cUthf;fpatH F[uhj;jpd; G\;aFg;jd;

 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH jd; kfd; rpk;kNrdhtplk; Ml;rp nghWg;ig xg;gilj;J tpl;L
ww
nrd;whH
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaUf;Fg; gpd; mwpaidNawpa mtdJ kfd; - gpe;Jrhud; 301 - 273
 mkpj;ufhjd; vd;gjd; nghUs; - giftHfis ntd;W Kbg;gtd;
 ,tH fhyj;jpy; jl;r rPyj;jpd; 2 Gul;rpfs; ele;Jj
 Nkiyf; flYf;Fk; fPiof;flYf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l 16 ngUk; ehLfis ntd;whd; -
gpe;Jrhud;
 gpe;Jrhud; mitf;F te;j fpNuf;fj; J}JtH fp.K. 280y; nla;Nkf;fH];(Kjyhk;
Mz;bNahf]; fpNuf;f kd;du; mDg;gpdhH)
 gpe;Jrhud; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,y;yhj tl ,;e;jpa muR - fypq;fk;
 gpe;Jrhudpd; %j;j kfd; - RrPkh
 gpe;Jrhudpd; ,isa kfd; - mNrhfH
 gpe;JrhuH fhyj;jpy; jl;rrPyk;> c[;[apdpapd; Ml;rpahsH - mNrhfH
 vfpg;jpa ehl;L ,uz;;lhk; jhykp vd;gtH > jpNahdprpar lNahNdrpa]; vd;gtiu
jk; J}Jtuhf gpe;Jrhud; muritf;F mDg;gpdhH
 gpe;Jfhudpd; gilia ntd;w Nrhod; ,sQ;nrl;nrd;dp fp.K. 375y;
 gpe;JrhuDf;F 101 Gjy;tHfs;> 16 kidtpaHfs;

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 ‘ahiu rpwe;j je;ijapd; epiwe;j Gjy;tH vd;Wk; NguhHe;j Gjy;thpd; rPuhHe;j je;ij
vd;Wk;‛ tuyhw;whrphpaHfs; miof;fpd;wdH.
 gpe;Jrhud; kuzk; mile;jJ - fp.K. 273 y;
 gpe;Jrhud; fhyj;jpy; %j;j kfd; RrPkd; jl;rrPyk; MSeuhfTk;> ,isakfd;
mNrhfH c[;[apdp MSeuhfTk; ,Ue;jdH
 jl;rrPy fyfj;ij mlf;fpatH - mNrhfH
mNrhfH
 nkshpa murHfspy; kpfrpwe;j murH - mNrhfH> gpwg;G fp.K. 304
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; Njrpa murH - mNrhfH
 gpe;Jrhuuhy; jl;rrPyj;J MSeuhf epakpf;fg;gl;ltH - mNrhH
 Muk;gj;jpy; mNrhfH nfhbatuhfTk; rz;l mNrhfd;/fhk mNrhfd; vdTk;
miof;fg;gl;lhH
 mNrhfH jk; 99 rNfhjuHfis nfhd;W jk; cld; gpwe;j rNfhjuH jp\;ahit kl;Lk;
tpl;L tpl;L gpwiuf; nfhd;W Ml;rpf;F te;jjhy; rz;l mNrhfd; vd
miof;fg;gl;lhH
 mNrhfhpd; jha; - Rkj;jpuhq;fp
in
 mNrhfH kze;J nfhz;l rhf;fpa ehl;L ,sturp - kfhNjtp
s.
 kfh tk;rg;gb mNrhfH kze;jJ - mrq;fkpj;jpiu
 mNrhfhpd; gl;lj;jurp - jp\;auf;\pjh
es
 mNrhfH Kjy; Kjypy; mte;jpapd; MSeH(mte;jpapd; jiyefH jl;rrPyk;)
 mNrhfH mwpaizNawpa Mz;L fp.K> 273
pr
 cs;ehl;Lg;Nghhpy; <Lgl;lJ - fp.K. 273 -269 - 4 Mz;Lfs;
 fp.K. 269y; mNrhfH Kiwahf Kb#l;bf; nfhz;lhH
ex
 mNrhfhpd; ,aw;ngaH - Njtdhk;gphpaH gphpajH\pdp

 Njtdhk;gphpaH - NjtHfSf;F gphpakhdtH> gphpajH\pdp - fhl;rpf;F ,dpatH
lvi
 Gj;j rka E}y;fs; mNrhfiu - rz;l mNrhfd; (nfhba mNrhfd;)
ka
 Gj;j rkaj;ij jOtpagpd; - jHkmNrhfd;

 ,e;jpahtpy; Kjd; Kjypy; kf;fs; ey muir cUthf;fpatH - mNrhfH
w.
 fypq;fk; vd;gJ jw;Nghija xhp];]h

 fypq;fg;NghH eilngw;w Mz;L fp.K. 261
ww
 fypq;fg;NghH gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - 13tJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z;

 fypq;fg;Nghhpy; 1yl;rk; NgH nfhy;yg;gl;ldH> 1>50>000 NgH rpiwgpbf;fg;gl;ldH
 gilnaLj;Jg; NghH nra;J ntw;wp ngWtJ - jpf;tp[ak;
 fypq;fk; nkshpag; Nguurpd; njd;fpof;F vy;iyahdJ
 mNrhfH Gj;j rkaj;Jf;F kjkhw;wk; nra;j ngsj;j Jwtp - cgFg;jH
 rz;lmNrhfH vd 5tJ ghiw fy;ntl;L $WfpwJ
 mNrhfhpd; jk;gp - jp\;ah
 mNrhfhpd; m;zd; - RrPkh
 mNrhfH jHkj;ij tsHf;f Nkw;nfhs;s ,iltplhj gazq;fs; - jHktp[ak;
 mNrhfH jHkj;ij kf;fsplk; gug;g epakpj;j rpwg;G gzpahsHfs; - jHkkhfhkhj;jpuH
 flik vd;gJ md;G newpahy6; kf;fspd; cs;sq;fisf; ftUtNj cz;ikahd
ntw;wpahFk; - mNrhfH
 mNrhfhpd; kh];fp> F[Huh vd;w fy;ntl;Lfspy; jk;ik mNrhfd; vd;W
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whH
 mNrhfhpd; jHk tp[a rfhg;jk; njhlq;fpaJ - fypq;fg;Nghuhy;
 ngsj;j rkj;ij jOtpaJ gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - ghg;U

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 mNrhfH Gj;jk;> jHkk;> rq;fk; %d;iwAk; jk; tho;tpd; Gfoplkhf; nfhz;Ltpl;lhH
 fypq;fNghUf;F Kd; mNrhfH - irtuhf ,Ue;jhH
 Nghiutpl jHkj;ij gpd;gw;WtNj rpwe;jJ vd mNrhfH ciuf;fpuhH
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; cs;s ,lk; - fHD}y;- vHuhd;Fb
 fj;jpathH - fpHdhH Kd;ruh
 gQ;rhg; - rhfhg];`h`p> cgp- fhy;rp> fypq;fehL - aTflh> njsyp
 vy;yh kf;fSk; vd;Dila kf;fNs> mth;fSf;F ePjp toq;Ftjpy; Vw;wj;jho;T
,Uf;ff; $lhJ vd;W mNrhfH fy;ntl;by; $WfpwJ
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; jHkj;jpd; Mtzq;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ
 jk; tUtha; KOtijAk; Gj;j rka Nfhl;ghLfis gug;Gtjw;F nrytpl;lhH
 mNrhfH Gj;j rka Nfhl;ghLfis gug;g epakpf;fg;gl;l mjpfhhpfs; -
jHkkfhkhj;jpuHfs; - 256 NgH> vdmNrhfhpd; 3 tJ ngUk;ghiw fy;ntl;L
$WfpwJ
 mNrhfhpd; flikfs;> tuk;Gfisg; gw;wp - 5> 8 tJ fy;ntl;L $WfpwJ.
 mNrhfd; gl;lj;jpw;F te;j 13> 14k; Ml;rpahz;by; 16 Nguhizfisg; gpwg;gpj;jhH
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; ,e;jpahtpy; ml;rf;NfhL FWq;NfhL 14.49⁰- 34.20⁰
in
tiuapYk;> jPHf;ff;NfhL neLq;NfhL 72.15⁰ - 85.50⁰tiuapYk; cs;sJ
s.

mjhtJ FWq;Nfhl;by; 20⁰f;Fk; neLq;Nfhl;by; 15⁰f;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gFjpapy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ

es
mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;il Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jhH - 1750y; ij‡g;nge;jhyH (jpy;ypo- kPul;
fy;ntl;L)
pr
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; njhFj;J rhrdq;fspy; ntspapl;ltH - 1879y;
ex
fd;dpq;`hk;
 mNrhfhpd; KjYk; > filrpAkhd NghH - fp.K. 261 fypq;fNghH
lvi
 jHknewpia Nghjpj;j Kjy; kd;dd; - mNrhfH
 mNrhfhpd; rpWghiwf; fy;ntl;L fs; fp.K. 258 (m) fp.K. 257 y; nrJf;fg;gl;bUf;f
ka
Ntz;Lk;
 ik$H - rpj;jl;Guh> gpuk;kfphp> Ijuhghj; - kh];fp> gPfhH - rf];uhk;> uh[];jhd; -
w.
igul;
 ghg;U fy;ntl;il fz;Lgpbj;jtH - jsgjp gHl; 1840 y; uh[Gjdk; kiyAr;rpapy;
ww
fz;Lgpbj;jhH - jw;NghJ fy;fj;jh nghUl;fhl;rpafj;jpy; cs;sJ

 14 ngUk;ghiwf; fy;ntl;Lfs; fp.K. 257 - fp.K. 256y; nrJf;fg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;
 fNuh];jp vOj;Jf;fspy; gpuhf;fpUj nkhopapy; tbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. khd;Nruh >
ng\htH - rgh\;fhpy;> fj;jpatH - fpHdh;> kh];fp> fhy;rp> Nrhg;uh> fHD}y;> vHuFb
gFjpfspy; cs;sJ
 14 ngUk; ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L
1. Kjy; ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - tpyq;Fis gypaplf;$lhJ
2. ,uz;lhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - khe;jH> tpyq;Ffl;F kUe;JtNrit
3. %d;whtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - kfhkhj;jpuHfs; epakpj;J ehL
KOtjw;Fk; mDg;G
4. ehd;fhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - jHkf;nfhs;iffs;
5. Ie;jhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L- jHkkfhkhj;jpuHfs; flikfs;> gzpfs;
6. MwhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - mNrhfhpd; jd;dlf;fk;> kf;fs; eydpy;
mf;fiw
7. VohtJ> vl;lhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - Gdpjg;gazk; nrd;w ,lq;fs;
8. xd;gjhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - gpwg;G> jpUkzk; gw;wpa epfo;Tfs;
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9. gj;jhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - murUk;> mjpfhhpfSk; kf;fspd;
ed;ikf;fhf ghLglNtz;Lk;
10. gjpndhd;whtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa tuk; jHkj;ij
Nkw;nfhs;tJ
11. gzpnuz;lhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - rkag;nghiw
12. gjp%d;whtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - fypq;g;Nghhpdhy; Vw;gl;l Jauq;fs;>
caphpog;Gfs; mNrhfhpd; kdkhw;wk;
13. gjpdhd;fhtJ ngUk;ghiwj;J}z; fy;ntl;L - mNrhfH Md;kPf tho;f;if
Nkw;nfhz;lJ gw;wp
 mNrhfhpd; ,U fypq;ff; fy;ntl;Lfs; - fp.K. 256y; ntspaplg;gl;lJ
 mNrhfhpd; 7 tJ fy;ntl;Lfs; - fp.K. 242 y; ntspaplg;gl;lJ. mk;ghyh> Njhg;uh>
kPul; gFjpfspy;
 mNrhfH fp.K. 240y; 3tJ Gj;j khehl;il ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; $l;bdhH> jiyik
nkhf;fhypGj;jjp];]h/cgFg;jH> may;ehl;bw;F ngsj;j Jwtpfis mDg;gp> Gj;jhpd;
Nfhl;ghLfis Nghjpf;f Ntz;Lk; vd jPhk ; hdpf;fg;gl;lJ
 mNrhfH mDg;gpa Gj;j rkaj;ij gug;Gtjw;fhf mtHfs; ngaH> nrd;w ehL
in
k[`he;jpfh - fh\;kPH> fhe;jhuk;
k[;`pkh - ,kakiy
s.
kfhNjtd; - (ik#H) kpfp\hkz;lyk;
,u\pfd; - tdthrp (tlfd;dlk;) es
kNfe;jpud;> rq;fkpj;jpiu - (<ok;) =yq;fh
pr
 Nguh. V. Nfh-lhad;gp mNrhfiu nka;QHd NguurH vd Gfo;fpwhH
 mNrhfH 8k; Ml;rpf;F fy;ntl;by; Gj;jhpd; Mj;kPfuhfTk; 16k; Ml;rpapd; fy;ntl;by;
ex
Gj;j JwtpahfTk; khwptpl;lhH

 mNrhfH je;ij gpe;JrhuH fhyj;jpy; NguuR 4 khepykhfTk;> mNrhfH fhyj;jpy;
lvi
NguuR 5 khepykhfTk; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ. 5tJ khepyk; - fypq;fk;
 iu];Nltpl; - mNrhfiu Nuhkg;Nguurd; fhd;];lhd;b vd;gtUld; xg;gpl;L
ka
NgRfpwhH
 J\hgh vd;w atd mjpfhhp mNrhfhplk; gzpGhpe;jhH
w.
 mNrhfhpd; jHknewpr;nrhw;fs; -
rkak; - czHTfis ntw;wpf;nfhs;Sjy;
ww
ghtRj;jp - vz;zq;fspd; J}a;ik

fUjr;djh - ed;wpAzHT
jpUj;gf;jp - topghl;by; cWjpg;ghL
jah - md;Gilik
jhdh- mwk;
rTr;rh - Gdpjj;jd;ik/J}a;ik
rj;ak; - cz;ik
rp\;Ui~ - gzptpil
rk;hpj;gjp - MjuT
mgprpj;jp - kjpg;Gilik
 Gj;jk; vd;gjd; nghUs; - xspngUFjy;
 jHkk; - mwk;
 rq;fk; - $l;lk;
 mNrhfH mwj;jpdhy; ntw;wp vd;Dk; md;G newpiag; ngw;wJ fypq;fg;Nghhpdhy;
 vy;yh rkaq;fspd; rhuKk; ew;gz;G vd mNrhfH ek;gpdhH
 NjtHfspd; NerH vd;W jk;ikf; $wpf;nfhz;lhH
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 mNrhfH Nuhkg;Nguurd; me;NjhzpdRlDk; > gpuhd;rpd; neg;NghypaDlDk; xg;gpl;L
$wg;gLfpwJ
 ghypnkhopia ,-tpd;Nj nkhopahfTk;> cyfj;jpd; kiwnkhopahfTk; khw;wpatH -
mNrhfH
 rkzg;gphpT fp.K. 300y; jpfk;guH> ];Ntjk;guH gphpe;jJ
 mNrhfhpd; fhyj;jpy; mte;jpapd; jiyefh; - c[;[apdp> F[uhj;jpd; jiyefH -
fpHdhH
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfspy; cr;rpapy; cs;s tbtk; kyHfspd; G+tpo;fisg; Nghd;W
nrJf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
 i[kpdp vOjpa E}y; - G+Htkpkhk;r #j;jpuq;fs;
 gj;jpuahdh vOjpa E}y; - gpuk;k#j;jpuk;
 mNrhfH ,we;j Mz;L - fp.K. 232
 mNrhfH kidtp Njtpapd; gpwe;j ,lkhf rhQ;rpapy; mNrhfH rq;fuhkh vd;Dk;
klj;ij epWtpdhH
 mNrhfg;Nguurpd; vy;iy tlf;fpy; jl;rrPyk; fpof;nfy;iy Nfhrhyp> Nkw;nfy;iy -
gk;gha;> njw;F vy;iy - RtHzfphp
in
 nkshpaH epWtpa fw;W}z; - rhQ;rp];J}gp
s.
 ghurPf rpw;gf;fiy jhf;fj;jhy; cUthdJ - rhudhj;
 mNrhfH mikj;j ];J}gpfs; - 84000> cs;s ,lk; - rhQ;rp> rhudhj;> Y}k;gpdp
es
 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; mikr;rHfl;F - kfhkhj;jpuHfs;> khfhz MSeH - ,uh[Pfh]; >
kf;fs; njhif fzf;nfLg;G Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; Mz;Lf;F xU
pr
Kiw
 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; murDf;F cjtpahf ,Ue;j mikr;ruit “ ke;jphpghp\f;
ex
 khtl;l mYtyH “ mf;Nu

 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; fpuhkq;fspy; t#ypf;fg;gl;l thp “ ghfk;> gyp
lvi
 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; rpwg;Gw;W tpsq;fpa njhopy; - cw;gj;jp njhopy;
ka
 gj;jpughF vOjpaJ “ fy;g#j;jpuk;

 nkshpaH gpd;gw;wpa rkak; - irtk;
w.
 rKjhaj;jpy; rhjpfspd; tsHr;rpAk;> fl;Lg;ghLfSk; mjpfkhf fhzg;gl;lJ “

nkshpaH fhyk;
ww
 nkshpaH fhy muR “ KOty;yhl;rp muR

 nkshpahpd; jiyefuq;fspy; nray;gl;l ePjpkd;wk; - ngsuh> [dgjh
𝟏
 epythp gq;F - gq;F
𝟔
 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; efuhl;rpKiw epHthfk; nray;gl;lJ> 5 NgH
nfhz;l 6 FOf;fs; (5 × 6 = 30)
 mNrhfhpd; rkfhyj;jpy; ,yq;ifia Ml;rpGhpe;j kd;dH “ jp];]h> mtH
Ntz;LNfhspd;gb kNfe;jpud;> rq;fkpj;jpiuia ,yq;iff;F mDg;gpdhH
 mNrhfhpd; jHkk; gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L “ 9 tJ
 =efiu mikj;jtH mNrhfH vd fy;fzH fy;ntl;L $WfpwJ
 mNrhfH ,we;j ,lk;l “ jl;rrPyk; fp.K. 232
 rpj;jputij> kuzjz;lidia xopj;jtH “ mNrhfH
 mNrhfUf;Fg;gpd; Ml;rpGhpe;jtH “ jrujd;
 jrujDf;Fg;gpd; Fzhsd;
 filrp nkshpa kd;dd; - gpUfj;ujd;> gpUfj;ujid nfhd;wtd; - G\;akpj;jpud; -
fp.K. 185
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 nkshpag; NguuR tPo;r;rpAw;wJ “ fp.K. 185
 nkshpaH Ml;rp Ghpe;j nkhj;j fhyk; - fp.K. 324 -185 (137 Mz;Lfs; )
 nkshpaH jiyefuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk; > ghlypGj;jpuk; mike;Js;s ejpf;fiu “ Nrhd;
 nkshpaH fhy kj;jpa murpy; 30 Jiwfs; ,Ue;jJ
 khepyj;jpw;F “ [dgjq;fs;
 khtl;lq;fs; - uh[PrH];(gpuNjrq;fs;)
 gyjhu kzk; gutyhf fhzg;gl;lJ> mbikfs; ,y;iy
 nkshpaH fhyj;jpy; gl;lhzpf;F rpwg;Gg;ngw;w gFjp “ thuzhrp
𝟏 𝟏
 rhQ;rp];J}gpapd; cauk; - 77𝟐 mb 12𝟐 mb FWf;fsT fdj;j fy;yhy; Rw;W
Ntypaplg;gl;lJ
 mNrhfuhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l fy;J}z; Mizfs; - 7
,e;jpahtpd; epytpay; $Wfs;
 Mrpahtpd; njd;Nfhbapy; mike;Js;s jPgfw;gk; ,e;jpah
 tl ,e;jpahtpy; hpf;Ntj fhyj;jpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;W tpsq;fpa gFjp “ rpe;J
rkntsp
in
 rg;jrpe;J vd;gjd; nghUs; - 7 fpis ejpfs; ghAk; gFjp
 gz;ila ghurPfHfs; `pe;J vd miof;fg;gl;ldh;
s.
 fpNuf;fHfs; ,e;jpah vd ngaH #l;bdH
es
 ,e;jpahtpd; flw;fiuapd; ePsk; - 3214 fp.kP> mfyk; - 2933 fp.kP> fpof;F Nkw;fhf -
2500 iky; J}uk; > tlf;F njw;fhf “ 2000 iky; J}uk; (32>87>263 r.fp.kP gug;gsT)
pr
 Mugpf;flypy; cs;s jPTfs; - yl;rj;jPT> kpdpf;fha;> Rkpd;jPT
 tq;ff;flypy; cs;s jPTfs; - me;jkhd; > epNfhghH jPTfs;
ex
 Guhzq;fs; ,e;jpahit ghujtH\k; vd mioj;jJ

 Kjy; kd;dd; gujd; vd;gjhy; mtd; ngauhy; ghujk; vd miof;fg;gl;lJ
lvi
 ,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;ifaikg;ig 4 ngUk; gphpthf gphpj;jdH
 gz;ila fhyj;jpd; - jhNd\;tuk; Kjy; gpuahit tiu kj;jpa gpuNjrk;
ka
 jhNd\;tuj;Jf;F tlf;fpypUe;J tlNkw;F ,e;jpa gFjp “ cj;juhgjk;
 kj;jpa Njrj;jpw;F njw;fpypUe;j gFjp “ jl;rpzg;gjk;
w.
 kj;jpa gpuNjrj;jpw;F fpof;fpypUe;j gFjp “ G+HtNjrk;/gpuhr;rak;

 tpe;jpa kiyf;Fk; fpU\;zh ejpf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gFjp “ jl;rpzg;gjk;
ww
,kakiy
 Gdpjkhdit vd Mjp ,yf;fpak; midj;Jk; Nghw;wpf; nfhz;lhlg;gLk; kiy -
,kakiy
 Xhplj;jpd; GtpapaNy tuyhw;wpid cUthf;FfpwJ fhynkDk; fl;llj;jpd; Nky;
vOg;gg;gLk; fijNa “ tuyhW
 Fhy tud;KiwAk;> GtpapaYk; - tuyhw;wpd; ,Ufz;fs;
 ,e;jpah xU Jizf;fz;lk; -vd ypr;rHL mf;Fypw;W $WfpwhH
 ghfp];jhd; gphpAk;Kd; - 2500 fy;> ePsk; 4025 fp.kP fpof;F Nkw;fhf ,Ue;jJ
(flw;fiu “ 5000 iky; 8050 fp.kP) mfyk; 200 fy; 3220 fp.kP> jw;NghJ 3214fp.kP>
ePsk; - 2933 fp.kP> mfyk; - 6100 fp.kP
 tlf;Nf fh\;kPH Kjy; fd;dpahFkhhp tiu ePsk; - 3414
 F[uhj; Kjy; mUzhr;rygpuNjrk; tiu mfyk; - 6100 fp.kP
 ,e;jpahtpd; ml;r Nuif - 8⁰4 t. ml;rNuif Kjy; 37⁰6 t.m.Nu tiu> 68⁰7 fp.jP.
Kjy; 97⁰25fp.jP tiu
 ,e;jpahtpd; gug;gsT 3287263 r.fp.kP. (1500fp.kP)
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 ,e;jpah Mrpahtpd; njd; gFjpapy; cs;sJ “ Mrpa ,j;jhyp
 ,kakiy ,j;jhypapd; My;g;]; khiy vdg;gLfpwJ
 ,j;jhypapd; mgpidd; kiyj;njhlUk; ,e;jpahtpd; tpe;jpakiyAk; ,izfpwJ
 ,j;jhyp njw;Nf cs;s rprpypf;F ,e;jpahtpd; njw;Nf <oj;ijAk; ,izfpwJ
 ,e;jpah Mrpah fz;lj;jpy; ,uz;lhtJ nghpa ehL
 ghfp];jhid tpl 4 klq;F nghpaJ
 [g;ghid tpl 8 klq;F nghpaJ
 ,q;fpyhe;ij tpl 12 klq;F nghpaJ
 mnkhpf;fhit tpl 3 klq;F rpwpaJ
 ,e;jpahtpd; tlf;F vy;iy ,kakiy
 gz;il fhyj;jpy; jhNd\;tuk; Kjy; gpuahif tiuapyhd gFjpf;F kj;jpagpuNjrk;
vd;Wk; gpwF MhpatHj;jk; vdg;gl;lJ
 kj;jpagpuNjrk; Nkw;F gFjp “ gpuk;khprp Njrk;
 tpe;jpakiyf;Fk;> fpU\;zh ejpf;Fk; ,ilapyhd gpuNjrk; - jl;rpzg;gjk;
 ekJ Jizfz;lj;jpd; tlNkw;F vy;iy - ,e;JF\; kiy> ghkpH Kbr;R Kjy;
njd;Nkw;fhf ePz;L cs;sJ.
in
 ,kakiyg; gFjpapy; cs;s kpf Kf;fpakhd gPlG+kp - fh\;kPH gPlG+kp
s.
 fhl;khz;L efH Neghsg; gs;sj;jhf;F
 maytHfs; ,e;jpah tu JizGhpAk; fztha; - ifgH> Nghyd; fztha;
 es
jw;rkag; gilnaLg;ghsHfSk;> tzpfHfSk; > ahj;hpfHfSk; nghpJk;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUk; fztha; - ifgH
pr
 ifgH fztha; - fhG+y; gs;sj;jhf;fpypUe;J ng\htiu milfpwJ
ex
 gz;ila fhyj;jpy; ,e;Jf;fshy; Gdpjkhf fUjg;gLk; Vhp “ khrNuhtH Vhp

 ,e;JF\;> fhuNfhuk; kiyj;njhlH cs;sJ - ,kakiyapy;
lvi
 ,e;jpahtpd; caukhd kiyr;rpfuk; - K2 fhl;tpd; M];bd;
 cyfpd; kpfg; gioikahd kiyj;njhlHfspy; xd;W “ Muty;yp
ka
 fhuNfhuk; kiyj;njhlUf;F ,izahf cs;sJ “ ylhf;> [h];fH kiyj;njhlH

 ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s kpf caHe;j gPlG+kp> ylhf; gPlG+kp> ylhf; gPlG+kp cs;s ,lk; -
w.
fh\;kPH
 ,kakiyapy; cs;s fztha; - nrh[pyh fztha;
ww
 ,kakiyapy; tlf;F kiyj;njhlH - ,khj;jphp

 khiythyplk; - Fy;khHf;> ,khj;hp
 rpe;J vd;w nrhy;ypypUe;J ,e;jpah vd;w nrhy; cUthdJ
 NfjHehj;> mkHehj;> gj;hpehj;> it\;ztp Nfhapy; cs;sJ - ,khj;hp kiyapy;
 ,kakiyapd; njd;gFjpapy; cs;sJ “ rpthypf;Fd;W
 ^d; gs;sj;jhf;f mike;Js;s ,lk; - rpthypf;Fd;W
 ,kakiyapy; fpo;F kiyfs; G+thQ;ry;
 Nkfhyahtpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhf cs;sJ “ fhrp> fhNuh
 mnyf;];rhz;lH ,e;jpah tu Jizg;Ghpe;jJ- ifgH Nghyd;
 fhl;tpd; M];bd; mike;Js;s kiyj;njhlH “ fhuNfhuk;
 ,kakiyapy; cw;gj;jpahFk; MWfs; - rpe;J> fq;if> gpuk;kGj;jpuh
 rpe;J ejp cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - ee;jhNjtp rpfuk;
 fq;if JizahW “ Nfhkjp> Nfhf;yh> aKid> ruA> jhz;lf;
 gQ;rhg; vd;w nrhy;ypd; nghUs; - 5 ejpfs; ghAk; ,lk;
 fq;if> aKid ,ilg;gl;l gFjp “ Njh-Mg;
 `Pfs; p ejpf;fiuapy; mike;Js;s efuq;fs; - KH\pjhghj;> fy;fj;jh
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 gpuk;kGj;jpuh cw;gj;jpahtJ “ ifayha kiyi
 rhq;Nfh ngaUld; 700 iky; jpngj;jpy; gha;e;J jpfhq; vd;w ngaUld; ,e;jpahtpd;
vy;iyapy; EiofpwJ
 fq;ifr; rkntspapy; Njhd;wp tsHe;j efuq;fs; - gdhu[;> Mf;uh> nly;yp>
ghlypGj;jpuk;
 fq;ifAld; Nrhd; MW fyf;Fk; ,lj;jpy; cs;s efuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk;
 ,e;jpahtpd; tsikf;Fk;> nry;tj;jpw;Fk; ngaH ngw;wJ “ fq;if
 tl,e;jpahitAk;> njd;,e;jpahitAk; gphpg;gJ “ tpe;jpa rhj;G+uh> eHkij ejp
 njd; ,e;jpa ejpfspy; ePskhdJ “ Nfhjhthp
 ,e;jpa ejpfspy; ePskhdit “ gpuk;kGj;jpuh
 ,e;jpahtpy; ghAk; ejpfspy; ePskhdJ “ fq;if
 ,e;jpahtpd; Gdpj ejp “ fq;if
 jkpo;ehl;bd; ePskhd ejp “ fhtphp
 F[uhj;jpy; ghAk; MWfspy; eHkij>jgjp> rgHkjp
 ,e;jpahtpd; nghpa / njw;Nf cs;s ghiytdk; - jhHghiytdk;
 Fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;FNehf;fp ghAk; ejpfs;- eHij> jgjp
in
 jPgfw;g ,e;jpahtpd; fpof;Ff; Nfhbapy; ghAk; ejp “ kfhejp
s.
 mhpf;fNkL> khky;yGuk; cs;s ,lk; - Nrhokz;lyk;
 njd;dpe;jphatpy; cs;s gPlG+kp “ jf;fhzg;gPlG+kp
 tpe;jpa kiyf;F njw;fpy; gPlG+kp “ gPlG+kp es
 Nkw;F njhlHr;rp kiy> fpof;F njhlHr;rp kiy re;jpf;Fk; ,lk; - ePyfhp
pr
 njd;dpe;jpahtpy; / Nkw;F njhlHr;rp kiyapy; caukkhd rpfuk; - MidKb
ex
 ePyfphp kiyapy; caukhd rpfuk “ njhl;lngl;lh

 ,e;jpah Kiwg;gb njw;fpypUe;J njhlq;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W Nguh. Q.
lvi
NjNehag;ghthzH>V.A. ];kpj; $WfpwhHfs;
 ,e;jpahit cyfpy; RUf;fk; vdTk;> ,e;jpa kf;fspd; $l;lj;ij ke;j tpiyg;
ka
nghUl;fhl;rp vd;Wk; $wg;gLfpwJ

 Nkw;F njhlHr;rp mike;Js;s ,lk; - jhy;fhl;> NghHfl;> ghyf;fhL
w.
 Ntjfhyj;jpYk; Ntjj;jpw;F Kw;gl;l fhyj;jpYk; typikahd rpwe;j MW “

ru];tjp
ww
 ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;gue;j rkntsp “ fq;ifr; rkntsp

 aKid Kjy; tq;fNjrk; tiu “ 1500 fp.kP ePsKk; 300 fp.kP mfyKk; cilaJ
 ,uh[];jhdpy; ghAk; Kf;fpa MW Ydp> Ydp MW fyf;Fk; ,lk; - fl;r; tisFlh
 cj;jpu gpuNjrk;> gPfhH> Nkw;F tq;fhsk; khepyk; cs;sJ “ fq;if rkntsp
 gPfhhpd; Jauk; - Nfhrp MW
 jPgfw;g gPlG+kpapd; tbtk; - Kf;Nfhzk;
 yhth “ vhpkiyf; Fok;Gfs; cUthtJ “ khstg;gPlG+kp
 Nrhl;lh ehf;G+H gPlG+kpapy; ghAk; ejp - jhNkhjH ejp
 cyfpd; kpfg;goikahd kbg;G kiyj;njhlH “ Muty;yp
 eHkij> jgjp f;F ,ilapy; cs;sJ “ rhj;G+uh
 rhj;G+uh 7 kbg;G kiyfis nfhz;lJ
 N[hf;ePH tPo;r;rp cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - rhuhtjp ejp
 nfhilf;fhdy; mike;Js;sJ “ godp kiyj; njd;Kid
 rpe;J cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - ifyha kiyij; njhlH
 Nfhjhthp cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - ehrpf;Fd;W
 fpU\;zh cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - kfhgNy];tuH kiy
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 eHkij cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - mkHfz;l; kiy
 gpuk;kGj;jpuh cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; “ rkhAq; gdpahW
 Nfhf;uh ejp cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; - rpthypf; Fd;W
 itif cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk; “ Vyfphp
 jhkpuguzp cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk;. “ mfj;jpa kiy
F\hzHfs; fhyk; (fp.gp. 40- fp.gp. 120)
 F\hzh;fspd; G+HtPfk; - rPdh
 F\hzHfs; A+r;rp gphpitr; rhHe;jtHfs;
 F\hzHfs; gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Kf;fpar; rhd;W - ehzaq;fs;
 A+r;rp ,dj;ij Njhw;fbj;jtH - \pA+q;D
 A+r;rp ,dj;jpy; 5 gphpTfs; - ,‡rpAk;> ,‡Rthq;kp> Fap-Rthq;> ,‡rpjd;> Jkp
 F\hzg; Nguuirj; Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - F[Pyhu[h / Kjyhk; fhl;igr];
 F\hzg;NguuR epWtg;gl;l ,lk; - tlNkw;F ,e;jpah> fp.gp. 40>( fp.gp. Kjyhk;
E}w;whz;L)
 Kjyhk; fhl;igr]; fpNuf;fHfis Njhw;fbj;jhH
 Kjyhk; fhl;igr]; ntspapl;l ehzak; - nrk;G
in
 F\hzHfis xd;W jpul;batd; - F[Pyhfhl;igr];
s.
 F\hzHfspd; jiyefuk; - ng\htH/GU\Guk;
 F[Pyh fhl;igr]; fpA+-j;]pA+- fpnah/ Kjyhk; fhl;igr]; > F\hzHfis xd;W
jpul;batd; es
 ehzq;fspy; jk;ik kfP];tud; vdf; $wpf;nfhz;ltd;- itkh fhl;gPr];/,uz;lhk;
pr
fhl;gPr];
ex
 itkh fhl;gPr]; nad;- fpNah- nrd; (m) ,uz;lhk; fhl;gPr]; fhyk; - fp.gp. 65 -78
 F\hzHfspy; kd;d ; H kd;dd; vdg;gLgtH “ itkh fhl;gPr];
lvi
 ,uz;lhk; fhl;igr]; #l;ba gl;lq;fs;> kfhuh[h> kfhuh[puh[h> kNf];tuh>

rHtNyhNf];tuh
ka
 ,uz;lhk; fhl;igr]; cld; NghH Ghpe;j rPdj;jsgjp “ ghQ;Nrh > ghQ;Nrh ntw;wp
ngw;whH
w.
 ,e;jpahit ntd;w Kjy; F\hz kd;dH “ itkh fhl;gPr];

 F\hzH gpd;gw;wpa rkak; - ,e;J rkak;
ww
 tpf;fpuk rfhg;jk; - fp.K. 58


rf rfhg;jk; - fp.gp. 78
 ,e;jpahTf;Fk; rPdhTf;Fk; tzpfj; njhlHG Vw;gl fhuzk; - ,uz;lhk; fhl;igr];
 F\hz tk;rj;jpd; jiyrpwe;j kd;dH “ fdp\;fH
 rPdhtpd; kPJ ,UKiw gilnaLj;jtH “ fdp\;fH
 Kjy; gilnaLg;gpy; rPd jsgjp ghQ;Nrh vd;gthplk; Njhw;whH
 ,uz;lhk; gilnaLg;gpy; ntw;wp ngw;whH
 fdp\;fH cUthf;fpa Gjpa jyiefuk; - ng\htH
 fh\;kPhpy; fdp\;fGuk; vd;Wk; efiu epWtp jk; 2tJ jiyefuhf;fp nfhz;lhH-
fdp\;fH
 fdp\;fH kfjk; kPJ gilnaLj;J ghlypGj;jpuj;ij jhf;fp mq;fpUe;J Gj;j Jwtp
mRtNfhiu jiyefUf;F mioj;J te;jhH
 fh\;kPiu ntd;W mbikg;gLj;jpatH “ fdp\;fH
 fdp\;fiu Gj;j rka E]y;fs; - ,uz;lhk; mNrhfd; vd ghuhl;LfpwJ
 f\;fH gpd;gw;wpa rkak; - kfhahzk;
 fdp\;fH fhyj;jpy; cUthd Gj;j rkag;gphpT - kfhahzk;/ ngUk;ghij/ ngUtop

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 Gj;jH fpNuf;f ghzpapy; cilazpe;J Gjpa cUNthL fhl;rpaspg;gJ “ kfhahz
Gj;j rkak;
 ehd;fhtJ ngsj;j khwhL fp.gp. 100 y; fh\;kPhpy; Fz;lytdj;jpy; - tRkpj;jpuH
jiytH> mRtNfhrH jiyikapy; ele;jJ
 Gj;j jj;Jtq;fis cl;nfhz;l khngUk; E]y; - kfhtpgh\h
 ehd;fhtJ ngsj;j khehl;Lf;F tUifg;GHpe;jtH “ ehfH[Pdd;
 kfhahz ngsj;j rka gphpTf;F %ynkhopahf ,Ue;jJ “ rk];fpUjk;
 Gj;j rkaj;jpd; khHl;bd; Y}jH “ ehfH[PdH
 Kfhahz Gj;j rkaj;ij cyfpw;F mwpKfg;gLj;jpa cj;jkd; vd;W Dr.R.
rj;jpaehja;aH> fdp\;fiu $WfpwhH
 Gj;j rka jj;Jtk; gw;wpa jfty; fsQ;rpak; - kfhtpgh\h
 Kfhahz ngsj;j rkaj;ij gug;g jkJ CopaHfis fdp\;fH “ jpngj;> gpuhd;];>
Mf;dPrpah Nghd;w ,lq;fSf;F mDg;gp itj;jhH
 fdp\;fH 23 Mz;Lfs; Ml;rpapy; ,Ue;jhH
 fdp\;fuhy; Mjhpf;fg;gl;l Gj;j Jwtp “ ehfH[PdH
 fdp\;fuhy; Mjhpf;fg;gl;l Gfo;ngw;w ,yf;fpa Nkij “ mRtNfhrH
in
 ,e;jpa fiy> fpNuf;f fiy ,ize;J cUthd fiy “ fhe;jhu fiy
s.
 mRtNfhrH vOjpaJ “ Gj;j rhpjk;> #j;jpu mq;fq;fs;
 fdp\;fH mitapy; ,Ue;j fpNuff; fl;llf;fiy ty;YeH “ f[Pyh];
es
 fdp\;fh; cs;sj;jpy; mNrhfNuhLk;> cly; typkapy; re;jpu Fg;j nkshpaNuhLk;
ntw;wpapy; mnyf;rhz;lNuhLk; xg;gplg;gl;lhH
pr
 fdp\;fUf;Fg;gpd; mwpaiz Vwpatd; - trp\;fd;
ex
 trp\;fid njhlHe;J mwpaiz Vwpatd; - `tp\;fd;

 fh\;kPhpy; `tp\;fGuk; efiu Vw;gLj;jpatd; - `tp\;fd;
lvi
 kJuh efiu moF kpf;f efukhf mikj;jtd; - `tp\;fd;

 F\hzh;fspy; filrp kd;dd; - thRNjtd;
ka
 F\hzH fhyj;jpy; thzpgk; eilngw;wJ “ Nuhk; ehl;Lld;

 Fhe;jhuf;fiy epWtpa ,lk; - [yhyhghj;> `l;lh> ];thj; gs;sj;jhf;F> ng\htH
w.
 ,e;jpa [];Bdpad; vd miof;fg;gLgtH “ ehfH[PdH

 F\hzH fhyj;jpy; tsHe;j fiy- fhe;jhufiy
ww
 Fhe;jhuk; vd;gJ ng\htH/GU\Guj;ij Rw;wpAs;s gpuNjrk;

 Ng\hthpy; iraj;aq;fis vOg;gpatH “ fdp\;fH
 Kfhahzk; ngsj;j jj;Jtj;ij cUthf;fpatH “ ehfH[PdH
 Fdp\;fiu Gj;j rkaj;jpw;F khw;wpatH “ mRtNfhrH
 mRtNfhrH vOjpa E}y; - Gj;j rhpjk;
 tRkpj;jpuH vOjpa E}y; - kfhtpgh\h
 ehfH[PdH vOjpa E]y; - kj;jpakpf #j;jpuk;
 ,e;jpa fiyapd; fhe;jhug;gs;sp vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ “ fhe;jhuf;fiy
 jq;f ehzaq;fis ntspapl;l Kjy; F\hz kd;dH - ,uz;lhk; fhl;igr];
Fg;jH fhyk; - fp.gp. 250/270 - 570
 tprhfjj;jH Kj;jpuhl;rrk;> Njtp re;jpuFg;jk; Mfpa E}y;fis vOjpAs;shH
 Kj;jpuhl;rrk; - ehlfE}y;> Njtp re;jpuFg;jk; - murpay; ehlf E}y;
 fhkz;lf ePjp rh];j;puk; E}iy vOjpatH “ 2k; re;jpuFg;jhpd; Kjyikr;rH
 Fg;jhpd; G+HtPfk; gw;wp mwpa cjTk; E}y; - nfsKfp kNfhj;trk;
 myfhghj; J}z; fy;ntl;L “ rKj;jpuFg;jhpd; ngUikfisg; gw;wpaJ
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 mthpd; mikr;rH “ kfhjj; eha `hpNrdH 33 thpfspy; rk];fpUjj;jpy;
tbj;Js;shH
 fhspjhrH “ rhFe;jyk;> NkfJ}jk; hpJ rk;fhuk; - Nghd;wtw;iw vOjpAs;shH
 Fg;jHfspd; G+HtPfk; KH\pjhghj; gFjp fz;Lgpbj;jtH – R.C. fq;Fyp> k[Pk;jhH
 ghutp vOjpa E}y; - fpUj;jhH [Pdpak;
 jd;b vOjpa E}y; - jrFkhu rhpjk;> mtdpe;jhp fij
 thrtjj;jk; vd;w ftpij E}iy vOjpatH “ Rge;J
 mkuNfhrk; epfz;L “ mkuH
 myfhgj;J}z;L fy;ntl;L rKj;jpuFg;jiu> E}W Ngh;fis ntd;w tPuH vd;W
Fwpg;gpLfpwJ
 fypq;fehl;L fhuNtydpd; mjpFk;gh fy;ntl;Lld; xg;gpl;L Ngrg;gLtJ “
myfhghj;J}z; fy;ntl;L
 Fg;jH gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Guhzk; - tp\;Z> thA
 Fg;jH fhy gl;laq;fisj; njhFj;J ntspapl;ltH - ‡gpspl;
 Fg;j Nguuir Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - =Fg;jH fp.gp. 240/250/270 Kjy; 280
 =Fg;jUf;Fg; gpd; Ml;rp Ghpe;jtH “ mtH kfd; fNlhj;f[d; (280 -320)
in
 Kjyhk; re;jpufg;jh; jhd; cz;ikapy; Fg;jNguuir Njhw;wtpj;jtH
s.
 kfhuh[hjpuh[h gl;lk; #l;bf;nfhz;lhH
 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH jpUkz cwTfs; %yk; Nguuir tphpthf;fpdhh
es
 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jh kze;J nfhz;l ypr;rhtp ,sturp “ FkuhNjtp
 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH ntspapl;l ehzak; - jq;f ehzak;
pr
 Kjy; Rjej;jpu murd; - Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH
ex
 Fg;jAfk; Fg;j mg;jk; - fp.gp. 320 gpg;uthp 26

 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jdpd; kfd; rKj;j;puFg;jd; fp.gp. 335 -375
lvi
 Fg;jHfspy; jiyrpwe;jtd; - ftpuh[h> ftpfspd; ,sturH> ,e;jpa neg;Nghypad;
Nghd;w gl;lj;ij Gide;J nfhz;ltH “ Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH
ka
 rKj;jpuFg;jdhy; ntw;wpf;nfhs;sg;gl;l tl ,e;jpa kd;dHfs; - MhpatHj;jk;

vd;Dk; 9 kd;dHfs;
w.
 goq;fhy kf;fspd; tho;tpay; gw;wp mwpe;Jnfhs;s.................. vOjg;gl;l Mjhuq;fSk;

goq;fhy nghUl;fSk; Jiz Ghpfpd;wd
ww
 ek; Kd;Ndhh; tho;e;j kf;fs; gw;wpa jfty;fis Mjhuq;fSld; njhFj;jf;

fhythpirg;gb $Wtij ................... vd;fpNwhk; - tuyhW
 vOjg;gl;l Mjhuq;fSf;F (v.fh) - ,yf;fpak;> tuyhw;Wf;Fwpg;Gfs;>fy;ntl;Lfs;>
nrg;G gl;ilaq;fs;> Xiyr;Rtbfs;
 tuyhw;Wf;F Kw;gl;l fhyj;ijg;gw;wp mwpa cjTk; Mjhuq;fs; : rhh;e;j nghUl;fs;>
rpijTfs;> fw;fs;> kuq;fs;> tpyq;F nfhk;Gfs; vYk;Gfs;> fw;fUtpfs;> kz;il
XLfs; Kjypad
 gioa fw;fhyk; Palaeotithic age fp.K.10>000 Mz;Lfl;F Kw;gl;l fhyk;
Gjpa fw;fhyk; vd;gJ fp.K.10000 - fp.K 6000 tiuapyhd fhyk;
nrk;G fw;fhyk; Cholcholitic age fp.K. 3000 - fp.K.1500 tiu
,Uk;G fhyk; vd;gJ fp.K. 1500 - fp.K. 600 tiuapyhd fhyk;
 Mjpkdpjd; gad;gLj;jpa fw;fUtpfisf;nfhz;L fw;fhyj;ij 2 tifahfg;
gphpf;fyhk;. 1. gioa fw;fhyk; 2. Gjpa fw;fhyk;
 gioa fw;fhy kdpjd; xNu ,lj;jpy; epiyahfj; jq;fp thotpy;iy. fhLfspy;
mq;Fk; ,q;Fk; tho;e;jtd;> kug;nghe;JfspYk;> FiffspYk; tho;e;jtd;>rpf;fp
Kf;fp fw;fisg; gad;gLj;jp neUg;ig cz;lhf;fpdhd;.
Mjp kdpjd; vtw;iwf; fz;L gae;jhd; - ,b> kpd;dy;

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Mjpkdpjd; vtw;iw tzq;fpdhd; - ,b> kpd;dy;
 Mjp kdpjd; Fsph;> ntg;gk;> kioapypUe;J fhj;Jf;nfhs;s ,iyfs;> jiofs;>
kug;gl;ilfs;> tpyq;Ffspd; Njhy;fshy; Md Milfisg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;.
 fUtpfshfg; gad;gLj;jpait - fuL Kulhd fw;fs;> kuf;fpisfs;> vYk;Gfs;>
tpyq;Ffspd; nfhk;Gfs;
 Mjpkdpjdpd;czTg;nghUs;-
fhLfspy;fpilj;jfha;fs;>fdpfs;>fpoq;Ffs;>tpyq;Ffspd; ,iwr;rp
 G+kp Njhd;wpa Mz;L Rkhh; 460 Nfhb Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G
Gtpapy; kdpjd; Njhd;wpa Mz;L Rkhh; 40>000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;
Gtpapy; Ntshz;ik Njhd;wpa fhyk; Rkhh; 8000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;
Gtpapy; efuq;fs; Njhd;wpa fhyk; Rkhh; 4700 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;
 fp.K. vd;gJ BC fpwp];J gpwg;gjw;F Kd; Before Christ
A/D vd;gJ Anno Domini fpwp];J gpwg;gjw;F gpd;
CE vd;gJCommon Era, BCE vd;why; Before Common Era
jp.K. B.Tvd;why; jpUts;StUf;F Kd; Before Thiruvalluvar
jp.gp. A.T vd;why; jpUts;StUf;F gpd; After Thiruvalluvar
in
 Mjpkdpjd; czT Nrkpj;jpUg;ghdh? ,y;iy
s.
fhLfspy; fha;> fdp> fpoq;Ffs;> Ntl;ilahba tpyq;Ffis czthf cz;lhd;.
 Mjpkdpjd; tpyq;FfisNtl;ilahl- fw;fs;>
vYk;Gfs;>kuf;nfhk;Gfs;>tpyq;Ffspd; es
nfhk;Gfs;
gad;gLj;jpdhd;
Mfpatw;iw fUtpahfg;
pr
 gz;ila fhyj;jpy; ngz;fSk; Ntl;ilahbdh; vd;gjw;F rhd;W.
kj;jpagpuNjrk; gpk;Ngl;fhFifapy; fhzg;gLk; xUngz; mk;GtpLtJ Nghd;w
ex
Xtpak;
 czTf;fhf Mjpkdpjd; fhl;L tpyq;Ffis Ntl;ilahbdhd;
lvi
 ,e;jpahtpy; gioa fw;fhy fUtpfs; fpilf;fg;ngw;Ws;s ,lq;fs;
kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; - Nrhd; Mw;Wg;gLif> gpk;Ngl;fh> kNf];tuh
ka
,uh[];jhd; - ghAk; Y}dp Mw;Wr;rkntsp

fh;ehlfk; - ghfy;Nfhl;
w.
Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; - fh;D}y; Fiffs;> NuzpFz;lh

jkpo;ehL - tlkJiu> mj;jpuk;ghf;fk;> gy;yhtuk;>
ww
fhQ;rpGuk;> NtY}h;>
jpUts;@h;
 gioa fw;fhy kdpjd; - czitj;Njb> Ntl;ilahb cz;lhd;.
 Gjpa fw;fhy kdpjd; - czitj; jhNd cw;gj;jp nra;jhd;> gaph; njhopy;
nra;jhd;.
 tPl;by; tpyq;Ffis ghpT fhl;b tsh;j;jhd; - ML> khL> Nfhop> eha;
 Mjp kdpjd; Kjypy; gof;fpa tpyq;F - eha;
 Ntl;ilahLk;NghJ Mjp kdpjDf;F cjtpa tpyq;F -eha;
 kdpj ehfhpf tsh;r;rpapd; fhyk; vd;gJ - Gjpa fw;fhyk;
 Gjpa fw;fhy kdpjd; - nrJf;fg;gl;l eakhd> $h;ikahd fw;fUtpfisg;
gad;gLj;jpdhd;
 Gjpa fw;fhyj;jpy; Vw;gl;l Kf;fpa khw;wk; - czT cw;gj;jp
 rf;fuk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ - Gjpa fw;fhyj;jpy;
 rf;fuk; fz;Lgpbg;gpd; gad; - nghUl;fis Xhplj;jpypUe;J kw;nwhU ,lj;jpw;F
vspjhf vLj;Jr; nrd;whd;.
 Gjpa fw;fhy kdpjd; rf;fuj;ijf;nfhz;L - kz;ghz;lk; nra;jhd;
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 Gjpa fw;fhy fUtpfs; fpilj;j ,lq;fs; - jpUney;Ntyp> Nryk;> GJf;Nfhl;il>
jpUr;rp> jhd;wpf;Fb(nfhilf;fhdy; kiy)
 gioa fw;fhy fUtpfs; fpilj;j ,lq;fs; - gy;yhtuk;> fhQ;rpGuk;> NtY}h;>
jpUts;Sh;
 Gjpa fw;fhy kdpjd; - kz; Fbirfshy; Md FbapUg;Gfis mikj;J $l;lkhf
tho;;e;jhd;.
 Fbirfspd; tbtikg;G - tl;lk;> ePs; tl;lk;
 Gjpa fw;fhy kz;ghz;lq;fs; jkpofj;jpy; fpilj;Js;s ,lq;fs; - jpUney;Ntyp>
Nryk;> GJf;Nfhl;il> jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp
 ,we;Njhiu Gijf;Fk; tof;fk; - Gjpa fw;fhyj;jpy; filgpbf;fg;gl;Lj
 Mjp kdpjd; Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jpa cNyhfk; - nrk;G
 Gjpa fw;fhy Kbtpy; Mjp kdpjd; mwpe;j cNyhfk; - nrk;G
 kl;ghz;lq;fspd; Nky; tz;z Xtpaq;fs; tiuag;gl;lJ - nrk;G fhyj;jpy; ,it
thpf;Nfhyq;fshf mike;jpUe;jd
 ùg;gh efu ehfhpfk; nrk;Gf;fhyj;ij xj;jJ
 nrk;gpdhy; nra;j fUtpfis cgNahfpj;j fhyk; - nrk;G fhyk;
 ,Uk;gpdhy; fUtpfs; nra;j fhyk; - ,Uk;G fhyk;
in
 ,Uk;G fhyj;jpy; tPl;Lr;rhkhd;fSk;> gaph;njhopy; fUtpfSk; ,Uk;gpdhy;
s.
nra;ag;gl;lJ
 cNyhfj;ij cUf;fp fUtpfs; nra;a mwpe;j fhyk; - ,Uk;G fhyk;
 fw;gidj;jpwd; fhzg;gl;l fhyk; - ,Uk;G fhyk; es
 Ntj fhy ehfhpfk; vf;fhyj;ijr; rhh;e;jJ - ,Uk;G fhyk;
pr
 ,Uk;Gk; + FNuhkpak; fye;j fyit - rpy;th;
 nrk;Gk; + nts;sPaKk; fye;j fyit -ntz;fyk;
ex
 nrk;Gk; + Jj;jehfKk; fye;j fyit - gpj;jis

 ,Uk;Gk; + khq;fdPRk; fye;j fyit - vf;F
lvi
 tuyhw;Wf;F Ke;jpa fhyk; vd;gJ - vOj;J Mjhuq;fs; fpilf;fhj fhyk;
 gioa fw;fhy kf;fs; Milahf mzpe;jit - ,iy> kug;gl;il> tpyq;Fj; Njhy;
ka
 Mjp kdpjd; ,aw;ifia mz;b tho;e;jhd;

 rpf;fp Kf;fpf; fw;fisf; gad;gLj;jp jP cz;lhf;fpatd; - gioa fw;fhy kdpjd;
w.
 njhy;goq;fhyk; vd;gJ goq;fhyj;jpw;F Ke;jpa fhyk;

 nghUj;Jf:
ww
m. jkpo;ehL - 1. ghfy;Nfhl;
M.Me;jpugpuNjrk; - 2.mj;jpuk;ghf;fk;
,.kj;jpagpuNjrk; - 3. fh;D}y;
<. fh;ehlfk; - 4. Y}dp Mw;Wr;rkntsp
c. ,uh[];jhd; - 5. gpk;Ngl;fh
tpil: m) 2 M) 3 ,) 5 <)1 c)4
rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpfk;
 Mjp kdpjDf;F Kjd; Kjypy; njhpe;j cNyhfk; - nrk;G> jhkpuk;
 nrk;G> fy; ,uz;ilAk; gad;gLj;jpa fhyk; - nrk;G fw;fhyk;
 ,e;jpahtpy; kpfj;njhd;ik tha;e;j efu ehfhpfk; - rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpfk; (m)
ùg;gh ehfhpfk;
 ,e;jpa ehfhpfj;jpd; njhlf;fk; vd;gJ - rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpfk;
 rpe;Jtpd; fpisejpfs; - uhtp> [Pyk; rPdg;> rl;ny[;> gPah]; ru];tjp ( jw;NghJ
,y;iy)
 rpe;J rkntsp gFjp mfo;thuha;r;rp nra;ag;gl;l Mz;L -1921-y;
 ùg;gh vd;w rpe;J nkhopr; nrhy;ypd; nghUs; - GijAz;l efuk;

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 rpe;J ntsp ehfhpfj;jpd; NtW ngah; - ùg;gh efuk;
 rpe;J ntsp ehfhpfj;jpd; fhyk; - fp.K 3250 - fp.K 2750 f;Fk; ,ilg;gl;lJ
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfk; Rkhh; 4700 Mz;LfSf;F Kw;gl;l ehfhpfk;
 rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpfj;jpd; ,bghl;Lg; gFjpfs; - ùg;gh> nkhfQ;rhjhNuh>
rhz;LjhNyh> fhypgq;fd;> Nyhj;jhy;
 rpe;Jntsp efuq;fspd; Nfhl;ilg;gFjpapy; fl;likg;G EZf;fq;fs; kpf;f
ngUq;Fsk; mikf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ
 ngUq;Fsk; - Rl;l nrq;fw;fshy; fl;lg;gl;bUe;jJ
 ngUq;Fsk; - fpzw;W ePuhy; epug;gg;gl;L ePh; Nrkpf;Fk; Fskhf
,Ue;jJ
 ngUq;Fsk; cs;s ,lk; -nkhfQ;rhjhNuh
 rpe;Jntsp efu fl;llq;fs; thpirahfTk;> xOq;fhfTk;> Neh;j;jpahfTk;
fl;lg;gl;bUe;jJ.
 ùg;ghtpy; cs;s nghJf;fl;ll mikg;G - jhdpaf;fsQ;rpak;> tPLfspy; [d;dy;fs;
,y;iy.
 rpe;Jntsp efuq;fs; jpl;lkpl;L fl;lg;gl;bUe;jd.
 nkhfQ;rhjhNuh vd;w nrhy;Yf;F - ,Lfhl;L NkL (,we;jth; NkL) vd;gJ nghUs;.
in
 mfd;w rhiyfspd; ,U kUq;fpYk; tPLfs; fl;lg;gl;bUe;jd> ghjhs rhf;fil
s.
jpl;lKk; ,Ue;Js;sJ.
 fl;llk; fl;Ltjpy; ‘ gad;ghl;L mwptpapy;‛ njhopy;El;gk; eilKiwapy; ,Ue;jJ.
es
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; rf;fuj;ijf; nfhz;L rl;b> ghidfs;> gsgsg;ghfTk;> tz;zk;
G+rpAk; nra;jdh;.
pr
 Foe;ijfspd; tpisahl;L RLkz; nghk;ikfs;> fpspQ;ry;fs;> gpj;jis> nrk;G>
nts;sp> jq;fj;jhy; gy tpisahl;Lg; nghUl;fSk; nra;ag;gl;ld.
ex
 MAjq;fs; > tPl;Lr;rhkhd;fs; nra;a - nrk;G> ntz;fyk; gad;gLj;jpdh;.

 rpe;J ntsp kf;fs; mzpfyd;fis nra;a gad;gLj;jpa cNyhfk; - jq;fk;> nts;sp
lvi
 rpe;J ntspapy; fpilj;Js;s E}w;Wf;fzf;fhd RLkz; Kj;jpiufspd; tbtk; -
nrt;tfk;
ka
 RLkz; Kj;jpiufspy; vOjg;gl;l vOj;Jf;fs; - rpj;jpu vOj;Jf;fs;

 fspkz;/RLkz; Kj;jpiufspy; fhzg;gl;l cUtq;fs; - fhisfs;> tz;>
w.
Gwh>glFfs;> Nahf epiyapy; xU ngz; cUt nghk;ikfs;

 rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; vOj;J - rpj;jpu vOj;J
ww
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; Kf;fpaj;njhopy; - tptrhak;

 rpe;J ntsp kf;fspd; Kf;fpa tpisnghUs; - NfhJik> ghh;yp
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; vQ;rpa jhdpaq;fis jhdpaf;fsQ;rpaq;fspy; Nrkpj;J
itj;jdh;.
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; mzpfyd;fs; nra;a - jq;fk;> nts;sp> je;jk;> fw;fs;
gad;gLj;jpdh;.
 Vio kf;fs; - fpspQ;ry;> jhkpuk; ,tw;why; nra;j mzpfyd;fis mzpe;jdh;.
 rpe;J ntsp kf;fs; nra;j RLkz; rpw;gk; - nlh;uNfhl;lh ( Terra Cotta)
 ntz;fyj;jhy; Md ehl;ba kq;if cUtr;rpiy fz;nlLf;fg;gl;l ,lk; -
nkhfQ;rhjhNuh
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; ,we;jth;fis Gijj;jdh;.Gijf;Fk; NghJ czitAk;>
mzpfyd;fisAk; Nrh;j;Jg; Gijj;jdh;.
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfk; moptpw;fhd fhuzk;
1. ngUe;jPapy; mope;jpUf;fyhk;
2. cs;ehl;Lf; fyfk;
3. ,aw;ifr; rPw;wk; ( rpe;Jntsp Mw;wpd; nts;sg;ngUf;fpdhy;)
4. Mhpah;fs; mopj;jpUf;fyhk;

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5. mayth; gilnaLg;G ele;jpUf;fyhk;
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfj;ij mwpa cjTtJ - fpilj;Js;s nlh;uNfhl;lh (Terra Cotta)
(fijfs;) ghz;lq;fs;
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfj;ij mwpa cjTk; Mjhuk;
m) fy;ntl;L M) ehzak; ,) nrg;G gl;lak; <) mfo;thuha;r;rp rhd;W
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfj;jpy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa JiwKfk;
Nyhj;jy; (F[uhj;jpy; cs;sJ)
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; Kf;fpa flTs; - gRgjp vd;w rptd;> jha; nja;tk;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; tzq;fpa nja;tq;fs;- gRgjp (rptd;) jha;nja;tk;> ypq;fk;> R+yk;>
kuk; KjypadthFk;.
 nghUj;Jf:
1. ngUq;Fsk; - m. kl;ghz;lk;
2. mfo;thuha;r;rp - M. RLkz;ghz;lk;
3. rf;fuk; - ,. uhtp
4. Nyhj;jy; - <. nkhfQ;rjhNuh
5. nlh;uNfhl;Nlh - c. (JiwKfk;) F[uhj;
6. gQ;rhg; - C. 1921
in
1) < 2) C 3)m 4)c 5)M 6),
s.
 nkhfQ;rjhNuh mike;Js;s ,lk;
rpe;J khepyk;> yhh;f;fhzh khtl;lk;> rpe;J ejpf;fiuapy; mike;Js;sJ.
fz;Lgpbj;jth; - Mh;.b.ghdh;[p es
 ùg;ghmike;Js;s ,lk; - gQ;rhg; khepyk;> yhh;fhdh khtl;lk;> uhtp ejpf;fiuapy;
pr
mike;Js;sJ. fz;Lgpbj;jth; jahuhk; r`hdp> 1921-y;
 rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpf gug;gsT - 1299600 r.fp.kP
ex
 nkhfQ;rjhNuh> ùg;ghtpw;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uk; - 400 iky; (m) 644 fp.kP

 fpof;F rkntsp ehfhpf vy;iy tlf;F [k;K fh\;kPH fpof;F> - Myk;fHP G+H> njw;F
lvi
eHkij jgjp Nkw;F kf;uhd; flw;fiu
 rpe;Jrkntsp ehfhpf fhyf;fl;lk; . 4 gphpj;Js;sdH.
ka
1. nk`;uhfH fhyfl;lk; (fhy;eil tsHg;G Kjy; tptrhaj; njhopy;)

2. mk;hp fhyfl;lk; (fpuhkk; Kjy; efu tsHr;rp epiy)
w.
3. fhspgq;fd; fhyfl;lk; (nghpa efuq;fs; Njhd;wpaJ)

3. Nyhj;jy; fhyfl;lk; (rpe;J rkntsp ehfhpf tPo;rr; p)
ww
 Mjpr;r ey;Y}hpy; ntz;fyj;jhy; nra;ag;gl;l gy;NtW nghUl;fs; fpilj;jd.

 ,Uk;G nghUl;fSk; caHe;j Ntiyghl;Lld; fpilj;jJ.
 Mjpr;r ey;Y}iu Muha;e;j nrd;id mUq;fhl;rpafj;ij rhHe;j jHRld; ,q;F
tho;e;j kf;fs; ePz;l jhilAilatHfs; vd;W $wpAs;shH.
 rpf;fH Nkd; vd;gtH xU kz;il Xl;il Muha;e;J mJ jpuhtpl ,dj;ijr; NrHe;jJ
vd;fpwhH.
 mhpf;fhNkl;il 1837 y; fhg;Nu vd;w gpnuQ;R Ma;thsH Ma;jhH. ,jd; tuyhw;W
rpwg;ig ntspg;gLj;jpdhH
 gpd; 1945 y; ,e;jpaj; njhy;ypay; Jiwapd; ,af;Feuhf ,Ue;j khHbkH tPyH
vd;gtH jiyikapy; mwptpay; Kiwapy; mfoha;T elj;jg;gl;lJ.
 mhpf;fNkL vd;gjw;F rpijTfspd; NkL vd;w tpsf;fj;ij je;jtH. R.K.rPdpthrd;>
NkYk; ejpf;fiuapd; kPJs;s Fd;W> (Nkhfd;NkL)> mWfd; NkL vd;Wk; gy
ngaHfs; cs;sd.
 Mk;Nghuh vdg;gLk; 2 ifg;gpb cs;s [hbfs;
 nusyl;ll; vd;w tl;by;fs;> mhpl;ild; vdg;gLk; rpte;j kz;G+ry; nfhz;l
kl;fyq;fs; fpilj;Js;sd.
 ,k;kl;fyq;fs; kzy;> fspkz;> ikf;fh> ckp Mfpatw;iw nfhz;L nra;ag;gl;lJ.

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 fp.K. 23y; Nuhkhdpaf; FbNaw;wk; elj;jpapUf;fyhk; vd njhpa tUfpwJ.
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; ,e;jpa tUif 326 vd;gJ njspthf ,Ug;gjhy; re;jpuFg;jhpd;
fhyKk; mijnahl;bNa ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjpy; Iakpy;iy.
 ,JNghy rphpa ehl;L kd;dd; md;baf];jpah]pf;Fk;> mNrhfUf;Fk; njhlh;G
,Ue;jgpd; fhuzkhf mNrhfhpd; fhy msT (fp.K. 261 - 246) vd;gij fzpg;gJ
vspikahfpwJ.
 fhuNtyDk;><oNte;jdhd fathFk;> rKj;jpu Fg;jUld; <oehl;L NkftHzDk;
fhyj;jhy; xUikgLtij tuyhw;iw fzpg;gJ vspjhfpwJ.
 Rjhy;> gHF> mq;fpuh];> fh];agh Nghd;w murit Mz;Lf; Fwpg;ghsHfspd;
gjpNtLfspy; gads; tuyhw;Wr; rhd;Wfs; Gije;J fplf;fpd;wd.
 gz;ila fhy ,e;jpa tuyhW miuFiw tuyhW vd;W tHzpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 fy;ntl;bw;F clDjtp rhd;whf gad;gLtj ehzatpay;
 ,e;jpa ehzatpay; ntspehl;ltHfspd; ed;nfhil MFk;.
 ,e;Njh - fpNuf;fHfs;> ,e;Njh - ghHj;jpaHfs;> rhfHfs;> F\hzHfs;> Fg;jHfs;
ehzaq;fis ntspapl;L Gfo;ngw;wdH.
 fpNuf;f - ,e;jpa ,Unkhop ehzaq;fs; ,e;jpa fy;ntl;L G+l;ilj; jpwf;Fk;
rhtpahf ,Ue;jJ
in
 fl;llf; fiy gz;ila fhy kf;fisg; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;fhd fy; Mjhuk;
s.
MFk;.
 Xt;nthU fl;lKk; xU epidr;rpd;dkhFk;
 es
ùg;gh> nkhfQ;rjhNuh kf;fspd; fl;llf;iy mtHfspd; rkak; rhuh cyfpay;
tho;f;iff;F v.fhl;lhFk;
pr
 Hpf;Ntj MhpaHfSf;F Kjypy; fl;llfiyj; njhpahJ. gpd;dH jhd; fw;Wf;
nfhz;ldH.
ex
 ngsj;jHfs;> vOg;gpa fl;blk; mjpfk;> midj;Jk; rkak; rhHe;Nj fhzg;gl;lJ

 rpe;J ntsp ehfhpj;jpw;F gpd; fl;llf; fiy rkakhf;fg;gl;lJ.
lvi
 rpw;gf; fiyapd; Kd;Ndhbfs; rpe;Jntsp kf;fs;
 rpe;Jntspehfhpfk;mopf;fg;gl;lmLj;;j1000Mz;Lfhyj;jpy;rpw;gf;fiyapy;vt;tpj
ka
tsh;r;rpAkpy;iy
 jw;fhy yq;fhraH efiu Nghy; ,Ug;gjhf $wg;gLtJ nkhfQ;rjhNuh
w.
 nkhfQ;jhNuhtpy; cs;s fpof;F njUTk; Kjy; njUTk; re;jpf;Fkplk; - Mf;];NghHL

rJf;fk;
ww
 ùg;ghtpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l fl;llk; jhdpaf; fsQ;rpak; (mfyk; 135 - ePsk; 169

mb)
 ùg;ghtpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l kw;nwhUfl;blk; njhopyhsH,y;yk; - 7×2 nkhj;jk;
14 tPL
 nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ - ngUq;Fsk;
 ngUq;Fsj;jpd; ntspg;Gw gug;G 180 mb ePsk;> 108 mb mfyk;
 ngUq;Fs Fspay; miw ePsk; 39 mb mfyk; 23 mb
 nkhfQ;rjhNuh 7 mLf;F nfhz;lJ
 ùg;gh 8 mLf;F nfhz;lJ
 ùg;ghtpy; cs;s njhopyhsH ,y;yk; vfpg;jpy; cs;s nly;vy;mkHdh njhopyhsH
,y;yj;ij xj;Js;sJ.
 myp %uj; vd;gJ rpe;Jntspapy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l kz;NkL
 nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l ngUq;Fsk; fpzw;WePuhy; epug;gg;gl;L ePH
Nrkpf;Fkplk; MFk;.
 rpe;Jntsp jpl;lkpl;L fl;lg;gl;lJ.
 `k;;g;hp vd;gJ fuhr;rp khtl;lk; rpe;Jntsp ejpf;fiuapy; cs;s rpw;W}H. ,q;F
Xtpak; jPl;lg;gl;l tpisahl;L tz;b> kl;ghz;lk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ

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 Nyhj;jy; vd;gJ rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; JiwKfk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - F[uhj;
 rpe;Jntsp mfoha;Tfs; eilngw;w ,lk;.
Nfh - b[p - (rpe;J)
fhspgq;fd; - (,uh[];jhd;)
&ghH - gQ;rhg;
Nyhj;jy; (F[uhj;)
gpdthyp - `hpahdh
 fhypgq;fd; mfoha;T ntspgLj;JtJ efu mikg;G - efu $Wfs;
 fhypgq;fdpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ - tpyf;F fk;gk;> efiu Rw;wpAk; Nfhl;il
 ghHyp jhdpak; rpe;Jntspapy; fz;Lgpbf;fgl;lJ - gpdthypapy;
 Nyhj;jypy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ - ney;
 nkhfQ;rjhNuh> ùg;gh jw;NghJ ghfp];jhdpy; cs;sJ
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; mwpahj cNyhfk; - ,Uk;G
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; mwpahj tpyq;F - Fjpiu
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; mwpe;j tpyq;F - gR> ML> vUik > fhz;lhkpUfk;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; nja;tkhf tzq;fpa gwit - Gwh
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; Gdpj kuk; - murkuk;
in
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; vOj;J Kiw rpj;jpu > Mg;G> fPA+dp ‡ghHk;>Zig Zag Kiwapy;
s.
vOj;J fhzg;gl;lJ. ,lkpUe;J tykhf gpd; tykpUe;J ,lkhf vOjg;gl;lJ.
 rpe;Jntspapy; fpilj;Js;s RLkz; Kj;jpiu tbtk; nrt;tfk; (ngUk;ghyk;) rJuk;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; ,we;Njhiu Gij;jdH es
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; gad;gLj;jpa Nghf;Ftuj;J rhjdk; - khl;Ltz;b
pr
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fsplk; rjp tof;fk; ,y;iy
 kuj;jpyhd rtngl;b fz;nlLf;fg;l;l ,lk; - ùg;gh
ex
 ùg;gh ehfhpfj;jpd; tPor;rpf;F fhuzk; MhpaH gilnaLg;G vd khHbkH tPyH

vd;gtH $WfpwhH
lvi
 rpe;Jntsp ehfhpfk; ,aw;ifahy; mope;jnjd ,uhgHl; iff]; $WfpwhH.
 rpe;Jntsp mopa fhuzk; - 1. nts;sg;ngUf;F> 2. Mhpa gilnaLg;G>
ka
 rpe;Jntsp mope;j Mz;L - fp.K.1500

 rpe;Jntspapy; eilngw;w tzpfk; gz;lkhw;W Kiw
w.
 nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; cs;s ngUq;Fs tbtk; - ehw;Nfhzk;

 rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; Kf;fpa czTg;nghUs; - NfhJik> ghHyp
ww
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; mzpe;j Mil - gUj;jp> fk;gsk;

 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; gad;gLj;jpa 1 tif it^hpak; fLe;jw;fy; (m) #hpafhe;jk;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; gad;gLj;jpa kUj;Jt Kiw rpyh[pj; (ePhpopT> Fly; Neha;
Fzkhf;Fjy;)
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; gad;gLj;jpa MAjk; - tpy; mk;G
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; gad;gLj;jhj MAjk; - jw;fhg;G MAjq;fs;> Nflak;> jiy khHG
ftrk;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; vjphpfis> jhrHfs; (m)jh\;A+f;fs; vd mioj;jdH
 Kjd; Kjypy; gUj;jpia gapH nra;jtHfs; rpe;Jntsp kf;fs;
 rpe;Jntsp gFjpapy; (,yl;rpid) Kj;jpiufs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l ,lk; - ,yhk;
 rpe;Jntsp Kj;jpiuapy; fhzg;gl;l cUtk; ePz;l jpkpy; gUj;j fhis> tz;b> Gwh>
glF> Nahf epiyapy; ngz;
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; Ntl;b vDk; fPohilAk; rhy;it vDk; NkyhilAk; mzpe;jdH
 rpe;Jntspapy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l rpj;jpu vOj;Jf;fs; RkhH 400
 rpe;Jntsp kf;fspd; mbg;gil vilf;fy; - 8250 fpuhk; fdkhd vilf;fy; - 10920
fpuhk;
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 nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; ehl;ba ngz; rpiy fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lij mLj;J
rtf;fhuf;fy;yhy; nra;ag;gl;lcl;fhHe;J ,Uf;Fk; Mz; rpiy fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ
.,J 17.nr.kp. mstpidAilaJ.
Kd;Ntjfhyk;.
 Mhpah;fspd; G+h;tPf ,Ug;gplk; - kj;jpa Mrpah
 Mhpah;fs; ,e;jpahTf;F tu JizGhpe;j fztha;fs; - ifgh;> Nghyd;
 Mhpah;fspd; Kf;fpaj; njhopy; - ML> khL Nka;fF ; k; njhopy;
 Mhpah;fs; ,e;jpahtpw;Fs; Eioe;j Mz;L - Rkhh; 4000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;
 Ntjq;fis njhFj;j fhyk; tuyhw;wpy; miof;fg;gLtJ - Ntjfhyk;
 Ntjfhyk; 2 tifg;gLk; - Kw;gl;l Ntjfhyk; ( hpf;Ntj fhyk;)
- gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk; ( gpe;ja Ntjfhyk;)
 Kd; Ntjfhyk; vd;gJ fp.K 1500 Kjy; fp.K 1000 tiu
 Kd; Ntjfhy kf;fs; ngUk;ghYk; tho;e;jJ - ghfp];jhdpy; cs;s rpe;J gFjpapy;
 Hpf; Ntjk; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ - Kd;Ntj fhyk;
 Mhpah;fs; Kjypy; FbNawpa gFjp - gQ;rhgpy; rg;jrpe;J
 rg;jrpe;J vd;gjd; nghUs; - VO ejpfs; ghAk; epyk;
 Mhpah; rKjha gphpTfs; - FLk;gk;-fpuhkk;-tp];-[dh
in
 Kd;Ntjfhy rKjhaj;jpd; mbg;gil mq;fk; - FLk;gk;
s.
 gy FLk;gq;fs; ,ize;jJ - fpuhkk;
 gy fpuhkq;fs; ,ize;jJ - tpR (tp\;)
 tpR vd;gJ nghpa FO MFk; es
 tpRit Ml;rp Ghpe;jth; - tpRtgjp
pr
 nghpa Ml;rp mikg;G - [dh
 [dhtpd; jiytd; ,uh[d; (murd;)
ex
 Kd; Ntjfhyj;jpy; ,uh[d; typikAk;> tPuKk; kpf;ftd;

 ,uh[;[paj;jpy; tho;e;j kf;fSf;F - gpui[fs;
lvi
 Kd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; murh; (,uh[d;) gpuh[hgjp vdg;gl;lhd;
 Kd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; gy rpw;wuRfs; ,ize;j nghpa muR - kfh [dgjk; vd;W
ka
miof;fg;gl;lJ
 Kd; Ntj fhyj;jpy; murDf;F eph;thfj;jpy; cjtp Ghpa mikf;fg;gl;l
w.
,Umikg;Gfs; - rgh> rkpjp

rgh vd;gJ - KjpNahh; mit
ww
rkpjp vd;gJ - Ch; kf;fspd; gpujpepjpfs; nfhz;l mit

 murdpd; Kjy; flik - epyg;gFjpia me;epah; Mf;fpukpg;gpypUe;J ghJfhg;gJ
 Kw;gl;l (hpf;) Ntjfhyj;jpy; rhjpg;gphpTfs; Njhd;wtpy;iy
 hpf;Ntj fhy kf;fspd; Kf;fpa njhopy; - fhy;eiltsh;g;G> Ntshz;ik
 ,Uk;gpd; gaid mwpe;jpUe;jth;fs; - hpf;Ntjfhy kf;fs; ( Mhpah;fs;)
 hpf;Ntj fhyj;jpy; tzpfj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l jq;f ehzak; - ep\;fh( jq;f
myFfs;)
 Ntjfhyj;jpy; kf;fspd; Kf;fpa czTg;nghUs; - NfhJik> ghh;yp
 Kd;Ntjfhy (hpf;Ntj fhyk;) kf;fs; mUe;jpa ghdq;fs; - Nrhkghdk;> Ruhghdk;
 Hpf;Ntjfhy kf;fs; ...................... Milfis cLj;jpdh;. - gUj;jp> fk;gsp
 jiyg;ghif mzpe;jth;fs; - hpf;Ntjfhy kf;fs;
 hpf;Ntjfhy ngz;fs; cs;shil(eptp) ,Lg;gpy; mzpAk; (thr];) ,ilahil>
Nkyhil (mjpthr];) Nghd;w 3 tpj Milfis mzpe;jdh;.
 hpf;Ntj fhy kf;fs; tzq;fpa nja;tk; - ,aw;if>jtpu R+hpad; > neUg;G> fhw;W.
thdk;> kuq;fs; Kjypatw;iwAk; topgl;ldh;
 Ke;ija Ntjfhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpa Ntjk; - hpf;Ntjk;
 Ke;ija (hpf;) Ntjfhyj;jpy; Nfhapy;fNsh> rpiytopghNlh ,y;iy

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 Ke;ija Ntjfhyj;jpy; elj;jg;gl;l ahfq;fs; : mRtNkjk; - Fjpiu Nts;tp>
,uh[#ak; - kd;dd; KbR+l;bf;nfhs;Sjy;> th[Ngak; - NjNuhl;lg;Nghl;b
gpd;Ntjfhyk;
 gpw;gl;l / gpe;ija Ntjfhyk; vd;gJ - fp.K. 1000 Kjy; fp.K. 600 tiu
 a[Ph>; rhkk;> mjh;tz Ntjq;fs; Njhd;wpa fhyk; - gpw;gl;l (gpe;ija) Ntjfhyk;
 gpd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; Mhpah;fs; fhG+ypypUe;J Nky; fq;if tiu gutpapUe;jdh;
 gpuhkzq;fs;> Muz;afq;fs;> cgepljq;fs; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
 gpd;/gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyj;jpy; murhl;rpg; gFjpahfj; jpfo;e;jJ - fq;ifr;rkntsp
 Nfhryk;> tpNjfk; ( FU> kfjk;> fhrp> mte;jp> ghQ;rhyk; Nghd;w muRfs; Njhd;wpa
fhyk; - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk; ( ,jpfhr fhyk;)
 gpd; Ntjfhyj;jpy; murdpd; flik - vjphpfsplkpUe;J ehl;ilf; fhj;J rl;lk;
xOq;ifg; guhkhpg;gJ
 rgh> rkpjp mikg;Gfs; tYtpoe;j fhyk; - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
 gpd; Ntjfhyj;jpy; murd; nra;j ahfq;fs; - uh[ Rak;> mRtNkjk;
 ,Uk;G mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
 epyj;jpw;F rhz cukpLk; Kiw Njhd;wpaJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
 gpd; Ntjfhyj;jpy; nry;tepiy (nghUshjhu epiy) kjpg;gplg;gl;lJ - fhy;eilfspd;
in
vz;zpf;ifia itj;J
s.
 gpw;gl;l Ntj fhyj;jpy; gof;fj;jpy; ,Ue;j jq;f> nts;sp ehzaq;fs; - ep\;fh>
Rth;zh> rjkhdh
 es
rhjp mikg;G Kiw Njhd;wp tYg;gl;l fhyk; /tUzjh;kk; Njhd;wpa fhyk; - gpw;gl;l
Ntjfhyk;
pr
 gpd; Ntjfhyj;jpy; ahfk;> GNuhfpjk; nra;Nthh; - gpuhkzh;fs;
 capiug; gzak; itj;J Nghh;Ghpe;J ehl;ilf; fhg;gth;fSk;> Ms;gth;fSk; -
ex
rj;jphpah;fs;
 gaph;njhopYk;> tzpfKk; nra;Nthh; - itrpah;fs;
lvi
 gpuhkzh;> \j;jphpah;> irrpah; Mfpa %d;W gphptpdUf;Fk; Fw;Nwty; ( gzptpil)
nra;gth;fs; - R+j;jpuh;fs;
ka
 kfsph; epiyapy; Kd;Ndw;wk; fhzg;glhj fhyk; - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;

 Mz;fSf;F fPo;gbe;jth;fshfNt ngz;fs; elj;jg;gl;lJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
w.
 gpw;gl;l Ntj fhyj;jpy; ngz;fSf;F nrhj;Jhpik ,y;iy

 rigapy; gq;F ,y;iy> Foe;ij jpUkzk; gutyhf ,Ue;jJ
ww
 cld;fl;il VWk; tof;fk; eilKiwapy; ,Ue;jJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;

 FUFyf;fy;tp ,lk; ngw;wJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyj;jpy;
 gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyj;jpy; fy;tpapy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa ngz;fs; - fhh;ff
; p> ikj;Nuap
 jDh;Ntjk; vd;gJ - Nghh;f;fiy> jDh;Ntjk; fw;gpf;fg;gl;lJ - mur Fkhuh;fSf;F
(,sturh;)
 Kw;gl;l Ntjfhy flTsh;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; Fiwe;jJ - gpw;gl;l Ntjfhyk;
 gpw;gl;l Ntj fhy kf;fs; tzq;fpa nja;tq;fs; - gpuk;kd;> tp\;Z> Uj;ud;> (rptd;)
MfpNahh;
 caph; gypapLjy;> flTs; topghl;L Kiwfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;wJ - gpw;gl;l
Ntjfhyk;
 jpuhtplh;fs; - ,Uz;l epwKk; (fUg;G)> eLj;ju cauKk;> fUik KbAk;
nfhz;lth;fs;
 Mhpah;fs; - nts;is epwKk;> caukhd cUtKk;> nrk;gl;il KbAk; nfhz;lth;fs;
 jpuhtplh;fspd; Kf;fpaj; njhopy; - gaph;njhopy;> thzpfk;
 Mhpah;fspd; Kf;fpaj; njhopy; - fhy;eil tsh;g;G> Nghh; Ghpjy;
 jpuhtplh;fspd; Kf;fpa tpyq;F - vUJ> vUJfis topgl;ldh;
 Mhpah;fspd; Kf;fpa tpyq;F - gR> gRf;fis topgl;ldh;

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 jpuhtplh;fs; nrk;ig gad;gLj;jpdh;> ,Uk;ig mwpatpy;iy
 Mhpah;fs; ,Uk;ig gad;gLj;jpdh;> ,Uk;ig mwpe;jpUe;jdh;
 jpuhtplh;fs; Gypia mwpe;jth;fs;. Mdhy; Fjpiuiag; gw;wp njhpahJ
 Mhpah;fs; Gypia mwpe;jpUf;ftpy;iy. Mdhy; Fjpiuiag; gad;gLj;jpdh;
 jpuhtpl ehfhpfk; - Ntshz;ik ehfhpfk;> efu ehfhpfk;
 Mhpa ehfhpfk; - fhy;eiltsh;g;G ehfhpfk;> fpuhk ehfhpfk;
 hpf;Ntj fhyj;jpy; thzpfj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l jq;f myF - ep\;fh
 gpd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; fy;tpapy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa ngz;fs; - fhh;ff
; p> ikj;Nuap
 Kd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; tpjitfs; kWkzk; mDkjpf;fg;gl;lJ
 Ntj fhyj;jpy; fpuhkj;jpd; jiyth; - fpuhkzp
 fpuhk kf;fspd; gpujpepjpfisf; nfhz;l mZ - rkpjp
 gpd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; fztd; ,we;jhy; kidtp cld;fl;il Vwpdh;
 VO ejpfs; ghAk; epyk; - rg;j rpe;J
 rg;j rpe;J vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - gilj;jiyth;
 hpf;Ntj fhyj;jpy; tpjitfs; kWkzk; nra;Jnfhs;s mDkjpf;fg;gl;ldh;
 Ntjfhyj;jpy; r%fj;jpd; mbg;gil myF - FLk;gk;
 epaha jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - nfsjk KdptH
in
 itNrrpf jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - ghzjH
s.
 rhq;fpa jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - fgpyH
 Nahf jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - gjQ;ryp
 es
G+Htkpkhk;r jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - n[akpdp
 cj;jpuk;khk;r jhprdk; vd;w E}iy vOjpatH - gj;uhadd;
pr
 #j;jpuq;fis topKiw mwpT kuG mwpT - ];kpHjp E}y;fnsd miof;fg;gLfpwJ
 #j;jpuq;fspy; rpwe;jit kDjHk ePjpfs;
ex
 Guhzq;fis njhy;fijfs; vd;wiog;gH

 ,uhkhazk; thy;kPfpahy; 24000 ghly;fs; vOjg;gl;lJ
lvi
 kfhghujk; vOjggl;lJ fp.gp. 200
 kfhghujk; NghH fp.K. 3012 y; vOjg;gl;lJ
ka
 kfhghujj;jpd; ghly;fs; - 100000

 cgNtjq;fs; - MAH - kUj;Jtk;> jD}H - NghHfiy(tpy;tpj;ij gapw;rp) fe;jtHt -
w.
,ir> rpy;g - fl;blf;fiy (gbk fiy)

 tHzhrpuk jHk Kiw Njhd;wp tYgl;l fhyk;.
ww
gpuhkzd;> rj;hpad;> itrpad; - (tzpfk;> Ntshz;ik)> #j;jpuH - Fw;Nwty;

nra;jtH
 gpd;Ntjfhyj;jpy; nry;thf;fpoe;j flTs; - ,e;jpud;
 kfsPH epiyapy; fPo;juk; gpd;Ntjfhyk; - nrhj;Jhpik ,y;iy> rig gq;F ,y;iy>
Foe;ij jpUkzk;> cld;fl;il VWjy;
 FUFy fy;tp gpd;Ntj fhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpaJ
 Mrpuk epiy
1. gpuk;kr;rhhpak; - (1- 25) khztd;
2. fpuf];jk; - FLk;g epiy 26- 50
3. tdg;gpu];jk; - fhl;bw;F nry;Yk; epiy 51-75
4. rd;dpahrk; - Kw;Wk; Jwe;j epiy 76- 100
 nghUj;Jf:
1. rjkhdh m) rptd;
2. gpui[ M) uh[d;
3. Uj;jpud; ,) tpRtgjp
4. [dhtpd; jiyth; <) ehzaq;fs;
5. tpRtpd; jiyth; c) Fbkf;fs;

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tpil: 1) < 2)c 3)m 4)M 5),
rkzKk; ngsj;jKk;
 cyfpd; rpe;jidg; Gul;rpf; fhyk; vd;gJ - fp.K. 6 -k; E}w;whz;L
 fp.K. 6 y; ghurPfj;jpy; %lek;gpf;ifia vjpHj;jtH - n[huh];lH
 ,tH rkak; n[huh];lyp]k;
 rPd kf;fs; fd;G+rpa]; jj;Jtj;Ij Vw;wdH
 fd;G+rpa]; rpwe;j jj;Jt Qhdp
 n[huh];lH tuNkw;F <uhdpy; gpwe;jhH
 ,y;yq;fspy; neUg;G topghl;il n[huh];buH filgpbj;jdH
 #hpad;> xsp> neUg;G ,tw;wpd; cUtkhf m#u k];jh vd;w nja;tj;ij
n[huh];baHfs; topgl;ldH.
 rkz rkaj;ij tbtikj;jtHfs; - 24 jPHj;jq;fuHfs;
 rkzKk;> ngsj;jKk; ,e;jpahtpy; Njhd;wpa fhyk; fp.K. 6 - k; E}w;whz;L
 rkz kjj;ij cUthf;fpath; - th;j;jkhd kfhtPuh;
in
 ngsj;j kjf; fUj;Jf;fis toq;fpath;> ngsj;j kjj;ij cUthf;fpath; - nfsjk
s.
Gj;jh;
 rkz rkaj;jpduhy; topglg;gl;l jPh;j;jq;fuh;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 24
 es
rkz rkaj;jpd; Kjy; jPh;j;jq;fuh; - Mjpehjh; (m) hp\gNjth;
 hp\ghpd; rpd;dk; - vUJ
pr
 2 tJ jPHj;jq;fuH m[Pjehjh; - rpd;dk; ahid
 23 tJ jPHj;jq;fuH gHRtehjH - mthpd; rpd;dk; - glnkLf;Fk; ghk;G
ex
 gHrtehjhpd; jha; - rhkhNjtp

 gHrtehjhpd; kidtp - gpughtjp
lvi
 gHrtehjh; JwtpahdJ - 30tJ tajpy;
 gHrtehjH fLe;jtk; Ghpe;jJ - 83/ 84 ehl;fs;
ka
 70 Mz;Lfs; Nghjid nra;J 100t J tajpy; fp.K. 717 y; rNkj kiyiapy;

capHJwe;jhH
w.
 Mhpa jj;jk; vd;w ,lj;ij jiyik ,lkhf nfhz;ltH - gHrtehjH ,thpd;

rPlHfs; - 491000 NgH
ww
 gHrtehjhpd; Nghjid - nfhy;yhik> ngha; Ngrhik> jpUlhik> gw;wpd;ik

(cilik kWj;jy;)
 ];Ntjk;guH vd;w rkz rka gphptpd; jiytH - gHrtehjH
 kfhtPuUf;F 250 Mz;LfSf;F Kd; tho;e;jtH.
 rkz rkaj;jpd; ,Wjp my;yJ 24 tJ jPhj ; ;jq;fuh; - kfhtPuh;
 rkzrkaj;jpw;F Xh; cWjpahd mikg;igj; je;jth; - kfhtPuh;
 kfhtPuhpd; fhyk; fp.K. 534 Kjy; 462
 kfhtPuh; gpwe;j ,lk; - gPfhh; khepyk;> itrhypf;F mUfpy; ‘ Fe;j fpuhkk;‛
 kfhtPuhpd; je;ij - rpj;jhh;j;jh;> jha; jphpriy
 kidtpapd; ngah; - aNrhjh> kfs; - mNdh[h ( m) gphpajh;\dh
 th;j;jkhdh; Jwtpahd taJ - 30 tJ tajpy;
 th;j;jkhdh; fLikahd jpahdk; nra;jJ - 12 Mz;Lfs;
 kfhtPuh; - [Pdh; (ntw;wpahsh;) Gyd;fis ntd;wth; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lhh;
 kfhtPuh; jhd; fz;l cz;ikfis Ch; Cuhfr; nrd;W gpur;rhuk; nra;jJ
(Nghjid nra;j Mz;Lfs; ) - 30 Mz;Lfs;
 72 tJ tajpy; gPfhhpy; gtGhp (m) ghthefhpy; ghpepHthzk; mile;jhH.
 rkz rkaj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - kfhtPuH

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 jPHj;jq;fuH vd;why; rkz rka NghjfH vd;gJ nghUs;
 kdpjdpd; Jd;gj;jpw;F fhuzk; - kdpjh;fs;jhd; - vd kfhtPuh; $wpdhh;
 kfhtPuh; $wpa fl;Lg;ghl;L newpfs; - ‘nfhy;yhikf; nfhs;if‛ vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ
 rkzh;fs; ,Wjpapy; cliy tUj;jp czT> ePH; mUe;jhky; ‘ ry;Nyrd Kiwapy;‛
caph; Jwe;jdh;
 rkz rkak; typAWj;JtJ - ‘caphpuf;fk; vdg;gLk; mfpk;iria‛
 MilmzptijAk;> Ntshz;ik nra;tijAk;> NghhpLjiyAk; jtph;j;jth;fs; -
rkzh;fs;
 rkz rkaj;jpd; mbg;gilf;Nfhl;ghL - ‘caph;fis nfhy;yf;$lhJ‛
 rkzh;fspd; Kf;fpaj; njhopy; - tzpfk;
 Kk;kzpfis Nghjpj;jth; - kfhtPuh;
 kfhtPuh; Nghjpj;jit Kk;kzpfs; - mitfs; ed;dk;gpf;if> ey;ywpT> ed;dlj;ij
 ed;dk;gpf;if “ kfhtPuhpd; fUj;jpYk; NguwptpYk; ek;gpf;if itj;jy;
 ey;ywpT - elTs; ,y;iy vd ek;Gjy;
 ed;dlj;ij - 5 tpujq;fis filgpbj;jy;
 fUg;nghUs; mopAk; jd;ikAilaJ - Md;ik mopahjJ
 Kd;gpwtp tpidapd; gad; kWgpwtp Vw;gLfpwJ
in
 cz;ikia mwpa gl;bdp fple;J capH ePj;jy; jtwpy;iy
s.
 kfhtPuH filgpbj;j nfhs;if - ghpRj;j epHthzk; (clypy; Mil KOtJk;
ePff
; pdhH)
es
 kdpj Jd;gj;jpw;F fhuzk; kdpjd; vd kfhtPuH $wpdhH
 kuk;> nrb> nfhb> gwit> tpyq;F> jhtuk;> ePH> cNyhfk; ,tw;wpw;F capH cz;L vd
pr
Nghjpj;jtH kfhtPuH.
 gl;bdp rhT vd;Dk; jw;nfhiyia Vw;gtH - rkzH
ex
 kfhtPuH rkz rka Jwtpf;F Nghj;pj;jJ.

Mfpk;ir> tha;ik> fsthik> nghUs; NrHf;fhik> gpuk;krhpak; (fw;G) -Mfpa gQ;r
lvi
uj;jpd nfhs;if
 kfhtPuhpd; rPlfHfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;ftH - cghyp
ka
 rkz rka jj;Jtk; - etgjhHj;jk; - capH> caphpy;yhjJ> Gz;zpak;> ghtk;> nrwpg;G>

cjpHg;G> fl;L> tPL
w.
 rkz rkaj;ij tpsf;Fk; rf;fuk; ];t];jpfh (m) gpwtpr;rf;fuk;

 kfhtPuH Nghjid nra;j ,lk; - mq;fk;>kpjiy> kfjk;
ww
 kfhtPuhpd; rPlH - 11 NgH

 kfhtPuUf;Fg; gpd; rkz gs;spfSf;F jiyik jhq;fpatd; - RjHkd;
 rkz rka gphpTfs; - 3
1. jpfk;guHfs; - Mil mzpahjtH - kfhtPuiu gpd;gw;wpa jpiria Milia
cLj;jpatHfs;
2. ];Ntjk;guHfs; - ntz;zpw Mil mzpe;jth;fs; - gHrtehjiu gpd;gw;wpatHfs;
3. ];jhdpf thrpfs; rkak;- rkz Mfk rpj;jhe;jq;fis topgl;NlhH
 rkz rka kiwE}y; -- Mfk rpj;jhe;jk;
 rkz rka ,yf;fpaq;fs;- mq;fq;fs;> cg mq;fq;fs;> G+Htq;fs;
 rkz rka ,yf;fpak; vOjg;gl;l nkhop - gpuhf;fpUjk;
 rkz rkaj;jhh; gpd;gw;Wk; 5 xOf;fq;fs; - CW nra;ahik> ngha;ahik> fsthik>
cilik kWj;jy;> Gydlf;fk;
 rkz rkaj;ijg; gpd;gw;wpa murh;fs;- re;jpuFg;j nkshpah;> fypq;fj;Jf;fhu Ntyd;>
$z;ghz;bad;> Kjyhk; kNfe;jputh;kd;
 jkpo;py; vOjg;gl;l rkz rka fhg;gpaq;fs; - rpyg;gjpfhuk;> rPtfrpe;jhkzp>
tisahgjp> R+shkzp> njhy;fhg;gpak;> ed;D}y;
 rkz rkaj;jhy; tsHe;j nkhop - fd;dlk;> k`jp

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 rkz rka ,yf;fz E}y;fs; - ahg;gpUq;fhyk;> ahg;gUq;fhfhhpif> Nekpehjk;>
ed;D}y;> mfg;nghUs; tpsf;fk;
 rkz fl;llf; fiyf;F vLj;Jf;fhl;L - ,uh[];jhd; - kTz;l; mG>
jpy;thuhf;Nfhapy;> f[PuNfh>
 rpj;J}h;> udf;G+h; - rkzh; Nfhapy;fs;
 rkz rpw;gq;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; - cjafphp> cwjpFk;gh> fph;dhh;>
rputzngyNfhyh>fOFkiy
 NfhkjP];tuh; rpw;gk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - fh;ehlfk; khepyk;> rputzngy Nfhyhtpy;
 jpy;thuh rkzh; Nfhtpy; mike;Js;s ,lk; - ,uh[];jhd; khepyk; kTz;l; mGtpy;
 rkz rka G+Htq;fs; vz;zpf;if - 14
 rkz rka mq;fq;fs; vz;zpf;if - 12
 rkz fy;tp Nfe;jpukhf ,Ue;j ,lk; - fhQ;rpGuk;
 rkz rka kf;fspd; Kf;fpaj; njhopy; - tzpfk;
 rkz rka Kjy; khehL - fp.gp. 3y; ghlypGj;jpuk; > jiyik ];J}yghF
 2 tJ khehL fp.gp. 5y; ty;ygp
 ngsj;j kjj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - rpj;jhh;j;jh; vDk; nfsjk Gj;jh;
 Gj;jhpd; ,aw;ngah; - rpj;jhh;j;jh;
in
 Gj;jhpd; fhyk; gpwg;G - fp.K. 563 ,wg;G (ghpeph;thzk;) fp.K. 483 (fp.K. 563 Kjy;
s.
fp.K. 483 tiu)
 Gj;jh; gpwe;j ,lk; - Neghs ehl;by; fgpyt];J vd;w Chpy; (m) Yk;gpdptdk;
 es
Gj;jhpd; je;ij - rhf;fpa Fy jiyth; Rj;Njhjdhh;> jha; khah Njtp
 Gj;jH gpwe;j 7 tJ ehspy; jha; ,we;jhH
pr
 rpj;jhh;j;jh; ,sikapy; ahuhy; tsh;f;fg;gl;lth;? - rpw;wd;idahy; ( gpu[hgjp
nfsjkpahy;)
ex
 Gj;jhpd; kidtp - aNrhjiu (gj;jfr;rhid> Rgj;uhfh> Nfhgh> gpk;gh ,it

aNrhjiuapd; NtWngaHfs;) ( 16 tJ tajpy; Gj;jh; kze;jhh;)
lvi
 Gj;jhpd; kfd; ngah; - ,uhFyd;
 Gj;jH efHtyk; nry;Yk; NghJ fz;l 4 epfo;r;rpfs; Gj;jiu ,sikapy; ghjpj;jJ.
ka
1. gpzp (grp>gl;bdp)(NehAw;w kdpjd;)

2. tajhd kdpjd;
w.
3. ,we;j cly;
4. gpr;irf;fhud;
ww
 Gj;jH 29tJ tajpy; ngUe;Jwtwk; Nkw;nfhz;lhH

 Gj;jH Kjypy; ,uh[fpU`k; nrd;W Mujfyhkh vd;w Jwtpia re;jpj;jhH
 Gj;jhpd; Kjy; FU - Mujfykh
 Gj;jhpd; 2tJ FU cUj;jpufh ,thplk; rhq;fpaj;ij Nfl;lwpe;jhH.
 cUNtyh fhl;by; 6 Mz;Lfs; 5 gpuhkz JwtpfSld; jtk; nra;jhH (cz;zh
tpujk;)
gpwF Gj;jfia vDkplj;jpy; ieauQ;rdh ejpapy; Fspj;Jtpl;L Nghjpkuk; (Piple tree)

mbapy; mkHe;J 49 tJ ehspy; Qhdk; ngw;whH.
 Qhdk; fpilj;jJ Kjy; Gj;jH jjh fjh vd miof;fg;gl;lhH.
 Gj;jh; vDk; nrhy;ypd; nghUs; - nka;awpT ngw;wtH
 35tajpy; Md;k(Nfts) Qhdk; ngw;whH.
 ,sikapy; rpj;jhh;j;jh; Mh;tk; nfhz;lJ - cyf elg;Gfis mwpe;J nfhs;Sjy;
 rpj;jhh;j;jUf;F ehl;lkpy;yhjJ - Ntl;ilahLjy;> tPz; Mlk;guk;
 ,sikapy; Gj;jiu ghjpj;jJ - Vio vspathpd; fbdkhd tho;f;if
 mwpTzh;T (nka;awpT) ngw;w rpj;jhh;j;jh; Gj;jh; Mdhh;
 Gj;jh; vd;w nrhy;ypd; nghUs; - ey;yJ vJ> nfl;lJ vJ vd;gij mwpe;J
nfhz;lth; vd;gJ

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 Gj;jh; jkJ Kjy; Nghjidia njhlq;fpaJ - thuzhrp (m) fhrpf;F mUfpy; cs;s
rhuhehj;jpy; cs;s khd; G+q;fhtpy;
 Nguhir nfhs;shik> ngha; Ngrhik> gpwiu Jd;GWj;jhik Nghd;wtw;iw
Nghjpj;jth; - Gj;jh;
 Gj;jh; rhjp ghFghLfis Vw;Wf;nfhz;lhuh? - ,y;iy
 nrhe;j vz;zq;fisAk;> mwpitAk; ek;gp thoNtz;Lk; vdf;$wpath; - Gj;jh;
 Jd;gq;fisg; gw;wp Gj;jh; $wpa mwpTiufs; - ehd;F ngUk; cz;ikfs;
 xOf;f newpfs; gw;wp Gj;jh; Nghjpj;jJ - vz;tif newpfs;
 Gj;jh; Nghjpj;j 4 NgUz;ikfs;
1. cyfk; Jd;gkhdJ
2. Jd;gj;jpw;F fhuzk; MirNa
3. Miria xopj;jhy; Jd;gj;jpypUe;J tpLglyhk;
4. Mir xopf;f vl;L newpfis gpd;gw;wNtz;Lk;
 Miria xopf;f Gj;jh;l $wpa vl;L newpfs;-
1. ey;y ek;gpf;if 2. ey;y Ngr;R 3. ey;y top 4. ey;y rpe;jid
5. ey;y Kaw;rp 6. ey;y elj;ij 7. ey;y nray; 8.ey;y jpahdk;
in
 Gj;jhpd; nfhs;iffisg; gug;gpa ngsj;j Jwtpfspd; mikg;G ‘ rq;fk;‛ vdg;gl;lJ
s.
 ngsj;j rkaj;ij gpd;gw;wpa murh;fs; - mNrhfh;> fdp\;fh;> `h;\h;
 Gj;j kjj;jpd; ,U gphpTfs; - `Pdahdk;> kfhahdk;>
 es
Gj;jhpd; nfhs;ifia Vw;Wf; nfhz;lth;fs;> cUt topghL nra;ahjth;fs; -
`Pdahd gphpT
pr
 Gj;jiu nja;tkhf Vw;Wf;nfhz;l Gj;j rkag;gphpT - kfhahdk; ( cUt topghL)
 Gj;j kjk; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; ( gutpa) ntspehLfs; - ,yq;if> gh;kh> jpngj;> rPdh>
ex
[g;ghd;> jha;yhe;J
 Gj;jiu kjk; khw;wk; nra;jtH - Njtjj;jH
lvi
 Gj;jH Nghjid nra;;j Mz;Lfs; - 45 Mz;Lfs;
 Gj;jhpd; jtj;ij rpijf;f Kad;w Njtij - khuh
ka
 Gj;jhH Nghjid Nghjpf;fg;gl;l nkhop - ghyp

 Gj;jH jk; JwtpfSf;F Nghjpj;jJ - 10 mwf;fl;l ; isfs; (jrrPyk;> jrkhh;ff; k;)
w.
 flTs; cz;L ,y;iy vd $w Gj;jH kWj;jhH

 [hjpia epuhfhpj;jhH
ww
 Md;kh ,y;iy vd Nghjpj;jhH

 epHthzk; kdpj tho;f;ifapd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk;> kf;fs; midtUk; rkk; vd
Nghjpj;jhH
 Gj;j irj;jpak; vd;gJ topghl;L $lk;
 Gj;j tpfhuk; vd;gJ - Gj;j Jwtpfs; jq;Fkplk;
 Gj;j rka ,U gphpTfs;> 1. `Pdahdk; (rpWtop) - rpwpa thfdk;> 2. kfhahdk;
(ngUtop) - nghpa thfdk;
 Gj;jhpd; nfhs;iffis Vw;W cUt topghL nra;ahjtHfs; - `Pdahdk;
 Gj;jiuAk; Nghjp rj;UtHfisAk; tzq;fpatHfs; - kfhahdk;
 Gj;j Jwtpfspd; tpfhuk; (klq;fs;) epWtg;gl;l ,lk; - gPfhH
 Gj;jhpd; rPlHfs; - rhhpGl;lH> nkhf;fyd;dH> kfhfhrpgH> cghyp
 Gj;j rq;fj;jpy; Kjypy; ,Ue;j cWg;gpdHfs; - 60NgH
 Gj;jH ,wg;gjw;F Kd; Re;jh vd;w nghw;nfhy;yd; tPl;by; gd;wp,iwr;rp cz;L
nrwpf;fhky; ,we;jhH
 Gj;juhy; Nghjpf;fg;gl;lJk;> mNrhfuhy; gug;gg;gl;l rkak; - `pdahdk;
 Nghjp kuj;ij ntl;b tPo;j;jpatd; - rrhq;fd;
 Gj;j Jwtpfs; mjpfk; cs;s khepyk; kfhuh\;buk;

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 kfh[dgjq;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 16
 [dgjk; fp.K. 6y; tl,e;jpahtpy; Njhd;wpaJ
 tphp[p ehl;bd; jiyefH - itrhyp
 mte;jp ehl;bd; jiyefH - c[;i[apdp
 ek; ehl;L Njrpa rpd;dk; - 4 rpq;fq;fs;
 ekJ ehl;L rpd;dk; 4 rpq;fq;fspd; cUtk; vjpypUe;J vLf;fg;gl;lJ - mNrhfuJ
rhuehj; fw;W}zpypUe;J
 ekJ Njrpaf;nfhbapy; cs;s rf;fuk; vj;jid Muq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ -24
Muq;fs;
 ekJ Njrpaf;nfhbapy; fhzg;gLk; rf;fuk; - mNrhfhpd; jh;k rf;fuk;
 ngsj;j Jwtpfspd; tpfhuq;fs; ( klq;fs; ) kpFe;j khepyk; - gPfhh;
 Kjy ;rkz rka khehL - fp.K. 487 - ,uh[fpU`j;jpy; m[hjrj;U $l;bdhH. ,jpy
;tpda gPlfk; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ
 2tJ rkz rka khehL - fp>K. 387 fhyNrhfH - itrhypapy; $l;bdhH (mgpjk;k
gPlfk;> Rj;jfk;)
 3tJ rkz rka khehL - fp.K. 340 mNrhfH - ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; $l;bdhH jiyik
jhq;fpatH cgFg;jH (khfhyp Gj;j jp];ah> jphpgPlfk; ,Wjp tbtk; ngw;wJ)
in
 4 tJ rkz rka khehL - fp. gp. 100 y; fh\;kPH - Fz;lytdk; fdp\;fH $l;bdhH>
s.
jiyik jhq;fpatH tRkpj;jpuH> mRtNfhrH> ehfH[PdH
 5tJ rkz rka khehL - fp.gp. 643 fd;Ndhrpapy; `H\H $l;bdhH
 es
6tJ rkz rka khehL fp.gp. 643 y; gpuahif / myfhghj; `H\H $l;bdhH
 ngsj;j rka tuyhw;iw tpthpf;Fk; E}y; - [hjff; fijfs;
pr
 m[e;jh Fif Xtpaq;fSk;> vy;Nyhuh rpw;gq;fSk; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; - kfhuh\;buk;
khepyk;> xsuq;fhghj; khtl;lj;jpy;
ex
 Gj;jhpd; rpwg;ig tpsf;Fk; Xtpaq;fs; - m[e;jh> vy;Nyhuh Xtpaq;fs;

 fhe;jhuf; fiyr;rpw;gq;fs; - Gj;j rkaj;ijr; rhh;e;jit
lvi
 ngsj;j rkaj;Jwtpfspd; gpuhh;j;jidf; $lq;fs; ‘ irj;jpaq;fs;‛ vdg;gLfpwJ
 ngsj;j rka klhyaq;fs; ‘tpfhuq;fs;’ vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ
ka
 kiy Fiffisf; File;J mikf;fg;gl;l ngsj;j rkagpuhh;j;jidf;

$lq;fSf;F‘irj;jpah;fs; ‚ vd;W ngah;
w.
 ngsj;j rkaf;nfhs;ifiaf; $Wk; kiw E}y; ‘jpgplfk;‛ ,J 3 cl;gphpTfisf;

nfhz;lJ. Rj;jgPlfk;> tpda gPlfk;> mbjk;kgPlfk;
ww
 rkzh;fspd; Gdpj E}y;fs; - mq;fq;fs;> G+h;tq;fs;

 kzpNkfiy> Fz;lyNfrp Mfpait - E}y;fs; ( ngsj;j E}y;fs;)
 rkz rka E}y;fs; - rpyg;gjpfhuk; ( ,yf;fz E}y;) rPtfrpe;jhkzp> tisahgjp
(,yf;fpa E}y;)
 jphpgplfk; vd;Dk; E}y; Kjd;Kjypy; vOjg;gl;lJ - tl;lf;fhkpdp mgad; vd;Dk;
murd; fhyj;jpy;
 jphpgplfk; vd;why; %d;W $il vd;W nghUs;
 ,yq;if tPufhtpaq;fs;> tuyhw;W E}y;fs; - kfhtk;rk;> jPg tk;rk;
 rkz kjj;Jf;F cWjpahd mikg;igj; je;jth; - kfhtPuh;
 rkz rkak; kpfTk; typAWj;jpa nfhs;if - nfhy;yhik
 jkpo;ehl;by; rkz rpw;gq;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; - fOFkiy
 Gj;jh; mwpTzh;T ngw;w ,lk; - fah
 ngsj;j kjj;ij gpd;gw;wpa murh;fSs; Kf;fpakhdth; -mNrhfh;
 ntw;wpahsh; /[Pdh; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - kfhtPuh;
 NfhkjP];tuh; rpw;gk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - rutzngyNfhyh
 rkzk; typAWj;jpa Nghjidfs; - Kk;kzpfs; vd;wiof;fg;gl;ld
 Gj;jhpd; Nghjidfs; - vz; tif newpfs; vd;wiof;fg;gl;ld

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 Gj;j rka khHbd; Y}jH - ehfH[Pdh
 ,e;J rka khHbd; Y}jH - jahde;j ru];tjp
 mNrhf rf;fuk; 24 Muq;fisf; nfhz;lJ
 nghUj;Jf:
1. jphpgplfk; - m) Gj;jiu nja;tkhf Fk;gpl;l rka gphpT
2. `Pdahdk; - M) Gj;jh; Kjd;Kjypy; Nghjid epfo;j;jpa ,lk;
3. rpyg;gjpfhuk; - ,) Gj;jhpd; nfhs;iffis gpd;gw;wpa gphptpdh;
4. khd;G+q;fh - <) rkzj;Jwtp ,aw;wpa E}y;
5. kfhahdk; - c) ngsj;jh;fspd; Gdpj E}y;
tpil: 1) c 2), 3)< 4)M 5)m
NguuRfspd; Njhw;wk;
 kfh[dgjq;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 16 ngUk; ehLfs;
 [dgjq;fs; cs;slf;fpa nghpa mikg;ghf cUthf;fg;gl;lJ - kfh[dgjq;fs;
 ,df;FO mikg;ig tpl gue;J tphpe;j muRfs; - kfh[dgjq;fs;
 kfh[dgjq;fs; Njhd;wpaJ -tl,e;jpahtpy;
 kfh[dgjq;fspy; typikahd muRfs; - Nfhryk;> mte;jp> tj;rk;> kfjk;
 t[;[p ehl;by; kl;Lk; 18 FOf;fs; ,ize;jpUe;jd
in
 18 kfh [dgjq;fspy; gpw muRfis ntd;W Nguurhf vOr;rp ngw;wJ - kfjk;
s.
 kfjk; vd;gJ gPfhh; khepyk; ghl;dhit Rw;wpAs;s gFjp
 kfjj;jpd; Kjy; jiyefuk; - rpuht];jp > ,uz;lhtJ jiyefH - ,uh[fpU`k;
 kfjj;jpd; ,Wjp jiyefuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk; es
 %d;W jiyefuq;fis nfhz;bUf;Fk; ehL - kfjk;
pr
 rpuh];tjp vd;gJ - efuk;
 mhpaq;f tk;rj;ijr; rhh;e;j kfj kd;dh; - gpk;gprhud;
ex
 jpUkz cwTfs; %yk; kfjj;ij tphpTgLj;jpatd; - gpk;gprhud;

 gpk;gprhudpd; kfd; - m[hjrj;U
lvi
 Nfhryk;> mte;jp> itrhypia kfjj;Jld; ,izj;jth; - m[hjrj;U
 Nfhry ehl;bd; jiyefH mNahj;jp
ka
 Nfhryj;jpd; Gfo;tha;e;j murd; - gpuNrd[pj;

 tj;rk; muR mike;Js;s ejpf;fiu - aKid
w.
 kfjj;jpy; ‘ghlypGj;jpuk; ‚ Nfhl;ilia mikj;jth; - m[hjrj;U

 kfj Kjy; Nguuir epWtpatH - gpk;gprhuH
ww
 gpk;gprhuhpd; NtWngaH (rNudpaH)

 gpk;gprhuH Muk;gpj;j tk;rk; MHaq;fh Fyk;
 jpUkz cwT %yk; kfjj;ij tphpTgLj;jpatH - gpk;gprhuH
 ,uh[fpU`k; (kd;dH kid) epWtpatH - gpk;gprhuH
 gpk;gprhuH kze;j ypr;rhtp ,sturp - nry;yz;zh
 gpk;gprhuH kze;j kj;uh ,sturp - Nfkh
 Gpk;gprhuH kze;j Nfhry ,sturp - NfhryhNjtp
 gpk;gprhudpd; Ml;rp fp.K. 525 - 500
 gpk;gprhudpd; jiyefH - ,uh[fpU`k;
 gpk;gprhuiu nfhiy nra;J mwpaiz Vwpatd; - m[hjrj;U
 kfhtPuUk;> Gj;jUk; gpk;gprhuH rkfhyj;jtHfs; . m[hjrj;Utpd; fhyj;jpy; ,we;jdH
 gpk;gprhuid njhlHe;J kfj kd;dd; - m[hjrj;U (fpK. 500 -473)
 m[hjrj;Utpd; NtWngaH - Fdpfh
 gyKiw Gj;jiu re;jpj;jhf $wg;gLgtH - m[hjrj;U
 m[hjrj;Uit njhlHe;J Ml;rpf;F te;jtd; - cjad;
 MHaq;fh tk;rj;ij njhlHe;J kfjj;ij Ml;rpGhpe;jJ - rpRehfd;
 rpRehfiunjhlHe;J fhyNrhfH Ml;rpGhpe;jhH

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 ee;j tk;rj;ij epWtpatuhy; nfhy;yg;gl;l rpRehftk;rj;jtH fhyNrhfd;
 fhyNrhfid nfhd;wtd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
 rpRehfiunjhlHe;J kfjj;ij ee;j tk;rk; Ml;rpGhpe;jJ
 rpRehfh;fl;F gpd; ee;j tk;rj;ij Vw;gLj;jpatd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
 Kjy; ee;j kd;dd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
 Kjy; ,e;jpa Nguurhf kfjj;ij cUthf;fpatd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
 filrp kd;dd; - nfhLq;Nfhyd;> nry;tnropg;G kpf;ftd; - jdee;jd;
 rpRehfh; r%j;jpy; R+j;jpuh;fs; gphpitr; rhh;e;jth;fs;
 ee;jHfis gw;wp $Wk; E}y; mfehD}W
nkshpag;NguuR
 jdee;jiu nfhd;wtd; - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
 nkshpaH vd;Dk; nrhy; re;jpuFg;j nkshpahpd; jha; %uh vd;gthpd; jphpghf
nkshpaH vd MdJ
 Gj;j rka E}y;fs; nkshpaHfis NkhhpaH vd $WfpwJ
 %uh vd;w ghypnkhopr; nrhy;ypd; nghUs; kapy; tsHg;gtH nkshpaH
 ,e;jpahtpd; khf;fpaty;yp - nfsbay;aH
 nfsby;aH vOjpa E}y; - mHj;jrh];jpuk; (murpay; mwptpay; E}y; ,J 15
in
gFjpfisAk;> 150 cl;gphpTfisAk; nfhz;lJ)
s.
 1905y; mHj;j rh];jpuk; Kjypy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ.
 mHj;jrh];jpuk; Kjypy; E}y;tbtpy; vOjpatH - rhkrh];jphp.
 es
jz;l ePjp(Ml;rpgw;wp)> tHj;jf ePjp(tHj;jfk;) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ -
mHj;jrh];jpuk;
pr
 nkshpag; Nguuir Vw;gLj;jpath; - re;jpuFg;j nkshpah;
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpahpd; fhyk; fp.K. 324-299
ex
 re;jpuFg;jdhy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;l fpNuf;f kd;dd; - nrY}f];epNflhh;

 nrY}f]; epNflhhpd; J}Jth; - nkf];jdp]; fp.K. 302y;
lvi
 nkf];jdp]; vOjpa E}y; - ,z;bfh (ghlypGj;jpu efu epHthf Ml;rpgw;wpaJ)
 re;jpuFg;jh; jOtpa kjk; -rkzk;
ka
 tprhfjj;jH vOjpa E}y; - Kj;uhl;rrk; > Njtp re;jpuFg;jk;

 nkshpaH rpd;dk; - kapy;
w.
 ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpy; Kjy; Nguuir epWtpaH>,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; tpLjiy tPuH -

nkshpa Nguuir epWtpaH Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
ww
 re;jpuFg;jH nrYf;f]; epNflH kPJ NghH njhLj;j MNz;L - 305

 nrYf;f]; epNflhplkpUe;J re;jpuFg;jnkshpaH ifgw;wpa gFjp - mhpah> muNfrpah>
nfl;Nuhrpah
 Nkh$H kd;dd; gioaid ntd;wtd; - re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH
 nkshpaHfis jkpo;ehl;bypUe;J tpul;batd; - ,sQ;nrl;nrd;dp
 re;jpuFg;jH nrYf;f]; epNflhplk; nra;J nfhz;l cld;gbf;if - jphpgujPNrR
 re;jpuFg;jH mnyf;rhz;liu re;jpj;j ,lk; - gQ;rhg;
 re;jpuFg;jH kze;j nrYf;f]; epNflhpd; kfs; - n`yd;
 re;jpuFg;jhpd; mikr;rH - rhzf;fpaH/nfsby;aH/tp\;ZNfhgH
 nkshpaHfspd; jiyefH - ghlypGj;jpuk;
 re;jpuFg;jH KbJwf;f fhuzk; - nfhba gQ;rk;
 re;jpuFg;jh; jdJ ,Wjpfhyj;jpy; gj;jpughF vd;w rkz KdptUld;
 njd;,e;jpahtpw;F rputzngyNfhyhTf;F nrd;W re;jpug];jp kiyapy; ry;Nyrd
Kiw %yk; cz;zh Nehd;gpUe;J rkz rka Kiwg;gb caph;ePj;jhh;.
 mthpd; epidthf re;jpug];jp kiy vd;gJ re;jpufphp kiynad;whapw;W.
 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH Ml;rpnghWg;ig jdJ kfd; rpk;kNrdhtplk;
xg;gilj;jhH(Mdhy; mtd; Ml;rpia Vw;ftpy;iy)

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 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaUf;Fg;gpd; Ml;rp nghWg;Ngw;wtd; - gpe;Jrhud; fp.K. 301 -273 >
,td; #bf;nfhz;l gl;lg;ngaH - mkpj;ufhjd;
 mkpj;ufhjd; vd;gjd; nghUs; - giftHfis nfhd;W Kbg;gtd;.
 Nkiy flYf;Fk;> fPioflYf;Fk; ,ilapy; 16 ehLfis ntd;whd;
 gpe;Jrhud; mitf;F te;j fpNuf;f J}Jtd; - fp.K. 280-nla;Nkf;fH];
 nka;Nkf;f]; - I mDg;gpa kd;dd; - Kjyhk; Mz;bNahf];
 gpe;Jrhud; mitf;F te;j vfpg;jpa J}Jtd; - jpNahNdrpa];.
 jpNahNdrpa]; I mDg;gpatH - ,uz;lhk; lhykp
 gpe;Jrhud; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,y;yhj tl ,e;jpa muR - fypq;fk;
 gpe;JrhuDf;F 16 kidtpfs;> 101 gps;isfs;
 gpe;Jrhudpd; %j;j kfd; RrPkh> ,isa kfd; mNrhfd;
 gpe;Jrhud; fhy jl;rrPy MSeH - RrPkh
 gpe;Jrhud; fhy c[;i[apdp MSeH - mNrhfd;
 gpe;Jrhud; ntd;w Nrhod; - fp.K. 375y; - ,sQ;nrl;nrd;dp
 ahiu rpwe;j je;ijapd; epiwe;j Gjy;tH vd;Wk; NguuhHe;j Gjy;thpd; (mNrhfhpd;)
rPuhHe;j je;ij vd;Wk; tuyhw;whrphpaH miof;fpd;wdH - gpe;Jrhud;
 gpe;Jrhuh; ,we;j Mz;L - fp.K. 273
in
 mNrhfh; thhpRhpikg;NghH - fp.K. 273- 269 - 4 Mz;Lfs;
s.
 mNrhfh; Kb#l;bf;nfhz;lJ - 269
 gpe;Jrhuhdpd; kfd; - mNrhfh;
 es
mNrhfh; Muk;gj;jpy; rz;l mNrhfh; vd miof;fg;gl;lhd;
 mNrhfh; thhpRikg;Nghhpy; 4 Mz;Lfspy; 99 rNfhjuHfis nfhd;whH
pr
 jdJ cld;gpwg;ghd (jha; tapw;wpy; gpwe;j)jp];ah vd;w rNfhjuid kl;Lk;
capUld; tpl;Ltpl;lhH.
ex
 mNrhfh; nkshpag; Nguurd; Md Mz;L fp.K. 273

 mNrhfUf;F Kb#l;batH - cgFg;jH
lvi
 mNrhfhpd; jha; - Rkj;uhq;fp
 mNrhfhpd; ,aw;ngaH - Njtdhk;gphpad; > gphpajH\pdp
ka
 mNrhfH kze;j rhf;fpa ,sturp - kfhNjtp

 kfhNjtpf;F gpwe;jtd; - kNfe;jpud;> rq;fkpj;jpiu
w.
 kfhtk;rgb mNrhfH kze;jJ mrq;f kpj;jpiu (30 tajpy; ,we;jhH)

 mNrhfhpd; gl;lj;jurp - jp\;auf;\pjh
ww
 Gj;j rka E}y; mNrhfiu rz;l mNrhfd; vd;fpwJ

 mNrhfh; ,wg;G fp.K. 236
 fypq;fg;Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.K. 261 -y;
 fypq;fg;NghUf;Fg;gpd; mNrhfh; Nkw;nfhz;l KbT - NghhpLtjpy;iy> jh;k
tp[aj;ij gpd;gw;wpdhh;
 fypq;fNghhpy; ,we;jth;fs; - 10>00>00 NgH> rpiwgpbf;fg;gl;ltHfs; - 15>00>00
 mNrhfhpd; filrp NghH - fypq;fNghH
 gilnaLj;J Nghh; nra;J ntw;wp ngWtJ - jpf; tp[ak;
 jpf;tp[aj;ij ntWj;J jh;k tp[aj;ijg; gpd;gw;wpath; - mNrhfh;
 mNrhfh; kf;fsplk; jh;kj;ij tsh;ff ; Nkw;nfhz;l ,iltplhj gazq;fs; -
jh;ktp[ak;
 mNrhfh; jh;kj;ij kf;fspilNa gug;g epakpj;j rpwg;G gzpahsh;fs; -
jh;kkfhkhj;jpuh;fs;
 ,e;jpahtpy; Kjd; Kjypy; kf;fs; ey muir cUthf;fpath; - mNrhfh;
 mNrhfh; jOtpa kjk; - ngsj;j kjk; / `Pdahdk;
 mwpT> md;G> xOf;fk; Mfpatw;iw typAWj;jpa kjk; - ngsj;j kjk;
 mNrhfh; nrg;gdpl;l ngsj;j epidtplq;fs; - fgpyt];J> rhuehj;> Gj;jfah

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 %d;whtJ ngsj;j rka khehL $l;ba ,lk; - ghlypGj;jpuk; - fp.K. 240
 %d;whtJ ngsj;j rka khehL $l;bath; - mNrhfh;
 mNrhfh; mikj;j fw;W}z; - rhQ;rp];J}gp
 mNrhfh; mikj;j ];J}gpfs; cs;s ,lk; - rhQ;rp> rhuehj;> Yk;gpdp Nghd;w ,lq;fs;
 ghurPf rpw;gf;fiyapd; jhf;fj;jhy; cUthdJ - rhuehj; fw;W}z;
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lf; nghwpf;fg;gl;l nkhop - gpuhf;fpUj nkhop
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lf;fs; nghwpf;fg;gl;l vOj;JKiw - fNuh];b vOj;J
 Nghiuj;jtpu jh;kj;ijg; gpd;gw;WtNj rpwe;jJ vd mNrhfh; $wpdhh;
 mNrhfiu kjkhw;wk; nra;jtH - cgFg;jH
 Gj;jk;> jHkk;> rq;fk; Mfpa %d;iwAk; jk; tho;tpy; Gfoplkhf nfz;ltH - mNrhfH
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;L jHkj;jpd; Mtzq;fs; vd $WtH
 mNrhfH Gj;j rka Nfhl;ghLfis gug;g epakpf;fg;gl;l mjpfhhpfs; jHk
kfhkhj;jpiufs; 256 NgH
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; FWq;NfhL ml;rNuif 14°49° - 34°20° tiuapYk;
jPHf;fNfhL 75.15° - 85.50°tiuapYk; cs;sd.
 ml;rNuif 20°f;Fk; jPHf;f Nuif 15°f;Fk; ,ilapy; cs;s gFjpapy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
in
 mNrhfH 14 ngUk;ghiw J}z; fp.K. 257 -256 d; tbf;fg;gl;bUf;fyhk;
s.
 mNrhfh; ngUk;ghiwJ}z; cs;s ,lk; - khd;Nruh> ng\htH> kh];fp> fhy;rp>
vHuFb> fHE}y;
 es
mNrhfhpd; Kjy; ngUk;ghiw J}z; fy;ntl;by; tpyq;Ffis nfhy;yf;$lhJ vd
Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
pr
 4tJ ngUk;ghiw fy;ntl;L jHkf; nfhs;if
 9 tJ ngUk;ghiw fy;ntl;L - mNrhfhpd; gpwg;G> jpUkzk; gw;wpaJ
ex
 12 tJ fy;ntl;L - rkag;nghiw
 13 tJ fypq;f Nghhpdhy; Vw;gl;l Jauk;> caphpog;G> kjkhw;wk;
lvi
 14tJ mNrhfhpd; Md;kPf tho;f;if gw;wp $WfpwJ
 mNrhfiu nka;Qhd NguurH vdg; Gfo;e;jtH - lhad;gP
ka
 mNrhfH fhyj;jpy; 5tJ khepykhf Nrf;fg;gl;lJ - fypq;fk;

 mNrhfhpd; jHk newp nfhs;iffs; - 24
w.
 mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;L tbf;fg;gl;l nkhop gpuhf;fpUjk;.

 mNrhf fhyj;jpy; 84000 ];J}gpfs; ntspaplg;gl;lJ
ww
 ghurPf rpw;gf;fiy jhf;fj;jhy; cUthdJ - rhuzhj; fw;W}z;

 mikr;ruit FO ke;jphp ghp\j;
 nkshpag; NguuR 5 gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ
 nkshpa fhyj;jpy ;fpuhkj;jpy; 6y; 1gq;F epythp ghfk; / gyp vdg;gl;lJ
 nkshpa fhy 2 tif ePjpkd;wk;. 1. jHkh];jpfh(rptp];)> 2. fz;lfNrhjdh
(Fw;wtpay;)
 jiyik ePjpgjp - jHkh];jpfh
 mNrhfH ,we;j ,lk; - jl;rrPyk; fp.K. 232
 mNrhfUf;Fg; gpd; Ml;rp nra;jtd; - jrujd;
 jrujDf;F gpd; Fzhsd;
 mNrhfh; fhyj;jpy; tlf;F gFjpapy; jl;rrPyKk;> njw;F gFjpapy; - Rth;zfphpAk;>
fpof;F gFjpapy; - NjhrhypAk; jiyefh;fshf ,Ue;jd
 nkshpag; Nguurpd; jiyefuk;> mNrhfg; Nguurpd; jiyefuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk;
 mNrhfh; fhyj;jpy; vy;iyg;gFjpfspd; ghJfhg;ig fz;fhzpj;jth;fs;
‘kfhkhj;jpuh;‛ vd;wiof;fg;gl;ldh;
 kf;fsJ md;whl mw tho;f;iff;F cjt epakpf;fg;gl;lth;fs; - jh;kkfhkhj;jpuh;fs;
 nkshpag; Nguurpy; efuhl;rp nray;gl;l gFjp - ghlypGj;jpuk;

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 ghlypGj;jpu efukd;wk; 30 Ngh;fisf; nfhz;L Ml;rp nra;jJ.
5 Ngh;fisf; nfhz;l 6 FOf;fshfg; gphpe;J 30 Ngh;fs; Ml;rp nra;jdh;
 nkshpag;gil 5 gphpTfisf; nfhz;bUe;jJ
 nkshpa;ggil 30 Ngh; nfhz;l eph;thff;FOthy; fz;fhzpf;fg;gl;lJ
 rpj;jputijia> kuz jz;lidia xopj;jth; - mNrhfh;
 mNrhfh; jpf;tp[aj;ij iftpl;L jh;k tp[aj;ij Nkw;nfhz;lhh;
 ,yq;ifapy; ngsj;j rkaj;ij gug;g mNrhfuhy; mDg;gg;gl;lth; - rq;fkpj;jpiu>
kNfe;jpud;
 ghlypGj;jpuk; vDk; Nfhl;ilia mikj;jth; - m[hjrj;U
 mNrhfUf;Fg;gpd; Ml;rp nra;jtd; - jrujd;
 jrujDf;Fg;gpd; Ml;rp nra;jtd; - Fzhsd;
 nkshpa tk;rj;jpd; filrp murd; - gpUfj;ujd;
 gpUfj;ujid nfhiy nra;jtd; - G\;akpj;ud;
 nkshpa NguuR tPo;r;rp - fp.K. 185/184
 G\;akpj;uRq;fdhy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l tk;rk; - Rq;f tk;rk;
 ee;j tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; kd;dd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;
mnyf;rhz;lHpd; ,e;jpa gilnaLg;G.
in
 ghurPf mf;Nkdpa Nguuir Njhw;Wtpj;jtH- Kjyhk; iru];(jiyrpwe;j kd;dH)
s.
 ,e;jpahtpw;F vjpuhf gilnaLj;j Kjy; ghurPf kd;dH Kjyhk; iru];
 ,e;jpahtpy; Kjyhk; iru]; ntd;w gFjpfs; - ypgpah> ghf;Bhpah> ghgpNyhdpah>
mrPhpah es
 Kjyhk; iru]; f;Fg;gpd; Ml;rp Ghpe;jtH - Kjyhk; Nfk;igr];
pr
 Kjyhk; Nfk;igr]; f;Fg;gpd; Kjyhk; Nlhpa];
 rpe;J gFjpia ghurPf ehl;Lld; ,izj;jtH - Kjyhk; Nlhpa];
ex
 %d;whk; Nlhpa]; ghurPf kd;duhf ,Ue;jNghJ khrpNlhdpah kd;dd;

mnyf;rhz;lH fp.K. 331 y; %d;whk; Nlhpai] mHngy;yh Nghhpy; ntd;W
lvi
ghurPfj;ij ,izj;Jf; nfhz;lhH
 ghurPf jq;f ehzak; - lhhpf;
ka
 ghurPf nts;sp ehzak;- rPnfy;

 ghurPfHfspd; Gdpj E}y; - n[d;l; mnt];jh
w.
 ghurPfHfspd; vOj;J Kiw - fNuh];b

 mnyf;rhz;lH khrpNlhdpahtpy; ,uz;lhk; gpypg; - d; kfdhf 355 (m) 356y;
ww
gpwe;jhH
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; FU mhp];lhl;by;
 mhp];lhl;by; -d; FU gpshl;Nlh
 mnyf;rhz;lH khrpNlhdpahtpd; kd;duhdJ - fp.K. 335 (m) 334
 mnyf;rhz;lH rpwpa Mrpah> vfpg;J rphpah Mfpatw;iw ntd;wtJ - fp.K. 334
 mnyf;rhz;lH ghurPfj;ij ifg;gw;wpaJ mHngy;yh Nghhpy; fp.K. 331
 ghurPf NguurH vd;w gl;lk; #l;bf; nfhz;ltH mnyf;rhz;lH
 mnyf;rhz;lH gilnaLg;gpd; NghJ ,e;jpa Ml;rpahsHfs;
 jl;rrPy murH - mk;gp
 [Pyk; rPdg; gFjpf;F ,ilg;gl;l gFjp - nghpa Nghu];
 rPdg; - uhtp ,ilgl;l gFjp - rpwpa Nghu];
 rpe;J gFjp - nksrpfd;
 mnyf;rhz;lH ,e;jpahit Nehf;fp Gwg;gl;lJ - fp.K. 328
 mnyf;rhz;lH gil ,e;JF\; kiyia fle;jJ - fp.K. 327 Nk
 mnyf;rhz;lH rpe;J ejpia flf;f cjtpGhpe;jtH - jl;rrPy mk;gp
 mnyf;rhz;lH ntw;wp nfhz;l kiy[hjp kd;dd; - `];jp(Kul;Lf; $l;ljiytd;)
 mnyf;rhz;lH ntd;w Nfhl;il - k];]fh> MHeh];

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 mnyf;rhz;lH ,e;jpagilnaLg;gpw;F fhuzk; - cyif ntd;W xg;gw;w tPud; vDk;
ngaiu ngw Mir
 mnyf;rhz;lH epf;Nfah vd;Dkplj;ij jiyik fhtyplkhf;fpdhH
 rpe;J ejp / Xfpe;j; ejpia fle;jJ fp.K. 326 gpg;uthp
 mnyf;rhz;lUf;F gzpe;J mthpd; Nkyhjpf;fj;ij Vw;w ,e;jpa murH - `k;gp
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; J}Jf;FOit `k;gp re;jpj;j ,lk; - epf;Nfah
 mnyf;rhz;liu vjpHj;j kd;dH - nghpa Nghu]; vd;w GUN\hj;jkd;
 [Pyk; / i`lh];g]; ejpg;NghH fp.K. 326 [Piy > Nghu]; - mnyf;rhz;lH
 nghpa Nghu]; 9 tpOg;Gz;fSld; ifJ nra;ag;gl;lhH
 mnyf;rhz;lhplk; jd;id xU Nguuruhf kjpf;f Ntz;Lk; vd miu$ty;
tpLj;jtH - Nghu];
 [Pyk; ejpg;NghH 8 kzp Neuk; ele;jJ. 17000 NgH ,we;jdH 20000 NgH
rpiwgpbf;fg;gl;ldH
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; ngUe;jd;ik ntspg;gl;lJ. Nghui] kPz;Lk; Ml;rp Ghpa
mDkjpj;jJ
 mnyf;rhz;lHpd; giltPuHfs; NrhHtile;j ,lk; - gpah]; ejpf;fiu
 mnyf;rhz;lH giltPuHfs; Nghhpl kWf;f fhuzk; - jha;ehlhd fpNuf;fk; nry;y
in
 mnyf;rhz;lH gpah]; ejpf;fiuapy; 12 fy;J}z;fis el;lhH
s.
 mnyf;rhz;lH gilfs; ,e;jpahtpypUe;J jpUk;gpaJ (kPs;gazk;) - fp.K> 326
mf;NlhgH
 es
gQ;rhig Ml;rpGhpa mnyf;rhz;luhy; epakpf;fg;gl;l giljsgjp - gpypg;Ngh];
 mnyf;rhz;lH rpe;Jtpy; epWtpa efH - gNlyh(2k; mnyf;rhz;lhpah)
pr
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; filrp gilnaLg;G fp.K. 325 [Pd; ky;yha;> m];l;NuhNdhNkha;
$l;lj;ij ntd;wJ
ex
 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; ,e;jpa gilnaLg;G fp.K. 326 [Piy

 mnyf;rhz;lhpd; flw;gil jsgjp epahf]; jiyikapy; fly; topahf 1 gil
lvi
gphpit mDg;gpdhH
 Ky;yha; fztha; topahf fpNubuh]; jiyikapy; xU gilia mDg;gpdhH
ka
 mnyf;rhz;lh; ,wg;G fp.K. 323 [Pd;> 33 tJ tajpy; ghgpNyhdpy;

 ntd;wtUf;F Nghjpf;f Neukpy;iy nty;ygl;ltH mwpe;J nfhs;Sk; epiyapy;
w.
,y;iy vd R. rj;jpaehja;aH $WtJ mnyf;rhz;lhpd; ,e;jpa

gilnaLg;G
ww
F\hzg; NguuR
 nkshpag; Nguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;Fg; gpd; ,e;jpahtpy; epWtg;gl;l typikahd NguuR -
F\hzg; NguuR
 F\hzh;fs; ‘A+r;rp‛ ,df;FOtpd; Xh; cl;gphpT
 F\hzHfspd; G+HtPfk; rPdh
 F\hzHfs; Ml;rpGhpe;j gFjp tlNkw;F ,e;jpah
 ‘A+r;rp‛ vd;w ,df;FOtpd; Xh; cl;gphptpdNu F\hzh;fs;
 F\hzg; Nguuir epWtpath; - Kjyhk; fhl;igr];. ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;Fg; gFjpapy;
fp.gp. Kjy; E}w;whz;L epWtpdhh;
 gQ;rhg;igAk;> fq;ifr;rkntspiaAk; ifg;gw;wpa F\hz kd;dd; - 2- k; fhl;gpr];
 F\hz tk;rj;jpd; jiyrpwe;j kd;dd; - fdp\;fh; ( fhyk; fp.gp. 78- 101) rf
Mz;L(rfh rfhg;jk;)
 rPdhtpd; kPJ ,UKiw gilnaLj;j F\hz kd;dd; - fdp\;fh;
 rPdj;jsgjp ‘ghQ;Nrh‛ vd;gtdplk; Njhw;w kd;dd; - fdp\;fh;
 fdp\;fh; cUthf;fpa Gjpa jiyefuk; - GU\Guk; ( ng\hth;) vd;gJ ng\hth;
 fdp\;fhpd; ,uz;lhtJ jiyefuk; - fdp\;fGuk;

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 fdp\;fH gpd;gw;wpa rkak; kfhahd Gj;j rkak; cUthf;fg;gl;L fhe;jhuf;fiy
Njhd;wpaJ
 fdp\;fh; <LghL nfhz;l rkak; - ngsj;j rkak;
 ehd;fhtJ Gj;j rka khehl;il $l;bath; - fdp\;fh;
 ehd;fhtJ Gj;j rka khehL vq;F $l;lg;gl;lJ - fh\;kPh;
 kfhtpgh\h vDk; E}y; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ Gj;j rka khehl;by; tRkpj;jpuH
 ehd;fhtJ Gj;j rka khehl;by; gq;Nfw;w ngsj;j mwpQh;fs; - tRge;J> mRtNfhrh;>
ehfh;[Pdh
 Gj;j rkaj;jpd; khHl;bd; Y}jH - ehfH[Pdh
 ahH fhyk; Gj;j rka nghw;fhyk; fdp\;fH fhyk;
 fdp\;fH Ml;rp Ghpe;j fhyk; - 23 Mz;Lfs; > fdp\;fhpd; fhyk; 120(102)
 fdp\;fhpd; muz;kid kUj;JtH - rufH
 fdp\;fH mitapy; ,Ue;j fpNuf;f fl;blf; fiy ty;YeH - a[Pyh];
 kfhahd ngsj;j kjg;gphpT Njhd;wpaJ ve;j khehl;by;? - ehd;fhtJ ngsj;j
khehl;by;
 mRtNfhrh vOjpa E}y;fs; - Gj;j rhpjk;> R+j;jpu myq;fhuk; (tlnkhopapy;
vOjg;gl;lJ)
in
 ,e;jpa> fpNuf;f El;gq;fis ,ize;j fiy - fhe;jhuf;fiy
s.
 ,uz;lhk; mNrhfh; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - fdp\;fh;
 rf rfhg;jk; my;yJ Gjpa fhy fzf;fPl;L Kiw cUthdJ - fdp\;fh; fhyj;jpy;
 es
rf rfhg;jk; vd;gJ fp.gp. 78 - y; ( fdp\;fh; gjtpf;F te;j Mz;L)
 F\hzh; Nguurpd; filrp kd;dd; - fdp\;fh;
pr
 ahUf;Fg; gpd; F\hzg; NguuR tPo;r;rpAw;wJ - fdp\;fUf;Fg;gpd;
 fhe;jhuk; vd;gJ ng\htH (v) GU\Guj;ij Rw;wpAs;s gFjp
ex
 fdp\;fiu Gj;j rkaj;jpw;F khw;wpatH - mRtNfhrH

 F\hzHfspd; filrp kd;dH - thRNjtd;
lvi
 ,e;jpa [];Bdpad; vd;wiof;fg;gl;ltH - ehfH[PdH
 fdp\;fUf;Fg;gpd; mwpaiz Vwpatd; - trp];fd;
ka
 trp];fDf;Fg;gpd; ctpNrfd;
 trpNrfDf;F gpd; thRNjtd; (filrpkd;dd;)
w.
 F\hzg;Nguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;Fg;gpd; kfjj;jpy; Njhd;wpa NguuR - Fg;jg;NguuR

Fg;jH fhyk;
ww
 Fg;jh;fspd; jiyefuk; - ghlypGj;jpuk;

 Fg;jH rkak; - itztk;
 Fg;jH fhyk; fp.gp. 250(m) 270 Kjy; 570 tiu nkhj;jk; - 300 Mz;Lfs;
 Fg;j Nguuir epWtpaH - =Fg;jH 270- 280
 2tJ Fg;j murH - fNlhj;f[d; 280 - 320
 3tJ Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH - 320- 335
 4 tJ rKj;jpuFg;jH- 335 - 375
 5 tJ ,uhkFg;jH - 375- 380
 6tJ ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jH - 380-414
 7 tJ Kjyhk; FkhuFg;jH - 414- 455
 8 tJ ];fe;j Fg;jH - 455- 467
 gpw;fhy Fg;jHfs; (gpe;ija Fg;jH) G+UFg;jH> G+jFg;jH> tp\;ZFg;jH
 filrp - eurpk;k Fg;j ghyhjpj;ah
 filrp rpwe;j Fg;jH - ];fe;j Fg;jH
 Fg;jNguuir cz;ikapy; Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jH(gl;lk;
#l;bf;nfhz;lJ kfhuh[hjpuh[h)
 Fg;jHfspd; G+HtPfk; KH\pjhghj; vd RC. fq;Fyp $wpdhH.

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 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jhpd; tho;fi; fia tpsf;Fk; ehlf E}y; nfsKfp kNfhj;Jtk;
(tpUr;rpf KdptH)
 Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jhpd; kfd; - rKj;jpuFg;jd;
 Fg;jHfspy; jiyrpwe;jtH ftpuh[d;> ftpfspy; ,sturH> ,e;jpa neg;Nghypad;
Mfpa gl;lq;fis Gide;J nfhz;ltd; - rKj;j;puFg;jd;
 rKj;jpuFg;jid ,e;jpa neg;Nghypad; vdf; $wpatH – V.A. ];kpj; (Vincent
Admiralsmith)
 rKj;jpu Fg;jhpd; ntw;wp gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L myfhghj; J}z; fy;ntl;L
fk];fpUj nkhopapy; 33 thpfs; tbf;fg;gl;lJ. tbj;jtH - mhpNrdH
 myfhghj; J}z; fy;ntl;L 100 Ngiu ntd;w tPud; vd rKj;jpu Fg;jiu $WfpwJ
 Fg;j tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; Rje;jpu kd;dd; - Kjyhk; re;jpuFg;jh;
 Fg;jAfk; (Fg;j mg;jk;) Gupta Era njhlq;fg;gl;lJ - fp.gp. 320 gpg;uthp 26-y;
 Fg;j kd;dh;fspy; jiy rpwe;jth; - rKj;jpuFg;jh; ( fp.gp.335-375)
 rKj;jpuFg;jdpd; ntw;wpfisg; gw;wp $Wk; fy;ntl;L - myfhghj;J}z; fy;ntl;L
 rKj;jpuFg;jd; MhpatHj;jk; vDk; tl,e;jpa kd;dHfis ntd;whd;(jpf; tp[ak;)
1. Uj;jpuNjtd;
2. kjpyh
in
3. ehfjj;jh
s.
4. ee;jpd;
5. ghytHkd;
6. fzgjp tHkd; es
7. re;jputHkd;
pr
8. mr;Rjd;
 rKj;jpuFg;juhy; ntw;wpnfhs;sg;gl;l njd;dpe;jpa kd;dHfs; - 12 Ngh; jl;rzg;gjk;
ex
(jHktp[ak;)
1. Nfhry ehl;L kd;dd; - kfhNfhryd;
lvi
2. kfhfhe;jhuk; ehl;L kd;dd; - tpahf;fuuh[d;
3. gp\;lhguk; ehl;L kd;dd; - kNfe;jpufphp
ka
4. mtKf;j ehl;L kd;dd; - ePsuh[d;

5. Ntq;fp ehl;L kd;dd; - m];jptHkd;
w.
6. ghyf;fhL ehl;L kd;dd; - cf;fpuNrdd;

7. Nfush ehl;L kd;dd; - kz;luh[d;
ww
8. nuz;lgs;sp ehl;L kd;dd; - jkzd;

9. Nfhl;L ehl;L kd;dd; - Rthkpjj;jd;
10. Njtuhl;bu ehl;L kd;dd; - FNtud;
11. t];jyGuk; ehl;L kd;dd; - jdQ;rad;
12. fhQ;rpGuk; (gy;yt kd;dd;) - tp\;ZNfhgd;
 rKj;jpuFg;juhy; ntw;wpf;nfhs;sg;gl;l FbauR FO - 11
 rKj;jpuFg;juhy; ntw;wpf;nfhs;sg;gl;l vy;iy Gw muR - Neghsk;> fhk&gk;>
rhkjj;jh
 rKj;jpuFg;jd; cwT nfhz;l ,yq;if kd;dd; - =NkftHkd;
 rKj;jpuFg;jH ntspapl;l jq;f ehzak; - 8 tif
myfhghj;J}z; fy;ntl;ilg; nghwpj;jth; - mhpNrdh;
 rKj;;jpuFg;jdpd; mikr;rh; - mhpNrdh;
 rKj;jpuFg;jH jk; tho;ehspy; 28 gilnaLg;ig Nkw;nfhz;lhH
 rKj;jpuFg;jH Nkw;nfhz;l ahfk; - mRtNkjk;
 rKj;jpuFg;jhpd; %j;j kfd; - ,uhkFg;jH
 ,isa kfd; - ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jd;
 ,uhkFg;jiu Kw;Wifapl;ltd; - rhfHj;jiytd; - cUj;jpurpk;kd;

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 ,uhkFg;jhpd; kidtp - JUtyh Njtp
 ,uhkFg;jiu njhlHe;J ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jH Ml;rpf;F te;jhH
 2k; re;jpuFg;jhpd; jha; - jj;jNjtp
 2k; re;jpuFg;jH Gide;J nfhz;l gl;lngaH - tpf;ukhjpj;ad;
 2k; re;jpuFg;jiu kze;j ehf ,sturp - FNguehfh
 FNguehfhtpd; kfs; - gpughtjp Fg;jh
 thfhl kd;dd; 2k; Uj;jpuNrdd; gpughtjp Fg;jhit kze;jhH
 nkf;Uyp (m) nly;yp ,Uk;G J}; 2k; re;jpuFg;jd; fhyj;jpy; fl;lg;gl;lJ.
 1500 Mz;Lfshf JUg;gpbf;fhky; nly;ypapy; ,Ug;gJ - ,Uk;Gj;J}z;
 Fg;jh; fhy ,Uk;Gj;J}z; cs;s ,lk; - nkfnusyp (nly;yp)
 nkf;Uyp ,Uk;G J}z; cauk; 23 mb 16.4 mq;Fy tpl;lk;
 ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;j mitia myq;fhpj;j 9 tlnkhop GytHfs; - etuj;jpdq;fs;
 etuj;jpdq;fspy; rpwg;Gkpf;ftH - GytH fhspjhrH
 rhfh;fis ntd;w Fg;j kd;dd; - ,uz;lhk; re;jpu Fg;jh; /rhfhhp vdg;gl;lhd;
 ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jhpd; 2k; jiyefuk; c[;i[apdp
 ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jhpd; kfd; - FkhuFg;jH 414- 455 tiu Ml;rp
 gpy;rhj; fy;ntl;L fp.gp. 415 y; Kjyhk; FkhuFg;jH fhyj;jpy; nrJf;fg;gl;lJ
in
 Kjyhk; Fkhu Fg;jH fhyk; Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; ,Uz;lfhyk;
s.
 Kjyhk; Fkhu Fg;jhpd; kidtpfs; - 2
 1. Mde;j Njtp - ,thpd; kfd; - GUFg;jH
 es
2. Njtfp ,thpd; kfd; - ];fe;j Fg;jd; - 455- 467 Ml;rp
 Kjyhk; Fkhu Fg;jH fhyj;jpy ;Kjypy; `PdHfs; ,e;jpah kPJ gilnaLj;jdH.
pr
 Kjyhk; Fkhu Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; Fg;j NguurpypUe;J eOtpg;Nghd gFjp - khstk; -
ifg;gw;wpatd; - aNrhtHkd;
ex
 Kjyhk; Fkhu Fg;jiu njhlHe;J Ml;rp Ghpe;jtd; - ];fe;j Fg;jH

 `PdHfis Njhw;fbj;J tpul;ba xNu kd;dd; - ];fe;j Fg;jH
lvi
 Fg;jHfspd; filrp rpwe;j murH - ];fe;jFg;jH
 Fg;jNguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;F fhuzk; - `PdH gilnaLg;G
ka
 `PdHfs; kj;jpa Mrpahtpd; Kul;L $l;lj;jpdH

 `PdHfspd; jiytd; - Njhkhdd;> kpfpuFyd;
w.
 `PdHfs;py; ahiu rpwe;j murd;> ,uh[je;jphp vd tuyhw;W MrphpaH Gfo;fpd;wdH -

Njhukhdd;
ww
 Njhukhdd; gpd;gw;wpa rkak; ,e;J rkak; (#hpad;> rptd; topghL)

 Athd;Rthq; kpfpuFyid uj;jntwpgpbj;j nfhLq;Nfhyd; vd $WfpwhH
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; ghDFg;jhpd; fhyj;jpy; `PdHfs; gilnaLj;jdH.
 Njhukhdd; Ml;rp Ghpe;j gFjp - cj;juhgjk;
 Fg;jH fhyj;ij fpNuf;ftuyhw;wpy; nghpf;tpa]; fhyj;ijAk;> ,q;fpyhe;J tuyhw;wpy;
Kjyhk; vyprngj; fhyj;ijAk; xg;gplyhk;
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa ngz;ghH Gyth;fs; - rPy;> gl;lhhpfh
 kpfpuFyd; eurpk;k Fg;j fhyjpj;jpah fhyj;jpy; gilnaLj;jhd;
 ,uhkhazk;> kfhghujk;> 18 Guhzq;fs; > gQ;r je;jpu fijfs; njhFf;fgl;lJ -
Fg;j fhyk;
 Fg;jh;fshy; Nghw;wg;gl;l tlnkhopg; Gyth;fs;
 fhspjhrh; vOjpa E}y;fs; - rhFe;jyk;> uFtk;rk;> Fkhurk;gtk;
 rpwe;J tpsq;fpa thdtpay; mwpQH - tuhfkpfpuH
 tuhfkpfpuH vOjpa thdtpay; E}y; - gQ;r rpj;jhe;jk;
 kpUr;rpfbfk; vDk; N[hjpl E}iy vOjpatH - thf;gl;lH
 gpuk;kFg;jH vOjpa thdtpay; E}y; - gpuk;k rpj;jhe;jk;
 thj;];ahadhH vOjpa jj;Jt E}y; - Qha gh\;ak;

www.kalviexpress.in
 gjQ;ryp vOjpa E}y; - kfhgh\;ak;> tpahgh\;ak;
 thf;gl;lH vOjpa kw;nwhU E}y; - m\;lhq;f fpUja rk;`pij
 jz;bd; vOjpa E}y; jrFkhu rhpjk;> fhtp jH\k;
 gz;ila fzpjtpay; ty;YeHfspy; jiy rpwe;jtH - Mhpag;gl;lH
 tuhfkpfpuH tpUfj;rk;fpjhH vd;w E}ypy; Nfhs;fspd; ,af;fk;> tpisTfs; gw;wp
$wpAs;shH.
 Fg;jh;fshy; Nghw;wg;gl;l Gyth;fs; - tlnkhopg;Gyth;fs;
 Fg;jh; fhy Xtpaj;jpw;F v.fh. - m[e;jh Xtpak;
 Fg;jh; fhyj;J fzpj mwpQh; - Mhpagl;lh;
 Fg;jh;fhyj;jpya thdpah; - tuhf kpfpuh;
 Fg;jh; fhyj;J Gfo;ngw;w kUj;Jt mwpQh;fs; - rufh;>RRUjh;> jd;te;jphp
 Fg;jH fhy rpwg;G ngw;w fiy rpw;gf;fiy
 Fg;jH fhy Xtpak; (Filtiu)- m[e;jh> vy;Nyhuh> xsuq;fhghj;
 m[e;jhtpy; 29 Filtiufs;. Kjy; Fiutiiuapy; Nghjprj;JtH Xtpak;
 19 tJ Fifapy; - Gj;jH fgpyt[;J jpUk;Gjy; Xtpak;
 16 tJ Fifapy; - kuzthapypy; ,sturp
 ghf; vDk; 3tJ Fifapy; rhkuk; tPRk; ngz; (tprpwp)
in
 Fg;jH fhy khfhz MSeH - cghpfh
s.
 khtl;l Ml;rpahsh; - tpragjp
 ,e;J rka kWkyHr;rp fhyk; - Fg;jH fhyk;
 Guhzk; njhFf;fg;gl;lJ - Fg;jH fhyk; es
 Fg;jH fhyj;jpy; mwpKfkhf rpfpr;ir Kiw - mWit rpfp;ri ; r Kiw
pr
 Fg;jH fhy fl;llq;fs; cs;s ,lk; - jpNahfH> gpjHfhd;
 ehse;jh gy;fiyf;fofj;ij cUthf;fpath; - Fkhu Fg;jh;
ex
 rhjpKiw kpff;fLikahdJ> caph;gyp fhzg;gl;lJ> Nts;tpfs; nra;ag;gl;lJ -

Fg;jh; fhyk;
lvi
 rptd;rf;jp> tp\;Z> Fkud;KUfd; topghLfs; ngUfpaJ - Fg;jh; fhyk;
 nghw;fhyk; vdf; fUjg;gLtJ - Fg;jh;fs; fhyk;
ka
 Fg;jg; NguuR tPo;rr

; pf;F fhuzkhf gilnaLg;G - `Pdh;> G\;akpj;jpuh; Nghd;w
me;epah; gilnaLg;G
w.
 Fg;jh; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpw;F te;j rPdg; gazp - ghfpahd; (fp.gp. 399- 414)
 ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jh; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpw;F te;j rPdg;gazp - ghfpahd;
ww
 ghfpahd; tUifapd; Nehf;fk; - ngsj;j jsq;fisf; fhz

 tpf;fpukhjpj;jd; vd;wiof;fg;gl;ltd; - ,uz;lhk; re;jpuFg;jh;
`H\H rfhg;jk;
 Fg;j Nguurpd; tPo;rr; pf;Fg;gpwF tl,e;jpahtpy; kPz;Lk; xU Nguuir cUthf;fpath;
- `h;\th;j;jdh;
 Fg;jHfspd giljsgjpahf tpsq;fpatd; - G\;aG+jp
 G\;aG+jpapd; kfd; gpughfutHj;jdH( 550- 605)
 gpughfutHjdhpd; NtWngaH - gpujhg rPyH
 tHj;jdH tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; Kf;fpa murH gpughfutHjdH
 gpughfutHjdhpd; %j;j kfd; ,uh[;atHj;dH
 gpughfutHjdhpd; ,isa kfd; - `H\H
 gpughfutHjdhpd; ,is kfs; - ,uh[;a=
 gpughfutHjdpd; kidtp - aNrhkjp
 `Pdhfshfpa khd; $l;lj;jpw;F vjpuhf rpq;fk; Nghy tpsq;fpatH -
gpughfutHj;jdH
 ,uh[;a= f;F =jdkhf nfhLf;fg;gl;l gFjp - fd;Ndhrp
 ,uh[;a= apd; fztH nksfhhp kd;dd; - fpuftHkd;

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 fpuftHkid nfhiy nra;jtd; khst kd;dd; - NjtFg;jd;
 gpughfutHjdH ,wg;G - fp.gp. 605
 ,uh[;a tHj;jdH mhpaiz Vwpa Mz;L - fp.gp. 605
 ,uh[;a tHj;jdiu nfhiy nra;jtd; - nfsl ehl;L rrhq;fd;
 jhNd];tuj;jpd; murh; - `h;\th;j;jdh; ( fhyk; 606-647)
 `h;\h; ePzl ; fhyk; Nghh;Ghpe;jJ - rrhq;fDld;
 `H\iu Njhw;fbj;J guNk];tud; vd;w gl;lj;ij #l;bf;nfhz;ltd; - 2k; GypNfrp
(eHkij ejpg;Nghhpd; fp.gp. 636y; )
 `h;\Uf;F Nghhpy; cjtp Ghpe;jth; - fhk&g kd;dh; ( m];]hk; kd;dh;)
gh];futh;kd;
 `h;\hpd; jq;if -- uh[;=
 uh[;=apd; Ntz;LNfhSf;fpzq;f `h;\h; kd;duhdJ ‘fd;Ndhrpapy;‛
 `H\hpd Kjy; Ntiy ,uh[;a=ia kPl;ly;
 `H\H rhjid fhk&g ty;ygp kd;dd; gh];fu utp tHkDld; cwT nfhz;lJ
 `H\H jdJ kfis ty;ygp kd;dd; 2k; JUt NrdDf;F jpUkzk; nra;jhd;
 `h;\hpd; jiyefuhf tpsq;fpaJ - fd;Ndhrp
 `h;\iuj; Njhw;fbj;j rhSf;fp kd;dh; - ,uz;lhk; GypNfrp
in
 `h;\h; gpd;gw;wpa rkak; - ngsj;j kjk;
s.
 `h;\h; ngsj;j rkaj;jpw;F <h;f;fg;gl fhuzkhdth;fs; - uh[;=> Athd;Rthq;
 `h;\h; fhyj;jpy; $l;lg;gl;l ngsj;j rka khehLfs; eilngw;w ,lk; - fd;Ndhrp>
gpuahif es
 ngsj;j gy;fiyf;fofk; vd;gJ -- ehse;jh gy;fiyf;fofk;
pr
 `h;\h; Mjuthy; cyfg;Gfo; ngw;w gy;fiyf;fofkhf tsh;r;rp ngw;wJ - ehse;jh
gy;fiyf;fofk;
ex
 `h;\hpd; mikr;rh; - ghzh; (rk];fpUjnkhop mwpQh;)

 `H\H Muk;gj;jpy; rptid topg;gl;lhH
lvi
 `h;\H fhy rpwe;j rkak; - k`hahd Gj;j rkak;
 fp.gp. 643 y; fd;Ndhrp Gj;jrka khehL Athd;Rthq;if fTutpf;f
ka
 fd;Ndhrp khehl;by; fye;J nfhz;ltd; - 2k; JUtNrdd; khehl;by; 23 ehs;

ele;jJ
w.
 Nkhrg; ghp\j; / fd;Ndhrp khehl;bd; NtWngaH - fd;Ndhrp khehL Njhy;tpapy;

Kbe;;jJ
ww
 mLj;J myfhgj; khehL/ gpuahif /khehL kfh Nkh\ghprj; 643y; 75 ehs;

eilngw;wJ> jhd jHkq;fs; eilngw;wJ
 ghzh; vOjpa E}y; - `h;r rhpjk;> fhjk;ghp
 `h;\h; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpw;F te;j rPdg;gazp - Athd;Rthq;
 tl ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;j filrp ,e;J NguuR - `H\NguuR
 `H\hpd; filrp gilnaLg;G 643 fQ;rk; gFjpapd; kPJ
 `H\H rPdhTf;F J}Jf;FOit mDg;gpa Mz;L - fp.gp. 641
 rPdJ}Jf;FOf;fs; ,e;jpah te;jJ `H\H fhyj;jpy; 2 tJ FO 641> 643
 `H\H ,wg;G - fp.gp. 647
 Athq;Rthq; vOjpa E}y; - rp.A.fp ,jd; nghUs; - Nkw;F cyfpd; Mtzq;fs;
 Athd;Rthq; gazpfspd; ,sturH> Gj;j rka rl;lj;jpd; je;ij> ,f;fhy
rhf;fpaKdp MFk;
 Athd; Rthq; fp.gp. 600 y; rPdhtpy; gpwe;jhH. 13 tJ tajpy; Jwtuk; Nkw;nfhz;lhH
 fp.gp. 629 y; rPdhit fle;J ,e;jpah te;jhH. fp.gp. 629 -644 vd 15 Mz;Lfs;
jq;fpUe;jhH.
 `H\H fhyj;jpy; kl;Lk; 8 Mz;Lfs; ,Ue;jhH
 `H\H fhyj;jpy; t#ypf;fg;gl;l thp - epythp - ghgh> gyp

www.kalviexpress.in
 `puz;ah vd;gJ - tzpfthp
 `H\H fhy Gfo;ngw;w gy;fiyf;fofk; ehse;jh (10000 khztH> 1500 MrphpaH)
 Ehse;jh vd;gjpd; nghUs; - mwpit tsh;g;gtH
 `H\H fhy Fjpiug;gil jsgjp - Fz;lyh
 `H\H fhy fhyhl; gil jsgjp - rpk;kehlH
 `H\H fhy ahid giljsgjp - ];lfe;j Fg;jH
 `H\H fhy Mtz fhg;gfk; - epNyhgpJ
 epykhdpa Kiwf;F mbNfhypaJ `H\H tk;rk;
 2 Mz;Lfs; ehse;jh gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy r ; k];fpUjk; gapd;whH.
 641y; ,uz;lhk; Gypf;Nfrp muritf;Fk;> Kjyhk; ehrpk;ktHk mitf;F nrd;whH
 rp.A.fp. vd;w E}y; ,e;jpahitg;gw;wpAk;> ngsj;jkjj;ijg ;gw;wpAk; $WfpwJ
 `h;\h; tlnkhopapy; vOjpa E}y;fs; - ehfhde;jk;> gphpajh;rpfh> uj;dhtsp
 Athq; Rthq; - rPdh ehl;ilr; rhh;e;jth;
 tl,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;j filrp NguuR - `h;\g; NguuR
 F\hz muir epWtpah; - Kjyhk; fhl;gpr]; ( F[Pyhufh fl;igr];)
 fdp\;fhpd; jiyefh; - ng\hth; (,) GU\Guk;
 jhNd\;tuj;jpd; murh; - `h;\h;
in
 Fg;jh;fspd; fhyk; - ,e;jpahtpd; nghw;fhyk;
s.
Unit –II es
Arab conquest of sindh and muslim invasions slave dynasty –
Alavuddin khilji – Thuglaqs- Society – Religion and culture under
pr
the Vijayanger rule .
ex
mNugpah; JUf;fpah; gilnaLg;G

lvi
 ,];yhk; kjj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - KfkJ egp
ka
 KfkJ egp gpwe;j Mz;L - fp.gp. 570 (nkf;fhtpy;)

 KfkJ egpapd; je;ij - mg;Jy;yh
w.
 KfkJ egp jd; 24 tJ tajpy; mtiutpl 15 taJ %j;j nry;t nropg;G kpf;f
ww
fjp[hit kze;jhH
 KfkJ egpapd; kfs; - ghj;jpkh
 KfkJ egp nkf;fhtpypUe;J nkjpdhtpw;F Juj;jp mDg;gg;gl;l Mz;L 622 (`p[;uh
rfhg;jk;)
 KfkJ egp ,we;j Mz;L - fp.gp. 632
 KfkJ egpapd; rPlH - mGgf;fH
 ,];yhk; kjj;ij Kjd; Kjyhf gpd;gw;wpath;fs; - mNugpah;fs;
 ,];yhk; vd;gjpd; nghUs; - ,izjy;> xd;whjy;
 ,e;jpahtpy; mNugpah;fspd; Kjy; jhf;Fjy; fp.gp. 636/637 ckH fypgh
 fp.gp. 644y; mg;Jy;yhgpd; ckH fhyj;jpy; 2k; jhf;Fjy; eilngw;wJ
 mNugpaH - rpe;J gilnaLg;G - fp.gp. 712
 mNugpaH - rpe;J gilnaLg;gpd; NghJ ,Ue;j rpe;Jtpd; murH - jhfPH
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 jhfPhpd; kfd; - n[arpk;kd;(n[a;rpq;) gpuhkzhghj; gFjpia Ml;rp nra;jtd;
 jhfPhpd; kfs;fs; - #hpah Njtp> ghpksh Njtp
 jhfPhpd; Kjy; kidtp - uhzp gha;> ,uz;lhtJ kidtp - uhzp Njtp
 mNugpa rpe;J gilnaLg;gpd; NghJ <uhf;fpd; MSeuhf ,Ue;jtH my;`[h[;
 ,];yhkpah;fis typikkpf;f murpay; ,af;fkhf Mrpahtpy; epiyepWj;jpath;fs; -
mNugpah;fs;
 ,];yhk; kjj;ij Nkw;F kw;Wk; fpof;F ehLfspy; gutr; nra;jth;fs;> ,];yhik
cyf kjq;fspy; xU Kf;fpa kjkhf tsur;nra;jth;fs; - JUf;fpah;fs;
 ‘mNugpah;fspd; rpe;J gilnaLg;Gf;F cldbf;fhuzk;- rpe;J murh;fs;
flw;nfhs;isah;fis fl;Lg;gLj;j jtwpdhh; fp.gp. 711 (m) Njghy; flw;nfhs;is
711
 rpe;Jit jhf;f Kjy; gil - 711y; cgaJy;yh
in
 ,uz;lhtJ gil - Gnja;y;

s.
%d;whtJ gil - 712 y; KfkJ gpd;fhrpk;
 rpe;J kPJ gilnaLf;f <uhf; MSeh; my;`h[h[; fypgh ‘thypj;‛ mDkjpAld;
ahiu mDg;gpdhh;? - KfkJ gpd; fhrpk;
es
pr
 rpe;Jit ifg;gw;wpa mNugpa gilj;jsgjp - KfkJ gpd; fhrpk;
 17 taJ epuk;gpatd; 6000 Fjpiugil> fhyhl;gil> 3000 xl;lf gil
ex
 KfkJ gpd; fhrpk; Njghiy nrd;wile;jJ - 712 epUd; Nfhl;ilia ifgw;wp Gj;j>
lvi
rkz Jwtpfis ifjilar; nra;jhd;

ka
NuthH mUfpy; jhfPHf;Fk;> KfkJ gpd; fhrpf;Fk; 712 y; NghH ele;jJ

 Nghhpy; jhfPH nfhy;yg;gl;lhH
w.
 [t`h; jPfF
; spg;G Kiwapy; caph;Jwe;j jh`Phpd; kidtp- ,uhzpgha;

ww
KfkJgpd; fhrpkpd; gilapy; 25>000 tPuh;fs; ,we;jdh;

 #hpahNjtp> ghpksh Njtp my;`[h[; me;jGuj;jpw;F mDg;gp itf;fg;gl;ldH.
 [t`h; vd;gJ - jPia %l;b Fjpj;J caph;Jwf;Fk; Kiw
 KfkJ gpd;fhrpk; ahuhy; nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;? - Riykhd; fypgh
 KfkJ gpd;fhrpk; nfhy;yg;gl;l Mz;L - 715
 KfkJ gpd; fhrpk; ,wg;gpw;F fhuzk; - jhfPhpd; Gjy;tpfs;
 ‘jq;fefuk;‛ vd miof;fg;gl;lJ - Ky;jhd;
 mNugpaH jrk vz;khd Kiwia ,e;jpahtpypUe;J fw;W INuhg;ghtpw;F nfhz;L
nrd;wdH
 ,e;Jf;fs; kPJ Kjd; Kjyhf [p];ah thp tpjpf;fg;gl;lJ: rpe;J gilnaLg;ghy;
 K];yPk; my;yhNjhh; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gl;l thp ‘[prpah‛
 mNugpah; rpe;Jit ntd;wjhy; ‘,];yhkpah; ,e;jpahTf;F tu fhuzkhdJ
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 gpuk;kFg;jh; vOjpa rk];fpUj E}y; - gpuk;krpj;jhe;jk;
 ghf;jhj; efh; kUj;Jtkidapy; jiyik kUj;Jtuhf epakpf;fg;gl;l ,e;jpah; - jhzh
 fypgh `hUy; -my;-u\pj; vd;ghhpd; Mgj;jhd Nehia Fzg;gLj;jpa ,e;jpah; -
khdfh
f[pdp KfkJ
 Mg;fhdp];jhdpy; cs;s rpw;wuR - f[pdp
 f[pdpia Rje;jpu murhf mwptpj;jtd; - myg;b[pd;
 myg;b[pdpd; mbik (m) kfd; rgf;b[pd;
 rgf;b[pd; ntw;wpnfhz;l ,e;jpa kd;dH - n[aghyH
 f[pdp KfkJ gpwg;G - 971 Mg;fhdp];jhdj;jpy; cs;s fh];dhtpy;> ahkpdp
tk;rj;jpy;
 f[pdp KfkJ muruhdJ - 997
in
 f[pdp KfkJ ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLj;jJ - fp.gp. 1000 - 1027 tiu 17 Kiw
s.
 f[pdp KfkJ ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLj;jjw;fhd fhuzk; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s
nry;tj;ij nfhs;isabj;jy;
es
 f[pdp KfkJ tpd; gilnaLg;Gfs; midj;Jk; [pfhj; vdg;gLk; Gdpjahj;jpiu
pr
vdg;gl;lJ
 KfkJ f[pdpapd; ,e;jpa gilnaLg;GfspNyNa Kf;fpakhdJ - NrhkehjGu
ex
gilnaLg;G
lvi
 fp.gp. 1000 y; Kjy; gilnaLg;G vy;iyGw Nfhl;il

ka
fp.gp. 1001y; ng\htH Ml;rpahsH n[aghyH kPJ

 7tJ gilnaLg;G 1009y; ehfHNfhl;ilapy; [Pthyh Kfp Nfhapiy nfhs;isabj;jy;
w.
 10 tJ gilnaLg;G 1014y; jhNd[;tuj;jpy; rq;fuh ];thkp Myak; nfhs;isabj;jy;


ww
11 tJ gilnaLg;G 1015y; fh\;kPH gilnaLg;G mthpd; Kjy; Njhy;tp

 12 tJ gilnaLg;G 1021y; fh\;kPH kPJ gilnaLj;J 2 Kiw Njhy;tp
(Nyhf;Nfhl;ilia ifgw;w Kad;wJ)
 1016> 1017 Mfpa 2 Mz;L ,e;jpah kPJ gilnaf;ftpy;iy> fhuzk; nfhNurhd;
caHFb kf;fs; fytuk;
 13 tJ gilnaLg;G 1018y; kJuh Nfhtpy; kPJ
 F[uhj; NrhkehjGu gilnaLg;G ele;j Mz;L -1025 -y; > 9 mb cauKs;s ypq;fk;
ngaHj;njLf;fg;gl;lJ : ,J 16 tJ gilnaLg;G
 NrhkehjGu kd;dH Kjyhk; gPk NjtH Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lhH
 17 tJ filrp gilnaLg;G [hl; ,d kf;fSf;F vjpuhf 1027y; NghH njhLj;J
Njhw;fbj;jhH
 f[pdp KfkJ 1030y; 59tJ tajpy; kNyhpah Nehahy; ,we;jhH
 KfkJ f[pdp Njhw;fbj;j NrhkehjGw kd;dh;? ,uh[h gPkNjtd;
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 KfkJ f[pdp mitapy; ,Ue;j mwpQh;fs; - gph;njsrp> my;gUdp
 NrhkehjGuk; cs;s ,lk; - fj;jpathh; jPgfw;gk;
 f[pdp efiuj; jPf;fpiuahf;fpath; - 1186-y; myhTjPd; cNrd;
 kdpj cUtpy; jphpe;j Nga;> cyfk; nfhOj;jp - myhTjPd; `pkhA+d;
KfkJ Nfhhp 1173 - 1206
 `Pul;Lf;Fk;> f[pdpf;Fk; eLNt cs;s kiyg;gFjp - Nfhh;(m) Nfhhp ehL
 Nfhh; (Nfhhp) ehl;il Mz;lth; - KfkJ Nfhhp
 NfhH ehl;by; muir Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - KfkJ gpd; #hp
 NfhH ehl;il Ml;rpGhpe;j tk;rk; - \hd;rghdp
 f[pdp murplkpUe;J ifgw;wp NfhH ehl;il tpLjiy ngw nra;jtd; - fpahRjPd;
 fpahRjPdpd; cld;gpwg;G KfkJ Nfhhp
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; ,aw;ngaH - nkha;];cj;jpd; KfkJ gpd; \hk;
in
 KfkJ Nfhhp #l;bf;nfhz;l gl;lk; \pfhGjPd; KfkJ Nfhhp
s.
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; ,e;jpa gilnaLg;gpd; Nehf;fk; : typikkpF ,];yhkpa
Mjpf;fj;ij ,e;jpahtpy; epiyehl;l
es
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; Kjy; ,e;jpa gilnaLg;G fp.gp. 1175y; Ky;jhd; kPJ
pr
 fp.gp. 1178 y; $H[;[puk; kPJ gilnaLj;J Njhy;tpAw;whH
ex
 1179y; ng\htiu ifgw;wpdhH

 Kjy; jiud; Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.gp. 1191-y;> gpUjptpuh[Df;Fk; KfkJ
lvi
Nfhhpf;Fk;> ntw;wp - %d;whk; gphpjPt;uh[d;
ka
 ,uz;lhk; jiud; Nghh; eilg;ngw;w Mz;L fp.gp. 1192-y;

 gpUjptpuh[Df;Fk; KfkJ Nfhhpf;Fk;> ntw;wp - KfkJ Nfhhp
w.
 Kjy; jiud;Nghhpd; Kbtpy; gpUjptpuh[d; ngw;w Nfhl;il - gjpz;lh Nfhl;il

ww
 ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpNyNa Kjd; Kiwahf JUf;fpa K];yPk; muRfs; ,e;jpag; gFjpapy;

Eioa topaikj;Jf; nfhLj;j Nghh; - ,uz;lhk; jiud; Nghh;
 KfkJ Nfhhp ,e;jpa gFjpapd; MSeuhf ahiu epakpj;jhd; - Fj;Gjpd; Igf;
 re;jthh; Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.gp. 1194-y;> KfkJ Nfhhpf;Fk; ,uh[Gj;jpu
kd;dh; n[ar;re;jpuDf;Fk; - ntw;wp KfkJ Nfhhp
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; jsgjp - KfkJ gpd; gf;jpahh; fpy;[p
 epiyahd K];yPk; Nguuir ,e;jpahtpy; epWtpatH - KfkJ Nfhhp
 tpf;fpukrPyk;> ehse;jh gy;fiyf;fofj;ij ,bj;Jjs;spatd; - KfkJ gpd; gf;jpahh;
fpy;[p
 tq;fhsj;jpy; - ehbah gFjpiaAk;> gPfhh; gFjpiaAk; ifg;gw;wpath; - fp.gp. 1202-y;
KfkJ -gpd;- gf;jpahh; fpy;[p
 1204y; Fthhprk; gFjpia jhf;fpajpy; KfkJ Nfhhp gLNjhy;tp mile;jhH
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 KfkJ Nfhhpia nfhiy nra;jth;fs; - fp.gp 1206-y; khh;r; 25-y; \pah
Gul;rpf;fhuh;fSk;> Nfhf;fh;fSk; Nrh;e;J nfhiy nra;jdh;
 Nfhhp tk;rk; KbTw;w Mz;L - 1215
 ,e;jpa kz;zpy; JUf;fpaH Ml;rpf;Fk; ,e;jpa gz;ghl;by; ,];yhkpa rkaj;jpw;Fk;
mbNfhypaJ : ,uz;lhk; jiud; NghH
 KfkJ f[pdpahy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;l rh`p kuigr; rhh;e;j ,e;J murh;- n[aghyh;
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; gilj;jsgjp - Fj;Gjpd; Igf;
 KfkJ gpd; fhrpk; fp.gp. 712-y; Mz;by; rpe;J kPJ gilnaLj;jhh;
 ,e;jpahtpy; ‘JUf;fp‛ Nguuir cWjpahf epWtpath; - KfkJ Nfhhp
nly;yp Ry;jhd;fs; 1206 Kjy; 1526 tiu (320 Mz;Lfs;)
 Fj;GjPd; gpwe;jJ JUf;fp];jhdk;
 Fj;Gjpd; Igf; F[uhj;ij ifgw;wpa Mz;L - 1197
in
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; - My; ntw;wpf;nfhy;yg;gl;l tq;fhs kd;dd; 1204 ,yl;RkzNrdd;
s.
 ehse;jh> tpf;ukrPyk; gy;fiyf; fofj;ij ,bj;jtd; gf;jpahH fpy;[p
 1206 Kjy; fp.gp. 1526 tiuapyhd fhyk; - nly;yp Ry;jhd;fspd; fhyk;
es
 khkYf; kuig epWtpath;> mbik tk;rj;ij epWtpath; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
pr
 ,e;jpahtpy; JUf;fpa Ml;rpia cz;ikapy; epWtpatH - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
ex
 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fspd; Ml;rpiaj; njhlq;fpath; - 1206-y; Fj;GjPd; Igf;

 Fj;GjPd; Igf; Ml;rpg;nghWg;Ngw;w Mz;L fp.gp. 1206 [Pd; 24-y;
lvi
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; vd;gjd; nghUs; typikaw;w tpuy;fis nfhz;ltH (m) epyit
ka
Nghd;w Kfj;ij cilatd; MFk;

 Igf;fplk; ,Ue;j Fzq;fspy; Nfhhpia ftHe;jJ Gfo;rr
; pf;Fhpa gy ew;Fzq;fSk;>
w.
ey;y rpwg;GfSNk
ww
 KfkJ Nfhhp Fj;GjPd; Igf; fpw;F mspj;j gjtp caHT mkPH - mf;FH (Fjpiuyha
jiytd;)
 Igf; -d; Kjy; v[khd; - gf;UjPd; mg;Jy; m[P];
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; ek;gpf;iff;F ghj;jpukhd mbik - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
 khk;Yf; vd;gjd; nghUs;- mbik
 Fuhdpd;gb mbikiaf; Fwpf;Fk; nrhy; - khk;Yf;
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; fhyk; - fp.gp. 1206 -1210 tiu
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; jd; jiyefiu khw;wpa ,lk; - yh$h;
 Fj;GjPd; jdJ ngahpy; ehzak; mr;rplg;gltpy;iy. Fg;jh thrpf;ftpy;iy fhuzk;
,tH mbikahf ,Ue;jjhy;.
 M[;kPhpy; Ft;tJy; ,];yhk; kR+jp> nly;ypapy; jha;bd;fh [hd;G+uh kR+jpiaAk;
fl;bath; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
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 nly;ypapy; ‘FJg;gpdhh;‛ NfhGuj;ijf; fl;lj; njhlq;fpath; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
 Igf; Mjhpj;j mwpQh; `rd; eprhkp
 yhf;ghf;\h vd Gfog;gl;lth; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
 yl;lrq;fisf; nfhilahf toq;fpath; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; - if mbik jdj;jpypUe;J tpLtpj;jtH - 1208 fpahRjPd; Kfk;kJ
 KfkJ Nfhhpapd; mbikfNs vdJ thhpR vd $wpdhH
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; nfhs;if - rkur nfhs;if
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; jdJ rNfhjhpia rpe;J Ml;rpahsH e];UjPd; Fghr;rhtpw;F kzk;
nra;J nfhLj;jhH
 kfis mbikahd ,y;Jj;kp\; - f;F jpUkzk; nra;J itj;jhH
 Mlk;guj;ij jtpHj;J vspikahfTk; gzpNthLk; Ml;rp Ghpe;jtH ‘ngUf;fj;J
Ntz;Lk; gzpT‛ vd;w murpay; mwj;ij filgpbj;j nly;yp Ry;jhd; Fj;GjPd; Igf;
in
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; - d; cjtpia ehba tq;fhs MSeH - mypkHjhd;
s.
 Fj;Gjpd; Igf; -d; rpwe;j Fzk; jahs Fzk;
 yl;rq;fis thhp toq;FgtH (yhf; gf;\h) yl;rk; nfhilahsp Mfpa gl;lq;fis
es
ngw;wtH - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
pr
 Fj;gjPd; Igf; - d; Ml;rpfhyk; ghghpd; 4 Mz;L fhy Ml;rpf;F xg;gplg;gLfpwJ
ex
 NghNyh vd;gJ - Fjpiu tpisahl;L

 NghNyh vd;Dk; Fjpiu kPJ mkh;e;J nfhz;L tpisahLk; tpisahl;bd; NghJ
lvi
,we;jth; - Fj;GjPd; Igf;
ka
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; ,we;j Mz;L 1210 etk;ghpy;

 Fj;GjPd; Igf; cly; yh$hpy; Gijf;fgl;lJ.
w.
 M[;kPhpy; - mlha;jPd;fh - [hd;G+H k#jp

ww
 Fj;GjPd; Igf; fl;ba Kjy; fl;llk; nly;ypf;F mUfpy; Ft;tj; cy; ,];yhk; kRjp
(1205) nly;ypia ifgw;wpajpd; epidthf
 23 ,e;J rkz Nfhapy;fspy; mbghl;by; fl;ba fl;llk; Ft;tj; cy; ,];yhk;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; ,y;ghhp ,dj;jpy; gpwe;jth;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; fhyk; 1211-1236
 Fj;GjPDf;F mbikahf tpw;fg;gl;lth; - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 nrq;fp];fhd; gilnaLg;G 1221 y; rpe;J murH [yhYjpd; kq;fgHzp kPJ
elj;jg;gl;lJ
 kq;Nfhypah;fspd; nrq;fp];fhd; gilnaLg;gpypUe;J nly;ypia ghJfhj;jth; -
,y;Jj;kp\;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; fhyj;jpy; f[pdpia Mz;ltH - jh[;c[;[pd; ,y;L\;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; ntspapl;l nts;sp ehzak; - lq;fh 175 kp.fp. vil nfhz;lJ
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 ,yJj;kp\; ntspapl;l nrk;G ehzak; - [plhy; ( [pl;ly;)
 ,f;jhH vDk; epHthf Kiwia Vw;gLj;jpatH - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 ,f;jhf;fis Ml;rp Ghpe;jtH - ,f;jhjhH
 ehw;gjpd;kH FOit (40 JUf;fpa caHFb gpuGf;fs; nfhz;l mit)
 ,y;Jj;kp\; -d; Kjy;filrp gilnaLg;G - ghdpad;
 FJg;gpdhh; ahhpd; epidthf fl;lg;gl;lJ - Fth[h Fj;GjPd; my;yJ FJg;-cj;-jPd; -
gf;jpahh; vd;w Rgp Jwtpapd; epidthf
 FJg;kpdhiuf; fl;lj; njhlq;fpath; - Fj;GjPd; Igf; 1199 y; Kjy; mLf;F
 FJg;kpdhiuf; fl;b Kbj;jth; - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; ehl;bd; murpahf epakpj;jJ - kfs; u\pah Ngfk;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; ehl;il eph;thf trjpf;fhf ,f;jhf;fs; Mf gphpj;jhh;
 ,f;jhf;fis Ml;rp Ghpe;jth;fs; - ,f;jhjhh;
in
 gilg;gphptpy; ‘ehw;gjpd;khh; FOit’ cUthf;fpath; - ,y;Jj;kp\;
s.
 mNugpa nkhopapy; ehzaq;fs; ntspapl;l Kjy; JUf;fpah; vd;w rpwg;igg; ngw;wth;-
,j;Jj;kp\;
es
 tl,e;jpahtpy; JUf;fpa muir typikailar; nra;jth;fspy; Fwpg;gplj; jFe;jth; -
pr
,y;Jj;kp\;
ex
 ghy;gid mjpf tpiy nfhLj;J thq;fpatd; - ,y;Jj;kp\;

 1236 y; Vg;uy; 29y; ,y;Jj;kp\; ,we;jhH
lvi
 ,y;Jj;kp\; - d; kpfr;rpwe;j mbik - ghy;gd;
ka
 ,y;Jj;kp\; murit GytH - kpd;`h[; cj; rpuh[;

 tUtha; Jiw> ePjpj;Jiwia cUthf;fpatH - ,y;Jj;kp\;
w.
 ,y;Jj;kp\; -I flTspd; epyg;ghJfhtyd; vd;Wk; flTspd; CopaHfis

ww
ghJfhj;jtd; vd;Wk; cy;];ypN`f; $WfpwhH

 jw;fhy &gha;fF
; mbg;gil ,y;Jj;kp\;d; nts;sp ehzak;
 ,y;Jj;kp\; jdJ kfshd ,u\;ahNgfk; - I jdJ thhprhf epakpj;jhH
 ,y;Jj;kp\; 1234 y; khstk; kPJ NghH njhLj;J gpy;rh Nfhl;ilia ifgw;wpdhH
 ,ilf;fhy nly;yp efiu cUthf;fpatH - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 ,y;Jj;kp\;f;F gpd; nly;yp Ry;jhd; MdtH - cUf;DjPd; gpNuh];]h (6khjk; 7
ehl;fs;)
 cUf;DjPd; gpNuh];]h it mfw;wp u\;ah Ml;rp Ghpe;jhH
 Ry;jhd;fs; thpirapy; te;j Kjy; ngz;zurp - ,urpahNgfk;
 ,u\;ahNgfk; Ml;rp nra;j ehl;fs;- 3 Mz;Lfs;> 6 khjk;> 6 ehl;fs;
 ,e;jpahtpd; ,uj;jk; rpe;jh Gul;rp u\;ah Ngfk; Ml;rpf;F te;j epfo;T
 fhyj;jpd; fl;lhaj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; u\;ahNgj;ij Ml;rpahsuhf mwptpj;jdH
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 u\;ahNgfk; [yhYjPd; ah$j; -I Fjpiu nfhl;bypw;F Nkw;ghHitahsuhf
epakpj;jhH
 u\;ahNgfk; kpjkpQ;rpa jaT fhl;ba Mg;gphpf;f ehl;L mgprPdpa mbik [yhYjPd;
ah$j;
 u\;ahNgfk; ,uhZt rk;ke;jkhd MNyhridfis [yhYjPd; ah$j; - ,lk;
Nfl;lwpe;jhH
 u\;ah Ngfj;ij vjpHj;J Kjypy; fpsHr;rp nra;jth; rHfpe;j; gFjpapd; MSeH -
my;^dpah
 [yhYjPd; ah$j;ij nfhd;wtH - my;^dpah
 u\;ahNgfj;ij Njhw;fbj;jtH - my;^dpah> ,tiuNa kze;J nfhz;lhH
 u\;ahNgfj;ij fz;L JUf;fp gpuGf;fs; kdk; tUe;j fhuzk; [yhYjPd; ah$j;fF
;
rYif fhl;baJ
in
 ie - gP- kk;- ypfhj; vDk; fhg;ghsH gjptpia cUthf;fpatH; - Ka;RjPd; gf;uhk;rh
 u\;ah Ngfj;ij Njhw;fbj;J nfhd;W nly;ypia ifgw;wpatd; - u\;ahNgfj;jpd;
s.
rNfhjud; - Ka;RjPd; gf;uk;rh
 u\;ahNgfk; tPo;rr
; pf;F fhuzk; - ngz;ik Fzk;
es
pr
 e];UjPd; KfkJtpd; Kjyikr;rH - ghy;gd;
 jk; Xa;T Neuj;ij jpUf;Fuhid gpujpnaLg;gjpNyNa fhyk; fopj;j nly;yp Ry;jhd; -
ex
e];UjPd; KfkJ
lvi
 e];UjPd; KfkJ vd;gtd; ,y;Jj;kp\; - d; Ngud;
 ‘Gy;yhq;Foy; mLg;G+jpaJ> NghHths; gpuhj;jid nra;jJ> nly;yp Ry;jhd; Fy;yha;
ka
ijj;Jf; nfhz;bUe;jhd;;‛ vd;w thrfk; e];UjPd; KfkJ- cilaJ
w.
 e];UjPd; KfkJ - d; (1246- 1266) 20 Mz;L fhy Ml;rpia top elj;jp nly;yp
Ry;jhdpaj;ij fhj;jtd; - ghy;gd;
ww
 ,y;Jj;kp\; - d; \hk;rp tk;rk; e];UjPd; KfkJld; Kbe;jJ

 JUf;fpa ,dj;jpy; ‘,y;ghhp vd;Dk; gphpitr; Nrh;e;jtd; - ghy;gd; ghy;gdpd; fhyk;
fp.gp. 1265-1287 tiu
 Nfhghy;fHP Nfhl;ilia fl;batd; - ghy;gd;
 ghy;gid kq;Nfhypah;fs; flj;jpr; nrd;W gh];;uh gFjpia rhHe;j Fth[h [khYjPd;
vd;gtUf;F tpw;wdH
 ghy;gid mbik tpahghu re;iijapy; tpiyf;F thq;fpatH - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 ‘nja;tPf chpikf; Nfhl;ghl;by; ek;gpf;if nfhz;l nly;yp Ry;jhd; fpahRjPd;
ghy;gd;
 igNgh]; Kiw vd;gJ - kd;dh; fhiy Kj;jkpl;L tzq;Fk; Kiw
 igNgh]; vd;Dk; Gjpa tzf;fKiwia eilKiwg;gLj;jpath; - fpahRjPd; ghy;gd;
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 Xh; mbikahf> jz;zPh; Rkf;Fk; njhopyhspahf> Ntl;ilf;fhudhf jsgjpahf>
,uh[je;jphpahf> Ry;jhdhf tho;e;jth; ahh; vd; Nyd;G+y; Fwpg;gpLfpwhh;- fpahRjPd;
ghy;gd;
 u\;ah Ngfk; fhyj;jpy ;`k;hp\pfhH gl;lk; nfhLf;fg;gl;L Fjpiuyha jiytdhd;
 ‘ehd;gjpd;kh; FO‛ vd;w Kiwia xopj;jth; - fpahRjPd; ghy;gd;
 rpwe;j xw;wh;gilia eph;thfj;jpy; mwpKfk; nra;J itj;jth; - fpahRjPd; ghy;gd;
 ghy;gd; Ml;rp fhyj;jpy; fpsHr;rp nra;j tq;fhs MSeH Jf;hpy;fhd;
 ghy;gd; fhyj;;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;l jdpg;gil gphpT - jpthdp mh;]; (jpthdp mhP];)
 nja;tPf Nfhl;ghL vd;gJ murh; flTspd; gpujpepjpahff; fUjg;gl;lhh;
 fw;wth;fis Mjhpg;gjpy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa nly;yp Ry;jhd; - ghy;gd;
 ghy;gd; Mjhpj;j mwpQh;fs; - mkph;F];F> mkph;`hrd;
 mbik tk;r kd;dh;fspy; rpwe;j kd;dh; - ghy;gd;
in
 ,Uk;Gk; uj;jKk; nfhz;l nfhs;ifia nfhz;l nly;yp Ry;jhd; - ghy;gd;
s.
 nly;yp Ry;jhdpaHfspy;; ,Uk;G kdpjH - ghy;gd;
 kq;Nfhypa gilnaLg;gpy; nfhy;yg;gl;l ghy;gdpd; %j;j kfd; - KfkJ
es
 capH jpahfp vd;w gl;lj;ij ngw;wtd; - KfkJ > mg;gl;lj;ij toq;fpaJ - ghy;gd;
pr
 ghy;gdpd; ,sikg;ngaH - gfhcj;jPd;
ex
 ghy;gd; jpwikahd epHthfp

 nfhbatHfspd; nfhLikia xLf;FtJk; rl;lj;jpd; Kd; rkk; vd;gJNt ehd;
lvi
nra;tnjd $wpatH - ghy;gd;
ka
 ghy;gd; fhyj;jpy; kq;Nfhypa jhf;FjYf;F ,yf;fhz gFjp - Ky;jhd;> rkhd;

 ghy;gd; ,we;j Mz;L - fp.gp. 1287-y;> ghy;gid njhlh;e;J Ml;rpnghWg;Ngw;wth;
w.
mth; Ngud; iff;Fghj; khk;Yf; kuG (mbik kuG) ahUld; KbTw;wJ - ifAkhh;
ww
 iff;Fghj; - I nly;yp caHFb kf;fs; ntWf;f fhuzk; mtd; ,y;ghhp

,dky;yhjtd;
 iff;Fghj; ep[hKjpid jdJ ghJfhtyuhf epakpj;jhH.
 iff;Fghj; ,we;j Mz;L - 1289
 iff;Fghj; - I nfhd;wtd; - [yhYjpd; fpy;[p
 mbik tk;rk; iff;Fghj; -d; kfd; ifAkhUld;(6 khj Foe;ij) Kbe;jJ
 mbik tk;rj;jpd; filrp murH - iff;Fghj; (or) ifAkhH
 mbiktk;rj;jpd; kd;dHfs; : 11
1. Fj;gjPd; Igf; - 1206 -1210
2. Muk; \h - 1210 (8 khjk;)
3. ,y;Jj;kp\[ - 1211 -1236
4. cUf;Ujpd; gpNuh];]h - 1236 (6 khjk;)
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5. u\;ahNgfk; - 1236- 1240
6. Ka;RjPd; g`;uhk;rh - 1240 - 1242
7. myhTjPd; k#j;\h - 1242 -1246
8. e];UjPd; KfkJ - 1246 -1266
9. ghy;gd; - 1266 -1287
10. iff;Fghj; - 1287 -1289
11. ifAkhH - 1290
 fpy;[p tk;rk; 1290 -1320 - 30Mz;Lfs;
 mikjpahd Ml;rp> ,uj;jk; rpe;jhj Ml;rpia tpUk;gpa nly;yp Ry;jhd; - [yhYjPd;
ngNuh]; fpy;[p - fUiz cs;sk; nfhz;lth; vdg; Gfog;gl;lth;
 fpYfphp muz;kid 1290 y; iff;Fghj;jhy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
 [yhYjPd; fpy;[pia kf;fs; ntWf;f fhuzk; - mtH ,y;ghhp ,dj;jtuy;y
in
 [yhYjPd; ngNuh]; fpy;[p nfhd;w kjthjp - rpj;jpNkyh (rpjpnksyh - Gj;jJwtp)
 100 NghHfis nra;J 100 muz;fis ifg;gw;Wtij tpl 1 K];yPkpd; capiuNa
s.
nghpajhf kjpj;jtH vd;W $wp NghH njhLf;fhjtH - [yhYjPd; fPy;[p> ,tH
fUiz cs;sk; nfhz;ltnud Gfog;gl;lhH
es
pr
 kf;fSf;F ed;ik nra;Ak; nly;yp Ry;jhd;fspy; ty;yhl;rp kpFe;j ey;yhl;rpahsd; -
[yhYjPd; fpy;[p
ex
 [yhYjPd; fpy;[p fhyj;jpy; kpfg;nghpa kq;Nfhypa gilnaLg;G epfo;e;jJ - `PyhF

lvi
jiyikapy;
 [yhYjPd; fpy;[piaf; nfhd;wth; mtuJ kUkfd; myhTjPd; fpy;[p
ka
 [yhYjPd; fhyj;jpy; fhuhkzpg;G+H MSeuhf epakpf;fgl;ltH - myhTjpd; fpy;[p
w.
 fpy;[p tk;rj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - [yhYjPd; gpNuh]; fpy;[p

 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; Ml;rpf;fhyk; - 1296-1316
ww
 Kb#l;bf;nfhz;lJ - 1296 mf;NlhgH 3

 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; tl,e;jpa gilnaLg;Gfis Nkw;nfhz;l mthpd;
gilj;jsgjpfs; - cYf;fhd;> eruj;fhd;> cYf;fhd; - jk;gp> eruj;fhd; - gilj;jsgjp
 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; tl ,e;jpa ntw;wpfs;
 F[uhj; - 1297 ,uz;lhk; fHzNjtH
 uhd;jk;G+H - 1299 - \kPH NjtH
 NkthH - 1301 - 1303 uhzhrpq;
 khstk; - 1305 uha;khyf; NjtH
 fHzNjthpd; kidtp - fkyhNjtp
 fHzNjthpd; kfs; - NjtyhNjtp
 F[uhj; gilnaLg;gpd;NghJ jg;gpatHfs; - NjtyhNjtp Njtfphpapy; milf;fsk;
GFe;jhH

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 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; mbik (myp) 1297y; F[huh gilnaLg;gpy;
rpiwgpbf;fg;gl;lhH
 myhTjpd; fpy;[pahy; ntw;wpnfhs;sg;gl;l - uhd;jk;G+H kd;dH mkPHNjtH
 myhTjPdpd; gilj;jsgjp erug;fhd; ,uhd;jk;G+h; Nghhpy; capHJwe;jhH
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p rpe;J}H(NkthH) kPJ gilnaLf;f fhuzk; > uhdh uj;jd; rpq; - d;
kidtp uhzp gj;kpdp - d; moif ftu
 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; gilia vjpHj;J ,uh[Gj;jpu ngz;fs; (uhzpgj;kpdp) [t;`H
Kiwapy; / jPf;Fspg;gpy; capHpoe;jhH . myhTjPd; fpy;[p cld; nrd;w ftpQH -
mkpHF];U
 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; njd;dpe;jpag; gilnaLg;Gfis Nkw;nfhz;l mthpd;
gilj;jsgjp - khypf;fhG+h;
 myhTjPd; ntd;w tl ,e;jpag;gFjpfs; - F[uhj;> ,uhd;jk;G+h;> khstk;> Nkthh;>
in
re;Njhp
 myhTjPd; ntd;w Njtfphp (ahjt) kd;dh; - ,uhkr;re;jpu ahjt;
s.
 myhTjPd; ntd;w thuq;fy; (fhfj;jpa) kd;dh; - ,uz;lhk; gpujhgUj;jpud;
es
 myhTjPd; ntd;w xa;rs kd;dd; ( JthurKj;;jpu kd;dd;) - %d;whk; tPu gs;shsd;
pr
 fhRfspy; jk;ik 2k; mnyf;rhz;lh; vd $wpf; nfhz;ltH - myhTjpd; fpy;[p
 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; njd;dpe;jpa gilnaLg;ig Nkw;nfhz;ltH - khypfhG+H
ex
 njd;dpe;jpa gilnaLg;G
lvi
1. ahjtH - Njtfphp- ,uhkr;re;jpu ahjt; - 1307
2. fhfj;j;paH - thuq;fy; - ,uz;lhk; gpujhg Uj;jpu NjtH - 1309
ka
3. xa;rhsH - JthrurKj;jpuk; - 3k; tPu gs;shsH - 1310
w.
4. ghz;baH - kJiu - tpf;fpuk ghz;bad; - 1311

 rKj;jpuFg;jNuhL xg;gpl;L Ngrg;gLk; nly;yp Ry;jhd; myhTjPd; fpy;[p
ww
 khypf;fhG+h; cjtp Ghpe;j ghz;ba kd;dd; - Re;ju ghz;bad;

 myhTjPd; fpy;[p kq;Nfhypag; gilnaLg;Gfis vj;jid Kiw jLj;jhh; - 12
 jk;ik ‘flTspd; gpujpepjpahff; fUjpa nly;yp Ry;jhd;‛- myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 ,uj;jk; rpe;JtjpYk; kpf nfhba Ml;rpGhptjpYk; gp];khHf;if xj;jtuhf
$wg;gLgtH - myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p fhyj;jpy; 29 Kiw kq;Nfhypa gilnaLg;ig vjpHj;J ntd;wtd; -
fpahRjPd; Jf;sf; (m) fhrpkhypf;
 khypf;fhG+uhy; ntw;wpf;nfhs;sg;gl;l Njtfphp kd;dH - 1307 y; ,uhkre;jpu ahjt;
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p Njfphp kPJ NghH njhLf;f fhuzk; - Njtyh Njtpf;F Gfoplk;
mspj;jJ
 epue;jukhd ngUk;gilia cUthf;fpath;>Fjpiufl;F milahs R+L NghLk;
‘jh`;‛ Kiwia nfhz;L te;jth; -myhTjPd; fpy;[p

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 mq;fhbfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;jp> fs;sr;rhuhaj;ij xopj;jth;> thpfisf; nghUshf
nrYj;Jk; Kiwiaf; nfhz;Lte;jth;> mq;fhb rl;lq;fisg; gpwg;gpj;jth; -
myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 mq;fhbfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;j myhTjPd; fpy;[pahy; epakpf;fg;gl;l mjpfhhpfs;
jpthdp hpah]j;> r`hdhapkhz;b
 nghpa mstpyhd xU epue;jug;gilia cUthf;fpa Kjy; Ry;jhd; - myhTjPd;
fpy;[p
 mq;fhbfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;jp mq;fhbr; rl;lq;fis gpwg;gpj;jth; - myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 ,ghjj;fhdh kR+jp> miyh;thrh> rPhpf;Nfhl;il>Mapuk; J}z;fs; muz;kid fl;ba
Ry;jhd; - myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 mq;fhb rl;lj;ij nfhz;Lte;jtd; - myhTjPd; fpy;[p
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p fhyj;jpy F
; jpiu tPuUf;F toq;fg;gl;l rk;gsk; - 234 lq;fh
in
 giltPuHfSf;F Njitahd gz;lq;fs; Fiwe;j tpiyapy; fpilf;f nra;jhH
 myhTjPd; fpy;[pahy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l nghJ jhdpa mq;fhb kz;b
s.
 nghJ jhdpa mq;fhbf;F myhTjPd; fpy;[p gpwgpj;j rl;lq;fs; - 8
es
 mj;jpahtrpa nghUl;fshd Jzp> rHf;fiu> ntz;nza; gok; Kjypa
pr
nghUl;fSf;F myhTjPd; fpy;[pahy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l mq;fhb - ruha; mby;
 rpuha; mby; mq;fhbf;F myhTjpd; fpy;[pahy; gpwgpj;j rl;lq;fs; - 11
ex
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p Kb#l;bf;nfhz;l muz;kid ghy;gdpd; rptg;G muz;kid

lvi
 n\H\h> mf;gH Nghd;wtHfspd; ,uhZt mikg;gpw;F Kd;Ndhb - myhTjpd;
fpy;[p
ka
 myhTjPd; fpy;[papd; kJiu gilnaLg;G - 1311 Vg;uy; 11 Kjy; 1311 mf;NlhgH
w.
18tiu
 ehd; tpQ;Qhdk; (m) E}y;fis fw;wj;jpy;iy MapDk; Kry;khd; $l;lj;jpy; ehDk;
ww
xU Kry;khd; (K];yPk;) vd $wpatH - myhTjPd; fpy;[p

 myhTjPd; fpy;[pf;F fy;tpawptpy;iy vd $wpatH - guzp
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p rgHfhd; vDk; gl;lj;ij toq;fpaJ - mapd; cy;Kf;
 epyj;ij msf;Fk; Kiwia Kjd; Kjypy; gpd;gw;wpa nly;yp Ry;jhd; - myhTjpd;
fpy;[p
 myhTjPd; fpy;[pia nfhLq;Nfhyd; vd;Wk; epahaq;fSf;F rpwpjsNt kjpg;G
nfhLg;gtd; vd;Wk; $wpatH - V.A. ];kpj;
 myhTjpd; fpy;[papd; 20 Mz;Lfhy Ml;rpia Gul;rp muR vd $WtH
 fpy;[p tk;r filrp kd;dd; - erPh; cj;jpd; F\;U \h
 fpy;[p kuG KbTf;F te;j Mz;L 1320-y;
Jf;sf; tk;rk; - 1320 -1416
 Jf;sf; kuigj; Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - fpahRjPd; Jf;sf; my;yJ fhrpkhypf; -1320-y;
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 Jf;sf; tk;rk; Ml;rpGhpe;j nkhj;j fhyk; - 94 Mz;Lfs;
 Nkil rhpe;J ,we;J Nghd nly;yp Ry;jhd; - fpahRjPd; Jf;sf; (1325)
 mf;fl;llk; flTs; tpjpg;gb tpOe;jnjd $wpatH - mfkJ rHfpe;j;
 fpahRjPd; Jf;sf;fpd; kuzk; mthpd; kfd; [Pdfhdpd; Kd;Ndw;ghL vd
,gpd;ghJjh $WfpwhH
 fpahRjPd; Jf;sf; fhyj;jpy; 1321y; Njtpfphpia ifgw;wpatH [Pdfhd; (v) KfkJ
gpd; Jf;sf;
 [Pd;fhd; vd;gth;- KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;> fhyk; 1325-1365
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; Njh -mg; gFjpapd; kPJ mjpf epythpia tpjpf;ff; fhuzk; -
fUT+yj;ij epug;g
 nly;ypapypUe;J Njtfphpf;F jiyefiu khw;wpa Ry;jhd; - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; 1327
y;
in
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; Ml;rp gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s cjTk; E}y; - [pahTjPd; guzpahy;
vOjg;gl;l - jhhpf; - , - ngNuh\hfp; (1359)
s.
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; jk; jiyefiu nly;ypapypUe;J Njtfphpf;F khw;wf;fhuzk; -
es
kq;Nfhypag; gilnaLg;gpypUe;J jiyefiuf; fhf;f> ehl;bd; ikag;gFjpf;F
pr
khw;wpdhh;
 nrg;G ehzaq;fis mwpKfk; nra;jth;- Kfk;kJ gpd; Jf;sf;
ex
 Kfk;kJ gpd; Jf;sf; nrg;G ehzaq;fis nfhz;L tuf;fhuzk; - ehl;bd;

lvi
nghUshjhuj;ij Nkk;gLj;j
 Kfk;kJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; Njhy;tpf;F fhuzk; - mth; R+o;epiyia mwpe;J
ka
jpl;lq;fis eilKiwg;gLj;jtpy;iy
w.
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; fhyj;jpy; 1333 y; ,e;jpah te;jtH - ,gd;gNllh

 ,gd;gNllh Mg;gphpf;fhtpy; nkhuhf;Nfh (v) %H ehl;L gazp
ww
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; fuh[y; gilnag;ghy; giltPuHfspd; vz;zpf;ifapy;

ngUksT ,og;G Vw;gl;lJ
 fuh[y; vd;gJ ,kakiyapd; mbthuj;jpy; cs;s gFjp
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; ,aw; ngaH - [Pdfhd;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fhy; epWtg;gl;l tptrha Jiw - jpthdp Nfh`p
 jpthdp Nfh`papd; Nehf;fk; gaphplg;glhj epyq;fSf;F muR cjtp nra;a Vw;ghL
nra;tJ
 tuT nryT gjpNtl;L Kiwia epHthfj;jpy; GFj;jpa nly;yp Ry;jhd; (j];jhNt[p)
KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
 tuT nryT Kiwia cUthf;f fhuzk; epytUtha; xNu khjphp ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
vd;gjw;fhf
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; jd; jiyefiu khw;wpa ,lk; - 1327 - nly;yp - Njtfphp
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 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; jd; Gjpa jiyefUf;F ,l;lg;ngaH - njsyjhghj; (m) NguuR
efuk;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; jiyefiu Njtfphpf;F khw;w fhuzk; - kq;Nfhypa
jhf;FjypypUe;J nly;ypia fhf;f
 kf;fs; %lek;gpf;if fhuzkhf Njtfphpf;F nry;y kWj;jdH
 jtwhd topapy; nrYj;jg;gl;l Mw;wYf;F njsyjhghj;> rpwe;j epidTr;rpd;dk;
vd;W Nyd;G+y; KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; jiyefH khw;wj;ij $WfpwhH
 jiyefH khw;wj;jpy; KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; mwptpd;ik nray; > muR
mYtyHfis kl;Lk; Gjpa jiyefUf;F khw;Wtij tpl;L nghJ kf;fs;
midtiuAk; fl;lhakhf nry;y cj;jutpl;lhH
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; rPHjpUj;jq;fspy; jiyahaJ - ehza rPHj;jpUj;jk;
 milahs ehzak;> nrg;G> nrk;G> Njhy; ehzaj;jij 1329 -1330 y; ntspapl;l
in
nly;yp Ry;jhd; - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
 milahs ehzaj;ij ntspapl fhuzk; - fUT+yj;ij epug;g> nghUs; tUthia
s.
mjpfhpf;f
es
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; ntspapl;l jq;f ehzak; 100 Fz;Lkzp vilAs;s jpdhH
pr
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; ntspapl;l nts;sp ehzak; - 140 Fz;Lkzp vilAs;s mlhyp
 ehza rPHj;jpUj;j ,sturH - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
ex
 rPdhtpy; fhfpj ehzaq;fis ntspapl;ltH;; - Fg;yha;fhd;

lvi
 rjp vDk; cld;fl;il VWk; tof;fj;ij epWj;j Kaw;rp nra;j nly;yp Ry;jhd; -
KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
ka
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; fhyj;jpy; kq;Nfhypa gilnaLg;ig Nkw;nfhz;ltH - lkhrhpd;
w.
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;> ,gpd;gJjh jiyikapy; rPdhtpw;F J}JFOit mDg;gpdhH

 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; mjpf thpia tpjpj;j gFjp - Njh Mg;
ww
 mjpf thp tpjpf;f fhuzk; - gil typikia ngUf;f> murhl;rp Kiwia rPHgLj;jp
mikf;f
 jhNk caHePjp kd;wkhfTk;> rkag;nghiwapy; mf;ghpd; Kd;Ndhbahd nly;yp
Ry;jhd; - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;if igj;jpahuH vd Kjypy; tHzpj;jtH - vy;gpd;];ld;> mLj;J
vl;tHL jhk];> N`ty;>V.A. ];kpj;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;if jPHf;fjhprp vd tHzpj;jtH - fhHbdy; g;uTd;
 murd; kf;fs; gpbapypUe;J tpLgl;lhd;> kf;fSk; kd;dd; gpbapypUe;J tpLgl;ldH
vd gnjsdp> KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; ,wg;ig $WfpwhH
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; Njhy;tpf;F fhuzk; - mtH #o;epiyawpe;J jpl;lq;fis
eilKiwgLj;jtpy;iy
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 ehd; kf;fis jz;bf;fpNwd; Vnddpy; mtHfs; vy;NyhUk; vd; vjphpfshfptpl;ldH
vd $wpatH - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;if gy vjpHFzq;fspd; fyg;G vd mwpQHfs; $Wfpd;wdH.
];ngapdpd; 2k; gpypg;Gld; xg;gpl;L Ngrg;gLgtH - KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; fhyj;jpy; Vw;gl;l Rje;jpu muR - 1335 y; [yhYjPd; m]d;rh/
kJiu Ry;jhd;fs; muR
 1336 y; `hpfuGf;fH - tp[aefu NguuR
 1347 y; myhTjPd; ghkd;rh - ghkpdp muR
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf; ,we;j Mz;L - 1351
 KfkJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpd; Njhy;tpf;F fhuzk; - #o;epiyfSk;> gpd;jq;fpa
epiyapypUe;j cNyhkhf;fSk; (%lek;gpf;if)
 mf;fhy kf;fspd; kdg;ghd;ikf;F Vw;w tifapy; jpl;lk; jPl;ltpy;iy
in
gpNuh]; Jf;sf; 1351 - 1388
 Jf;sf; tk;rj;jpy; jiyrpwe;j Ml;rpahsH - ngNuh]; Jf;sf;
s.
 fpahRjPd; Jf;sf;fpd; ,isa rNfhjudpd; kfd; - ngNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf;fpd; jha; - uhd;khy;
es
pr
 Kfk;kJ gpd; Jf;sf;fpdhy; toq;fg;gl;l ‘jf;fhtp‛ vd;Dk; tptrhaf; fld;fisj;
js;Sgb nra;jth; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
ex
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; tR+ypj;j thpfs; - 4. thpfs; .1) fuh[; vd;gJ tpisr;rypy; 1/10 gq;F>
lvi
2) fhk;]; vd;gJ Nghh;fspy; ifg;gw;wpa nghUl;fspy; 1/5 gq;F.
3) [prpah vd;gJ - jiythp. 4) [pfhj; vd;gJ - ,];yhkpa kjr;rlq;Ffis nra;a
ka
K];yPk;fsplk; tR+ypf;fg;gLk; fl;lzk;
w.
 nly;yp Ry;jhdpa fhyj;jpy; mjpf tUthia <l;bj;je;jJ - fuh[;

 ed;nfhil toq;Ftjw;fhf jpthdp iful; vDk; epWtdj;ij Vw;gLj;jpa nly;yp
ww
Ry;jhd; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;

 mjh> gpf; vDk; [pl;ly; ehzaq;fis ntspapl;ltH - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf;fpd; Ml;rp Nghw;wg;glf; fhuzk; - epHthf (nghJg;gzp) rPHjpUj;jk;
 Ntiyaw;NwhUf;F Ntiytha;ig NjbjUk; epWtdk; - jpthdp ,];jpfhf; Jiwia
Vw;gLj;jpatH - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; mikj;j fhy;tha;fs; - 4 . 1). rl;y[; - fhrfhH> 2). khz;ltp -
rpH%H> 3). fhrfhH - rpHRjp> 4) aKid - g;Nuh];]hghj;
 nghJg;gzpfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;jth; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; - 50 mizfs;> 150 fpzWfs;> 100 ghyq;fs;> 4 k#jpfs;> 30
muz;kidfs;> 200 rj;jpuq;fs;> 10 Fspay; Fsq;fs;>1200 G+q;fhf;fis mikj;jhh;
 Fuhdpd; mbg;gilapyhd rl;lq;fis eilKiwg;gLj;jpa nly;yp Ry;jhd; - gpNuh];
Jf;sf;

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 Ntiy tha;g;G mikg;G> jpUkz mikg;G (jpthdp fpukj;) kUj;Jtkidfs; (jhh;-
cy;gh) mikg;Gfis Vw;gLj;jpath;- gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 ‚G+hp‛ [fe;ehjh; Nfhapiy mopj;jth; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 [hfPH Kiwia nfhzHe;j nly;yp Ry;jhd; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 ehfNfhl;il [PthshKfp Nfhapiy ifgw;wpatH - 1360 -61 y; gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 myhTjpd; fpy;[pahy; xopf;fg;gl;l epykhdpa Kiwia kPz;Lk; GFj;jpatH - gpNuh];
Jf;sf;
 mbikfs; fUT+yk; xd;iw Vw;gLj;jpatH - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; ePf;fpa thpfs; - 23 thpfs;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf;if Nghw;wpa tuyhw;W MrphpaHfs; - guzp> mgp‡g;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf;if Ry;jhdpa fhy mf;gH vd Nghw;wpatH - rH vd;hp ,ypal;>
vy;gpd;];ld; MfpNahH
in
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; fl;ba efuq;fs;- [hd;G+H> gNjfhghj;> g;Nuh\hghj;> gpH];G+H>
s.
`p];]hH
 fUiz epiwe;j Mz;ltd; vd;id filepiy CopadhfNt gilj;Js;shd;>
es
Mz;lthpd; kpfr; rpwpa mbikahd vdf;F mtd; mUspa fl;llgpj;J gpw tuq;fs;
pr
ahtw;wpYk; rpwe;jJ. MfNt k#jpfisAk;> fy;Y}hp> klhyaq;fisAk; fl;bAs;Nsd;
vd $wpatH - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
ex
 aKid> fq;if fhy;thia ntl;batH - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;

lvi
 [pahTjPd; guzp vd;w mwpQiu Mjhpj;jth; - gpNuh]; Jf;sf;
 gpNuh]; Jf;sf; vOjpa E}y;- gJ}`j;-,-ngNuh\h`p
ka
 Jf;sf; kugpy; filrp murd; - ehrph; cj;jPd; Kfk;kJ
w.
 Jf;sf; tk;r tPo;rr

; pf;F fhuzk; 1398 y; brk;gH 17 y; nehz;b ij%H gilnaLg;G
 ij%H gpwe;j ,lk; - 1336 y; buhd;rhf;rhdpahtpy; Nf\; vDk; gFjpapy; mkpHJHNf
ww
vd;gtUf;F kfdhf gpwe;jhH

 ij%iu vjph;j;j nly;yp Ry;jhd; - erPh; cj;jPd; Kfk;kJTk; mtuJ jsgjp ky;Y
,f;ghYk;
 ij%uhy; nly;yp ifg;gw;wg;gl;l Mz;L - fp.gp. 1398-y;
 iji%H rkHfz;l; - I tpl;L Gwg;gl;lJ - 1398 nrg;lk;gH
 ij%H nly;ypia mile;jJ 1398 brk;gH 12. E];&jPd; KfkJ ky;Y ,f;ghy;
jiyikapy; NghH njhLj;jhH
 ij%H nly;ypapy; 15 ehl;fs; jq;fpapUe;jhH
 ij%H ehL jpUk;gpaJ - khHr; 19> 1399
 ,uj;jntwpAld; $ba NghH ij%H gilnag;G
 ij%uhy; ntw;wpf;nfhs;sg;gl;l ,e;jpa gFjpf;F MSeH - fp]Hfhd; iraJ
 iraJ kuG 1414-1451 tiu - 37 Mz;Lfs;
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 iraJ kugpidj; njhlq;fpath; - fp.gp. 1414- y; fp]h;fhd; iraJ
 aKid ejpf;fiuapy; ‘Kghuf;fhghj;‛ vd;Dk; efiu epWtpatd; - Kghuf;\h
 g`;Y}y; Nyhb R+l;bf;nfhz;l gl;lk; - fhdpfhdh
 g`;Y}y; Nyhb nly;ypiaf; ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L - fp.gp. 1475-y;
 iraJ tk;rk; KbTf;F te;j Mz;L -1451 - y; myhTjPd;\hTld;
 iraJ tk;r filrp kd;dd; - myhTjPd; \h
 Nyhb kuG -1451 Kjy; 1526 tiu
 nly;ypia Mz;l Ry;jhd;fspd; ,Wjp kuG - Nyhb kuG
 Nyhb kuig njhlq;fp itj;jth; - g`;Yy; Nyhb
 Mf;uh efiuf; fl;bath; - rpf;fe;jh; Nyhb/ = rpf;fe;jh; \h
 Nyhbfspd; fhyj;jpy; eph;thfk; kw;Wk; gz;ghl;L ikakhf nray;gl;l ,lk; - Mf;uh
 rpf;fe;jh; \h tpUk;gpa ,ir- n\dha; ,ir
in
 Nyhb kugpd; rpwe;j kd;dh; - ,g;uh`Pk; Nyhb ( fhyk; 1517-1526)
s.
 njsyj;fhd; Nyhb kfd; jpy;th;fhid nfhLikg;gLj;jpath; - ,g;uh`Pk; Nyhb
 ghgiu ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLj;J tUkhW mioj;jth; - njsyj;fhd; Nyhb
es
 Kjy; ghdpgl; Nghh; - fp.gp. 1526-y; ghgUf;Fk;> ,g;uh`Pk; Nyhbf;Fk; ele;jJ. ntw;wp -
pr
ghgh;
ex
 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fspd; Ml;rpf;F Kw;Wg;Gs;sp itj;j Nghh;- Kjy; ghdpg;gl; Nghh;

 Nyhb tk;rk; KbTf;F te;jJ - 1526-y;
lvi
 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fspd; Ml;rp xU kjthj muR> ,uhZt muR
ka
 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fs; Ml;rp Ghpe;j fhyk; - 320 Mz;Lfs; ( 1206-1526)

 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fs; fhy mikr;rh;fs;
w.
 trPH; - gpujk mikr;rh; kw;Wk; epjpaikr;rh;

ww
 jpthdp hp]hyj; ( u]hyj;) - ntspAwT mikr;rh;

 rhjh; -c];. rhjh; - ,];yhkpa rl;l mikr;rh;
 jpthdp ,d;rh - rl;l mikr;rh;
 jpthdp mhP]; - ghJfhg;G/gilj;Jiw mikr;rh;
 fh]p-cy;-fh]hj; - ePjpj;Jiw mikr;rh;
 nly;yp Ry;jhd;fs; fhy gh;f;fhdhtpd; mYtyh; - mkpy; (m) Kd;\pg;
 fUT+y mjpfhhp - fhDq;Nfh
 ehl;by; Kjd;ikahd tUtha; - epythp
 jiyik ePjpgjp - fh]p
 ehl;bd; Kf;fpaj;njhopy; - (tptrhak; ) Ntshz;ik
 rPhp efuk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - nly;yp
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 myfhghj; Nfhl;il> Jf;sf;fhghj;> [dhdhghj; efuq;fis fl;bath; - KfkJ gpd;
Jf;sf;
 nly;yp Ry;jhdpah; fhyj;jpy; cUthd nkhop - cUJ
 ghurPf nkhopapy; Gyik ngw;w ftpQh; - my;g&dp
 f[pdp KfkJ mitapy; ,Ue;j ghurPf ftpQh; - my;g&dp
 ‘jhUf;fp-cy;-,e;j;‛ vd;w E}iy vOjpath; - my;g&dp
 mkph;F];U Rkhh; 4>00>000 nra;As;fis vOjpdhh;
 nly;yp Ry;jhdpah; fhy ePjp kd;w nkhop - ghurPfk;
 Nyhb tk;rk; KbTf;F te;jJ - 1526-y; Kjy; ghdpg;gl; Nghuhy;
 JUf;fpa ehza Kiwia Kjypy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - ,y;Jj;kp\;
 nly;yp Ry;jhdpa Ml;rpapd; Kjy; ngz;zurp - ,urpah
 rpf;fe;jh; Nyhb n\dha; vd;w ,iria kpfTk; tpUk;gpdhh;
in
nly;yp Ry;jhd;fs; fhyk;.
s.
mbik tk;rk;; - 1206 Kjy; 1290 tiu (84 tUlk;)
Fj;Gjpd; Igf; - 1206 - 1210
Muk;\h - 1210 - 1211
es
pr
,y;Jj;kp\; - 1211 - 1236
u\;ah Ngfk; - 1236 - 1240
ex
KapRjPd; gf;uhk; \h - 1240 - 1242

lvi
myhTjPd; Myk;\h - 1242 - 1246
erPUjPd; Kfk;kJ - 1246 - 1266
ka
fpahRjPd; ghy;gd; - 1266 - 1287
w.
iff;Fghj; - 1287 - 1289

fpy;[p tk;rk; - 1290 - 1320
ww
[yhTjPd; fpy;[p - 1290 - 1296

myhTjPd; fpy;[p - 1296 - 1316
FJg;cj;jPd; - 1316 - 1320
erPh; cj;jpd; F\;U \h
Jf;sf; tk;rk; - 1320 - 1414
fpahRjPd; Jf;sf; - 1320 - 1325
Kfk;kJ gpd; Jf;sf; - 1325 - 1351
gpNuh]; Jf;sf; - 1351 - 1386
Jf;sf; \h - 1386 - 1389
mGgf;fH - 1389 - 1390
erPUjPd;(,uz;lhk; )KfkJ - 1390 - 1394
Kfk;kJ \h - 1394 - 1412
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iraJ tk;rk; - 1414 - 1451
fp]Hfhd; - 1414 - 1421
Kghuf; \h - 1421 -1434
Kfk;kJ \h - 1434 - 144
myhTjpd; Myk;\h - 1444 - 1451
Nyhb tk;rk; - 1451 - 1526
g`;Yy; Nyhb - 1451 - 1489
rpf;fe;jH Nyhb - 1489 - 1517
,g;uh`pk; Nyhb - 1517 - 1526
 1260 tiuapyhd nly;yp Ry;jhd; tuyhW mwpa cjTk; E}y; - kpd;`h[; cj; rpuh[;
vOjpa - jghnthl; - , - e];dp vd;Dk; E}y;
in
 [pahTjPd; guzp vOjpa E}y; - jhUf; - ,- gpNuh];]hfp > 1359 y; vOjp Kbj;jhH(
s.
ghy;gd; Kjy; gpNuh]; Jf;sf; tiuapyhd tuyhw;iw mwpa cjTk;)
es
 `h]d; eprhkp vOjpa E}y; - jh[; - cy; - kh[pH > 1192 - 1228 tiuapyhd tuyhw;iw
pr
tpsf;FfpwJ.
 ahf;ahgpd; mfk;kJ rH `pe;j; vOjpa E}y; - jhhpf; - ,- Kghuf;]hfp > iraJ tk;r
ex
tuyhw;iw tpsf;FfpwJ
lvi
 gfhcj;jPd; vOjpa E}y; - jhhpf; - , - Kghf;\hfp
 ,gpd;gNllh - Mg;gphpf;f %H ehl;L gazp vOjpa E}y; - hpf;yh
ka
tp[aefug; NguuR> ghkpdpg; NguuR
w.
 `hp ùh;> Gf;fh; ahhplk; gzpahw;wpdh;? n`ha;rhs murd; 3-k; gs;shsd;

 tp[a efug; NguuR vg;NghJ ahuhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lJ - 1336-k; Mz;L `hp ùh;>
ww
Gf;fh; MfpNahuhy;.
 tp[aefug; NguuR ve;j ejpf;fiuapy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lJ - Jq;fgj;jpuh ejpf;fiu
 tp[aefug; NguuR ve;j Kdpth; ( mUshrpgb) cjtpg;gb Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lJ? -
tpj;ahuz;ah;
 tpj;ahuz;ah; Kdpthpd; rNfhjuh; - rhadh
 tp[a efug; Nguurpd; jiyefuk; - `k;gp/ tp[aefuk;/MizFe;jp/tpUghl;rGuk;
 tp[a efug; Nguuir Ml;rp Ghpe;j tk;rq;fs; - 4. mitfs; rq;fk> rhSt> JSt>
mutPL
 Kjyhk; Gf;fhpd; fhyj;jpy; Nguurpd; gug;ghdJ - tlf;Nf Jq;fgj;jpuh ejp Kjy;
njw;Nf ,uhNk];tuk; tiu gutpapUe;jJ
 rhSt tk;rj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jtH - rhSt eurpk;kH
 rhSt tk;rj;jpd; filrp kd;dH - ,k;khb eurpk;kd;
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 JSt tk;rj;ij Njhw;Wtpj;jtd; - tPu eurpk;kd;
 JSt tk;rj;jpy; jiy rpwe;jtH - fpU\;zNjtuhaH
 mutPL tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; kd;dH - jpUkiyuhaH
 tp[aefug;Nguurpd; filrp murH - %d;whk; Ntq;flH
 Rq;f tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; Ml;rpahsH - Kjyhk; `hpfud;
 Rq;f tk;rj;jpd filrp murd; - ,uz;lhk; tpUghf;\h
 fpU\;zNjtuhah; JSt kuigj; rhh;e;jth; - fhyk; fp.gp. 1509 - 1529 tiu
 ahiu xU ‘KO epiwthd murd;‛ vd;W Nlhkpq;Nfhga]; $Wfpwhh; -
fpU\;zNjtuhah;
 fpU\;zNjtuhah; mitapy; ,Ue;j vl;L mwpQh;fl;F m];ljpf;f[q;fs;. mitia
myq;fhpj;j Gyth;fl;F -m];ljpf;f[q;fs;
 jiyf;Nfhl;ilg;Nghh; fp.gp. 1565-y;
in
 mypahuhkuhah;fF
; k;> ghkpdp NguuRfshd mfkJefh;> gP[g;G+h;> Nfhy;nfhz;lh> gPlhh;
s.
Kjypa K];ypk; $l;lzpg;gilf;Fk; ,ilNa ele;jJ. uhkuhah; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;L
nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;. tp[a efuk; R+iwahlg;gl;L ehrkhf;fg;gl;lJ.( gPuhh;
fye;Jnfhs;stpy;iy)
es
pr
 tp[aefug; NguuR vj;jid khfhzkhfg; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ - MW
 m];ljpf; f[q;fspy; ,lk; ngw;w Gyth;fs; - my;yhrhzp ngj;jz;zh> jpk;kz;zh>
ex
njdhypuhkd;> gl;L %h;j;jp> Gdtpugj;jpud;> Jh;[hjp> ky;yz;zh kw;Wk; ghdh[p

lvi
rj;uz;zh KjypNahh;
 fpU\;zNjtuhaH vOjpa E}y; - mLf;jkhy;ajh> c\hghpzak;> [k;ghtjp fy;ahzk;
ka
 tp[a efug; NguuR fhyj;jpy; ngz; N[hjplh;fl;F - ‘epAd];‛ vd;W ngah;
w.
 tp[a efug; NguuR fhyj;jpy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa JiwKfq;fs; - Nfhth> ilA+>

nfhy;yk;> nfhr;rp
ww
 `ruhuhkrhkp Nfhtpy;> tpl;lyrhkp Nfhapy; ahUilaJ - tp[a efug;Nguurh;

fhyj;jit
 njYq;F>jkpo;> fd;dl ,yf;fpaq;fs; tsh;r;rpaile;j fhyk; vd;gJ - tp[aefug;
NguuRf;fhyk;
 tp[a efuk; KOikahf tPo;r;rpaile;jJ - fp.gp.1614-y;
 ghkpdp muirj; Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - 1347-y; `hrd;fq;F
 ghkpdp murpd; jiyefh; - Fy;gh;f;fh
 ghkpdpg; Nguurpd; jiyefiu Fy;gh;fhtpypUe;J gPlhUf;F khw;wpath;-ngNuh];]h
 gpNuh];]hghj; efiu epWtpatd; - gpNuh];]h
 ghkpdpg; Nguurpd; fhyk; fp.gp. 1347-1526 tiu
 %d;whk; Kfk;kJ \h gl;lk; Vw;wNghJ mtUf;F taJ - 9
 %d;whk; Kfk;kJ \htpd; ghJfhtyh; - Kfk;kJ fthd;
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 Kfk;kJ fthid nfhiy nra;jth; - 3-k; Kfk;kJ\h 1381-y;
 Kfk;kJ fthd; vd;gthpd; topfhl;Ljyhy; ghkpdpg; NguuR typikkpf;f ehlhdJ
 ghkpdpg; NguuR vj;jid gFjpfshfr; rpjWz;lJ - 5 gFjpfshf. mitfs; gP[g;G+h;>
mfk;kJ efh;> Nfhy;nfhz;lh> gPlhh;> gPuhh;
 ghkpdpg; Nguurpd; eph;thfk; epykhdpa Kiwapy; mike;jJ
 jiyf;Nfhl;ilg;Nghhpy; fye;J nfhs;shj jf;fhz muR - gpuhh;
 Kjyhk; Gf;fhpd; kfd; - Fkhufk;gzH
 fk;gzH kidtp - fq;fhNjtp > fq;fhNjtp vOjpa E}y; - kJuhtp[ak;
 fk;gzH kJiuia ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L - 1371 y; gf;UjPd; Kghuf;rhit Njhw;fbj;J
kJiuia tp[aefug; NguuRld; ,izj;Jf; nfhz;lhH.
 Kfk;kJ fthd; %d;whk; Kfk;kJ \htpd; Kjyikr;rh;
 Kfk;kJ fthd; nfhy;yg;gl;l Mz;L -1481- y;
in
 Fy;gh;f;fh> [Pk;kh kR+jp> Nfhy;nfhz;lh Nfhl;il> gP[g;G+h;> Nfhy;Fk;gh]; fl;llk;
s.
Nghd;wit ahhpd; fl;llf;fiy - ghkpdpg; Nguurh;fs;
 gP[g;G+hpy; cs;s Nfhy;Fk;gh fl;llj;jpy; ‘KZKZf;Fk; muq;fk;‛ rpwg;G ngw;wJ
es
 tp[a efug; Nguurh;fspy; Gfo;kpf;f murd; - fpU\;zNjtuhah;
pr
 1347- y; jf;fhzj;jpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l muR - ghkpdp muR
ex
 fpU\;zNjtuhah; fhyj;jpy; tp[aefug; Nguurpd; Gfo; cr;r epiyia mile;jJ

 ,uhkuhah; jiyf;Nfhl;ilg; Nghhpy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;L nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;
lvi
 ghkpdp murh;fs; muG kw;Wk; ghurPf nkhopfisf; fw;f Cf;fkspj;jdh;
ka
gf;jp> R+‡gp ,af;fq;fs;

 ,ilf;fhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpa ,af;fk; - gf;jp ,af;fk;
w.
 gf;jp ,af;fj;ijg; gug;gpa Jwtpfs; vjidg; gug;gpdh; - ,iwg;gw;iw

ww
 gf;jp ,af;fk; Kjd; Kjypy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ - njd; ,e;jpahtpy;

 gf;jp ,af;fj;ij tl,e;jpahTf;F nfhz;L nrd;wth; - ,uhkhde;jh;
 gf;jp ,af;fj;ij kf;fspilNa nfhz;L Ngha; gpugykilar; nra;jth; - fgPH;
 irt rkaj;ij ehnlq;Fk; gug;gpath;fs; - 63 ehad;khh;fs;
 63 ehad;khh;fspy; Kjd;ikahdth; - mg;gh; (jpUehTf;furh;)> Re;juh;> rk;ge;jh;>
khzpf;fthrfh;
 mg;gh; vd;gth; jpUehTf;furh;> fp.gp., 600-y; njd;dhw;fhl;by; gpwe;jth;
 mg;gh; ahuhy; rptgf;juhdhh;? jpyftjp mk;ikahuhy;
 mg;gh; 49000 gjpfq;fis ,aw;wpAs;shh;. 311 gjpfq;fs; fpilj;Js;sd
 ‘flTis mila xNu top md;G jtpu rlq;Ffs; ,y;iy‛ vd Nghjpj;jth;-
khzpf;fthrfh;
 khzpf;fthrfh; vOjpa E}y; - jpUthrfk;
www.kalviexpress.in
 jpUQhdrk;ge;jh; 16000 gjpfq;fisg; ghbAs;shh;. mjpy; 384 gjpfq;fs; kl;LNk
fpilj;Js;sd
 ‘ehad;khh;fspd; tho;fi
; f tuyhw;W E}y;‛ my;yJ nghpaGuhzk; vd;Dk; E}iy
vOjpath; - Nrf;fpohh;
 tp\;Ztpd; Gfiog;gug;gpath;fs; - Mo;thh;fs;. nkhj;jk; 12 Ngh;. Mo;thh;fspy;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fth;fs; - ek;kho;thh;> nghpaho;thh;> Mz;lhs;
 Mo;thh;fs; ghba 4000 ghly;fis ehyhapuj;jpt;tpag;gpuge;jk; vd;Dk; E}y; tbtpy;
njhFj;jth; - ehjKdp
 goq;fhyj;jpy; njd;dpe;jpahtpy; gf;jp ,af;fj;ij njhlq;fp itj;jth; -
rq;fuhr;rhhpahh;
 rq;fuh; gpwe;j Ch; - Nfushtpy; fhyb
 xNu flTs; vd;Dk; mj;itj nfhs;if ahUilaJ - rq;fuh;
in
 rq;fuh; Nghjpj;jJ - mj;itjk;
 ,uhkD[h; Nghjpj;jJ - tprp];lhj;itjk;> kj;Jth; Nghjpj;jJ - Jitjk;
s.
 ,uhkD[h; gpwe;j Ch; - =ngUk;GJ}h;
es
 ,uhkD[h; gf;jpapd; %yk; Kf;jpiag; ngwyhk; vd Nghjpj;jhh;
pr
 ,uhkD[hpd; rPlh; - ,uhkhde;jh;
 kf;fs; midtUk; xNu FLk;gkhf> rNfhju> rNfhjhpahf vz;zpath; - ,uhkD[h;
ex
 ,uhkD[h; xU itzt gf;jh;

lvi
 grth;> tPuirtk; vd;w gphpitj; njhlq;fpath; - ty;yghr;rhhpahh;
ka
 ty;yghr;rhhpaiug; gpd;gw;wp rptid topgl;lth;fs; - tPuirth; (m) ypq;fhaj;Jf;fs;

 rhjpKiw> kW gpwg;G ,tw;iw vjph;j;jth; - ty;yghr;rhhpah;
w.
 irjd;ah; gpwe;j Ch; - 1458 tq;fhsj;jpy;

ww
 fpU\;zd; topghl;ilg; gpugyg;gLj;jpath;> md;Gk;> gf;jpANk ,iwtid milAk;

top vd Nghjpj;jth; - irjd;ah;
 ,uhkde;jhpd; rPlh; - fgPh;
 ,e;J - K];yPk; xw;Wikia Kjd; Kjyhf typAWj;jpath; - fgPh;
 Md;kPfj;JwtpfSs; rpwg;gplk; ngw;wth; - fgPh;
 fgPiug; gpd;gw;wpNahh; - fgPhg
; e;j; vd;wiof;fg;gl;ldh;
 fgPhpd; Nghjidfs; - fgp[fh vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ
 ,uhkDk;> ,ufPKk; xUtNu vd Nghjpj;jth; - fgPh;
 rpiy topghL> rhjp Kiwia fz;bj;jth; - fgPh;
 rPff
; pa kjj;ij epWtpath; - FUehdf;
 fgPhpd; cw;w rPlh; - FUehdf;. FUehdf; gpwe;j Ch; - yh$h; mUfpy; ‘jhy;tz;b‛
vd;Dk; fpuhkj;jpy; 1469-y; gpwe;jhh;
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 ‘cz;ik> Neh;ik> md;G - ,tw;iw Nghjpj;jth; - FUehdf;
 gf;jp ,af;fj;ijg; gug;gpa ngz;kzp kPuhgha;. Nkthh; kd;dh; uNjhh; uj;dhrpq;
vd;gthpd; kfs; kPuhgha;
 kPuhghapd; ghly;fs; - g[d;> ,uh[];jhd; gFjpapy; kpfTk; Gfo;ngw;w ghly;fs;
‘g[d;‛
 kfhuh\;buj;jpy; gf;jp ,af;fj;ij gug;gpath;fs; - QhdNjth;> ehkNjth;> Vf;ehj;>
Jf;fhuhk;> uhk;jhrh;> Jsrpjhrh;
 gftj;fPijf;F ciu vOjpath; - QhNd Njth;. QhdNjth; vOjpa E}y; -
QhNd];thp
 kfhuh\;buj;jpy; [hjp Kiwia vjph;j;jth; - Vf;ehj;
 FUuhk;jhrh; vOjpa E}y; - jrNahjh
 Jsrpjhrh; vOjpa E}y; - ,uhkrhpjkdh];
in
 ghurPfj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;l K];yPk; rPh;jpUj;j ,af;fk; ‘R+‡gp‛ ,af;fk;
 KfkJ egpNa cz;ikahdth;> mtuJ Nfhl;ghLfNs KOikahdJ vd $WtJ -
s.
R+‡gp ,af;fk;
es
 jpahdKk;> gf;jpAk; ‘,iwtid milAk; top vd Nghjpj;jJ - R+‡gp ,af;fk;. R+‡gp
pr
,af;fj;jpd; jiyth; - N\f;/gPh;/Kh;\pj;
 R+‡gp ,af;fj;jth; 12 njhFg;Gfshf nray;gl;ldh;. mjw;F ‘rpy;rpyh‛ vd;Wngah;
ex
rpy;rpyh vd;why; ‘njhlh; rq;fpyp‛ vd;W nghUs;

lvi
 R+‡gp vd;why; Kul;L fk;gsp Milia mzpe;J vspikia ntspg;gLj;Jk; Jwtp
vd;gJ nghUs;. R+‡gh vd;why; J}a;ikahdJ vd;W nghUs;
ka
 ,e;jpa R+‡gp ,af;fj;Jwtpfs; - Fth[h nkhapjd;> cj;jPd;-rp];b> ghgh ‡g;hPj;
w.
ep[hk; cj;jPd; mTdpah

 Fth[h nkha;d; -cj;-jPd;-rp];b1192-y; ,e;jpahTf;F te;J M[;kPhpy; jq;fpdhh;. ‘fhpg;
ww
eth[;‛ vdg;gl;lth; - Fth[h nkha;d;-cj;jPd;-rp];b

 Fth[h nkha;d; cj;jPdpd; rPlh;- ghghh; ghPj;> ,th; Gfo; ngw;w R+‡gp Jwtp
 nly;yp Ry;jhd; ghy;gd; - ghgh‡ghPj; vd;w R+‡gp gf;jh;
 ghgh ghhPj; vd;w R+‡gp jiythpd; gf;jh; - ghy;gd;
 ,e;jpa kf;fs; ahiu ‘nk`G+k;-,-,yh`p‛ vd Gfo;e;jdh;- ep[hk; cj;jPd; mTypah
 kPuhd;> rhfpg;> Fthjph; thyp vd miof;fg;gl;lth; - eh$h; Mz;lth;
 eh$h; Mz;lth; tho;e;j fhy; - 16-k; E}w;whz;L
 eh$h; kPuhd; fy;yiw mike;Js;s ,lk; - eh$h;
 eh$hpy; N\h; my;yJ Jwtpapd; fy;yiwjhd; - jh;fh. eh$h; kPuhdpd; fy;yiwjhd;
‘eh$h; jh;fh‛
 R+‡gp ,af;fj;Jwtpfshy; tl;lhu nkhopfspd; ,yf;fpak; tsh;r;rpaile;jJ. jkpo;>
njYq;F>,e;jp> gQ;rhgp> fd;dlk; nkhop ,yf;fpak; tsh;r;rpaile;jJ.
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 R+‡gp ,af;fk; Muk;gkhd ,lk; - ghurPfk;
 grth; Njhw;Wtpj;j irtrkag; gphpT - tPuirtk;
 eh$h; jh;fhtpy; ‘fe;J}hp cU];‛ tpoh eilngWfpwJ
Unit –III
Mughals- Babar to Aurangzeb – Shershah Suri- Administration –
Society, Religion and Culture under the Mughals – Shivaji – Maratha
administration.
 nly;ypg; Nguurpd; filrp Ry;jhd; - ,g;uh`pk; Nyhb
 ghgiu ,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLf;FkhW fbjk; mDg;gpath;fs; - Myk;fhd; Nyhb>
gQ;rhg; MSeh;> njsj;fhd; Nyhb
 ghghpd; ,aw;ngah; - [hfpUjpd; Kfk;kJ ghgh;.ghgh; gpwe;j Mz;L 1483-y;
 ghgh; je;ij topapy; ij%h; ,dj;ijr; rhh;e;jth;
 ghgh; jkJ 11-k; tajpy; gh;f;fhdhtpy; Ml;rpg;nghWg;ig Vw;whh;.
in
 ghgh; je;ijapd; ngah;- ckh;N\f; kph;\h ( kj;jpa Mrpah gh;ff
; hiu gFjpia Ml;rp
s.
Ghpe;jth;) > jha; - Fj;Yepfh;fhdk;
 ghgh; gQ;rhg; MSeh; ‘njsyj;fhd; es
Nyhb” vd;gthpd;
Ntz;LNfhis Vw;W
pr
,e;jpahtpd; kPJ gilnaLj;J te;jhh;
 ghghpd; fhyk; fp.gp. 1526-1530 tiu. nkhfyhah; fhyk; 1526-1707 tiu
ex
 Kjy; ghdpg;gl;Lg;Nghh; eilg;ngw;w Mz;L 1526 Vg;uy; 21-y;. ghgUf;Fk;> nly;ypia

lvi
Ml;rp nra;j ,g;uhfpk; Nyhbf;Fk;

 Kjy; ghdpgl;Lg;Nghhpy; ghghpd; ntw;wpf;F fhuzk; - gPuq;fpg;gil cgNahfk;
ka
 Kjy; ghdpgl;Lg;Nghhpy; nfhy;yg;gl;lth; - ,g;uh`pk; Nyhb
 fhd;thg;Nghh; -1527 -y; Nkthh;kd;dh; ,uhzhrq;fhTf;Fk; ghgUf;Fk;> ntw;wp ghgh;
w.
 re;Njhpg;Nghh; - 1528- y; khst kd;dh; Nkjpdpuha;fF
; k; ghgUf;Fk;> ntw;wp ghgh;
ww
 ghghpd; filrpg;Nghh; Nfhf;uhNghh; -1529-y; Kfk;kJ Nyhbf;Fk; ghgUf;Fk;> ntw;wp ghgh;

 ,e;jpahtpy; nkhfyhag; Nguurpid epiy ehl;bath; - ghgh;
 ghgh; ,we;jJ - 47-k; tajpy; 1530
 ,ilf;fhy tuyhw;wpy; kpfTk; tpUk;gj;jf;fth;fspy; xUtuhff; fUjg;gLgth; - ghgh;
 ghghpd; Rarhpij E}y; - JRf;-fp-ghghp (m) ghghpd; epidTfs;
 ghgh; jd; Rarhpijia JUf;fp nkhopapy; vOjpdhh;
 `pkhA+d; vd;gth; ghghpd; kfd; - fhyk; 1530-1540> 1555 - 1556
 `pkhA+d; vq;F vg;NghJ gpwe;jhh; 1508-y; fhG+ypy;
 `pkhA+d; rNfhjuh;fs; - fhk;uhd;> `pz;lhy;>m];fhhp
 `pkhA+dpd; Muk;gfhy vjphpahf nray;gl;lth;- tq;fhsk; gPfhhpd; MSeh; - n\h;fhd;
 Nrsrhg; Nghh; - fp.gp. 1539-y; nrsrh vd;Dkplj;jpy; n\h;\hTf;Fk; `pkhA+Df;Fk; >
ntw;wp - n\h;\h
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 fz;Nzhrpg;Nghh; eilg;ngw;w Mz;L - 1540-y; n\h;\hf;Fk; `pkhA+f;Fk;> `pkhA+d;
ntw;wp
 `pkhA+d; ehNlhbahf tho;e;j fhyk; - 15 Mz;Lfs; (1540-1555)
 `pkhA+d; mkpjhghDNgfk; vd;gtiu jpUkzk; nra;J nfhz;lhh; 1541y;
 mf;gh; gpwe;j Mz;L fp.gp.1542-y; mkuf;Nfhl;ilapy;
 `pkhA+d; 15 Mz;Lfl;F gpwF kPz;Lk; muruhdJ - 1555-y;
 `pkhA+d; vd;gjd; nghUs; - mjph;\;lrhyp. mjph;\;lkpy;yhj ghghpd; kfdhf gpwe;jth;
- `pkhA+d;
 `pkhA+d; ,we;j Mz;L - 1556-y; fhy; jLf;fp tpOe;J ,we;jhh;
 `pkhA+d; jkJ thhprhf epakpj;jth; - mf;gh;
 mf;ghpd; ghJfhtyuhf ,Ue;jth; - iguhk;fhd;
 n\h;\h R+h; Ml;rpf;fhyk; - fp.gp 1540-1545 tiu
 n\h;\htpd; cz;ikahd ngah; - ghPj;. n\h;\h; cN\d; vd;gthpd; kfd;> fp.gp. 1472-
in
y; ghPj; gpwe;jhh;
s.
 n\h;\hTf;F ‘n\h;fhd;” vd;w gl;lj;ij toq;fpath; - Mg;fhdpa fth;dh;
 n\h;\hthy; epWtg;gl;l NguuR (tk;rk;) R+h; tk;rk;es
 nrsrh Nghhpy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lth; - `pkhA+d; 1539-y; (n\h;\hthy;)
pr
 n\h;\h tq;fhsk;> gPfhh; kd;duhdJ - nrsrh Nghh; ntw;wpahy; - 1539-y;
ex
 fd;Ndh[; Nghhpd; tpisT - n\h;\h nly;yp Mf;uhit ifg;gw;wpdhh;

 1540 fd;Ndh[; Nghhpy; ntd;wth; - n\h;\h - `pkhA+id Njhw;fbj;jhh;
lvi
 n\h;\htpd; filrp gilnaLg;G -1545-y; gz;Nly;fz;l; kPJ> n\h;\h kuzk;
ka
mile;j Mz;L 1545-y; ntb tpgj;jpy;

 jiyrpwe;j eph;thf Kiwia Vw;gLj;jpa rpw;gp - n\h;\h
w.
 fyQ;rhh; Nfhl;il Kw;Wifapd; NghJ ntbtpgj;jpy; kuzkile;jth; - n\h;\h

ww
 n\h;\h fhyj;jpy; mikr;ruitapy; ,lk; ngw;wth;fs;

jpthdp-,-Mhp\; - ,uhZtg; nghWg;ghsh;
jpthdp-,-tprhuj; - tuT kw;Wk; nryT nghWg;ghsh;
jpthdp-,-urhyj; - ntspAwT kw;Wk; J}jufg; nghWg;ghsh;
jpthdp-,-,d;rh - murhizfs;> fbjg;Nghf;Ftuj;J nghWg;ghsh;
 n\h;\h eph;thfj;jpd; nghUl;L jk; Nguuir 47 rh;f;fhh;fshf gphpj;jhh;
 n\h;\h khepy eph;thfj;jpy; filrp mq;fkhf tpsq;fpaJ - fpuhkk;
 n\h;\h eph;thfj;jpy; Kf;fpa ,lj;ijg; ngw;wJ - epy tUtha;
 ,uaj;Jthhp Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - n\h;\h
 mf;ghpd; Kd;Ndhb vd;wiof;fg;gLgth; - n\h;\h
 myhTjPd; fpy;[p gpd;gw;wpa ,uhZt Kiwiag; gpd;gw;wpath; - n\h;\h
 n\h;\h ,uhZtg;gilapy; mjpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j gilg;gphpT - Fjpiug;gil
 FjpiufSf;F milahsR+bLk; jhf; Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - n\h;\h
www.kalviexpress.in
 n\h;\h ePjp eph;thfj;jpy; ‘ rl;lj;jpd; Kd; midtUk; rkk;” vd;w fUj;jpidf;
nfhz;bUe;jhh;
 n\h;\h fhyj;jpy; ePjp eph;thfj;jpy; cjtp Ghpe;jth; - jiyikfhrp
 n\h;\h ntspapl;l ehzak;- jq;fk;> nts;sp ehzaq;fs; (lhk; vd;w jq;f ehzak;)
 ehzaq;fspy; jkJ ngahpid Njtehfphp vOj;jpy; nghwpf;fr; nra;jth; - n\h;\h
 ‘etPd ehza Kiwapd; je;ij” vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - n\h;\h
 n\h;\h cUthf;fpa fy;yiw- rrhuk; (gPfhh;) efhpy;
 n\h;\h cUthf;fpa Gfo;ngw;w fl;llk; - nly;ypapy; GuhzFapyh
 ,e;jpahit Ml;rp Ghpe;j nkhfyha kd;dh;fspy; jiyrpwe;jth; - mf;gh; ( 1556-1605)
 mf;gh; gpwe;jJ 1542 etk;gh; 23-y; mkuf;Nfhl;ilapy;
 mf;ghpd; ,aw;ngah; - [yhYjPd; Kfk;kJ mf;gh;
 mf;gh; jkJ 14 tajpy; (1556-y;) Kb R+l;bf;nfhz;lhh;
 mf;ghpd; ghJfhg;ghsuhf `pkhA+dhy; epakpf;fg;gl;lth; - iguhk;fhd;
in
 ,uz;lhk; ghdpg;gl;Nghh; 1556-y; n`KTf;Fk; mf;gUf;Fk;> ntw;wp- mf;gh;> n`K
s.
nfhy;yg;gl;lJ ,uz;lhk; ghdpg;gl; Nghhpy;
es
 ,uz;lhk; ghdpg;gl;Nghhpd; tpisthf - nkhfyhah; Ml;rp nly;yp> Mf;uhtpy; kPz;Lk;
epiy ehl;lg;gl;lJ
pr
 iguhk;fhdpd; ghJfhtyh; Ml;rp eilg;ngw;w fhyk; - 4 Mz;Lfs;
ex
 mf;ghpd; tsh;g;Gj;jha; - khfk; mdhfh

 mf;ghpd; kfd; - [`hq;fPh>; mf;ghpd; Nkyhz;ikia Vw;Wf;nfhz;l n[a;g;G+h; kd;dh; -
lvi
gpfhhpkhy;
ka
 mf;guhy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;l Nfhz;lt

; hdh Nguurp - ,uhzp Jh;f;fhtjp
 mf;gh; ,uh[Gj;jpuh;fSld; el;GwT nfhz;lhh; (jpUkz cwT)
w.
 mf;gh; kze;J nfhz;l ,uh[Gj;jpu ,sturp - N[hj;G+h; ,sturp N[hj;gha;
ww
 mf;gh; uj;J nra;j thpfs; - [prpah kw;Wk; Gdpjg;gaz thp

 me;jg;Gw murhq;ff; fhyk; vd;gJ - mf;ghpd; tsh;g;Gj;jha; khfk; mdhfhtpd;
fl;Lg;ghl;by; mf;gh; 4 Mz;Lfs; nray;gl;lhh; (1560-1564)
 mf;gh; ntw;wp nfhz;l mfkJ efh; kd;dh; - rhe;j;gPgp
 mf;ghpd; mitapy; ,Ue;j mwpQh;fs; - ,uh[hNjhlh;khy;> ,uh[ gftd;jh];> mgy;
ghry;> mGy; igrp
 mGy; ghry; vOjpa E}y; - mf;gh; ehkh> mapdp mf;ghhp
 ,uhkhazk;> kfhghujj;ij ghurPf nkhopapy; nkhop ngah;j;jth; - mGy;igrp
 mf;ghpd; mitia myq;fhpj;j ,irQhdp - jhd;Nrd;
 mf;ghpd; Gjpa rkak; - jPd;,yh`p
 mf;gh; ‘,ghjj;fhdh” vd;Dk; njhOif ,y;yj;ijf; fl;baJ - fp.gp. 1575-y;
 mf;ghpd; ‘jtWglh Miz’ ntspaplg;gl;lJ - 1575-y;
 mf;ghpd; kj rfpg;Gj;jd;ikapd; ntspg;ghL - jPd;`pyh`p
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 mf;ghpd; nja;tf
P kjk; - jPd;,yh`p
 mf;gh; jPd; ,yh`pia ntspapl;l Mz;L - fp.gp. 1582-y;
 epythp rPh;jpUj;jj;jpy; n\h;\htpd; mbr;Rtl;ilg; gpd;gw;wpath; - mf;gh;
 mf;gh; fhyj;jpy; epythp msT - 1/ 3 gq;F
 Kfyhahpd; ,uhZtk; kw;Wk; nghJ eph;thf Kiwf;F mbg;gilahf mike;jJ -
kd;rg;jhhp Kiw
 kd;rg;jhhp Kiw gpd;gw;wg;gl;lehL - ghurPfk;
 kd;rg;jhhp Kiwia gpd;gw;wpath;> mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - mf;gh;
 kd;rg; vd;why;- juk; my;yJ jFjp vd;W nghUs;
 F[uhj; ntw;wpapd; epidthf mf;guhy; fl;lg;gl;l fl;llk; - gNjG+h; rpf;hp
 mf;guhy; fl;lg;gl;l EioTthapy; (nghw;fjT) Gye;jh;thrh
 mf;guhy; fl;lg;gl;l fl;llq;fs; - mf;ghpk`hy;> [thq;fphp k`hy;> gQ;r;
k`hy;>N[hj;G+h; muz;kid -,it rptg;G gspq;F fw;fshy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
in
 mf;gh; Ml;rp Ghpe;j fhyk; - 50 Mz;Lfs;> mf;gh; ,we;j Mz;L -1605-y;
s.
 nkhfyha kd;dh;fspy; rpwg;Gw;w Nguurh; - mf;gh;
es
 [`hq;fPhpd; ,aw;ngah; -ryPk; > [`hq;fPh; vd;gjd; nghUs; ‘cyfpid nty;gth;”
 [`hq;fPh; mhpaiz Vwpa Mz;L fp.gp. 1605-y;
pr
 rPf;fpah;fspd; Ie;jhtJ FU - FU mh;[{d; rpq;. FU mH[Pd; rpq;if nfhd;wtd; -
ex
[`hq;fPH
 [`hq;fPh; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahTf;F te;j Mq;fpNyahfs;; - tpy;ypak; `hf;fpd;];> rh;
lvi
jhk]; Nuh
ka
 [`hq;fPuhy; R+uj;jpy; thzpfk; nra;a mDkjp ngw;w Mq;fpNyah; - rh; jhk]; Nuh
 nkhfyhah;fspy; jiyrpwe;j mwpQh; - [`hq;fPh;
w.
 [`hq;fPuhy; vOjg;gl;l mthpd; Rarhpij E}y; - JRf;-,-[`hq;fphp(ghurPf nkhopapy;)

ww
 ePjpj;Jiwapy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpa nkhfyha kd;dh; - [`hq;fPh;

 [`hq;fPh; Vw;gLj;jpa Gjpa ePjp toq;Fk; Kiw- ePjpr;rq;fpyp kzp
 ePjpr;rq;fpyp kzp mikj;jth;- [`hq;fPh;
 ePjpr; rq;fpyp \hgh;[; muz;kidapy; xU KidAk;> aKid ejpf;fiuapy; xU
KidAk; fl;lg;gl;lJ
 gz;ila fhyj;jpy; ePjpr;rq;fpyp Kiwiaf; nfhz;Lte;jth; - kDePjpr;Nrhod;
 E}h;[`hdpd; je;ij- kph;rh fpah];ngf;
 nkdUd;dprh kph;rh fpah];ngf; vd;gthpd; kfs;
 nkfud;dprh ,sk;gUtj;jpy; N\h; Mg;fhd; (mypFyp)ia kze;jhh;
 E}h;[`hd; [`hq;fPiu kze;jJ - 1611-y;
 nkfUd;dprh E}h;`hy; vd;w rpwg;;Gg;ngahpidg; ngw;whh;
 E}h;kfhy; vd;gjd; nghUs;- muz;kidapd; xsp
 E}h;[`hd; cyfpd; xsp vd;w rpwg;G ngahpidAk; ngw;whh;
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 fp.gp. 1611 Kjy; 1626 tiuapyhd fhyj;ij nkhfyha tuyhw;wpy; E}h;[`hdpd;
fhyk; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ
 ,ilf;fhy ,e;jpahit Ml;rp nra;j Kjy; ngz;zurp - urpahNgfk;
 =efhpy; \hypkh;(m) ep\hj; G+e;Njhl;lq;fis cUthf;fpath; - [`hq;fPh;
 \h[`hdpd; fhyk; fp.gp. 1628 Kjy; fp.gp. 1658 tiu
 Fh;uk; vd;gth; [`hq;fPhpd; kfd;
 \h[`hdpd; ,sikg;ngah; - Fh;uk;> 1592-y; yh$hpy; gpwe;jhh;
 Fh;uk; cyf murd; \h[`hd; vd miof;fg;gl;lhh;
 Nghh;j;JfPrpah;fSf;F vjpuhfg; Nghhpl;l nkhfyha kd;dd; - \h[`hd;
 \h[`hd; mfk;kJ efiuf; ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L - 1636-y;
 ‘Nkhfyhah;fspd; nghw;fhyk;” vd;wiof;fg;gLtJ \h[`hd; fhyk;
 gz;ila ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpy; ahUila Ml;rpf;fhyk; nghw;fhyk; vd fUjg;gl;lJ -
Fg;jh;fs; fhyk;
in
 [Pk;kh kR+jpiaf; fl;bath; - \h[`hd;
s.
 [Pk;kh kR+jp gspq;Ffw;fshy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
es
 cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa gs;spthry;fspy; xd;whf fUjg;gLtJ - [Pk;kh kR+jp
 cyf mjpraq;fSs; xd;whf tpsq;FtJ - jh[;k`hy;
pr
 ‘fl;llf;fiyapd; ,sturh;> nghwpahsh; Nguurh; vd;W miof;fg;gLgth; - \h[`hd;
ex
 \h[`hd; cUthf;fpa Gjpa jiyefh;;- \h[`hdhghj;

 by;ypapy; nrq;Nfhl;iliaf; fl;bath; - \h[`hd;
lvi
nrq;Nfhl;ilapy; cs;s khspiffs; - uq;kfhy;> Nkhjpkfhy;> Kj;J kfhy;> jpthdp -
ka
Mk;> jpthdp - fh];

 ‘Nguurpd; ngUikfis cyfwpar; nra;jth; “‘kz;Zyfpy; fz;lth; tpaf;Fk;
w.
tz;zk; Xh; tpz;Zyif cUthf;fpg; Gfo; nfhz;lth;” - \h[`hd;
ww
 jh[;kfhy; fl;lg;gl;l ,lk; - Mf;uh

 jh[;kfhy; ahhpd; epidthff; fl;lg;gl;lJ - Kk;jh[;
 jh[;kfhy; gspq;F fw;fshy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
 gspq;F fw;fspd; fdTyfkhf tpsq;Fk; fl;llk; - jh[;kfhy;
 jh[;kfhiyf; fl;ba jiyik rpw;gp ‘c];jhj; ,\h”
 jh[;kfhy; 22 Mz;Lfspy; 20 yl;rk; &ghapy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
 Kj;J kR+jp vq;F fl;lg;gl;lJ - Mf;uhtpy;>\h[`hd;
 [`hq;fPh; fy;yiwia fl;bath; - \h[`hd;
 cyfg;Gfo;; ngw;w kapyhrdj;ij cUthf;fpath; - \h[`hd;
 kapyhrdj;jpy; Gfo;ngw;w Nfh`pD}h; ituk; gjpf;fg;gl;lJ
 nkhfyhah;fspd; fiyEZf;fj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf tpsq;FtJ- kapyhrdk;
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 kapyhrdj;ij vLj;Jr;nrd;wth; - 1739-y; ehjph;\h> jw;NghJ kapyhrdk; vq;Fs;sJ -
,q;fpyhe;J mUq;fhl;rpafj;jpy;
 \h[`hd; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpw;F te;e ,j;jhypa ehl;lth; ngh;dpah;>
buhth;dpah>kZrp
 xsuq;frPg;gpd; fhyk; fp.gp. 1658 - fp.gp. 1707 tiu
 nkhfyha tk;rj;jpd; filrp typiktha;e;j kd;dh; xsuq;frPg;
 \h[`hid ifJ nra;J rpiwapyilj;j mthpd; kfd; xsuq;frPg; 1658-1666 tiu
rpiwapypUe;J ,we;jhh;
 xsuq;frPg; Myk;fPh; vd;w gl;lj;ij R+l;bf;nfhz;lhh;
 rkagw;W kpf;f nkhfyhag; Nguurh;- xsuq;frPg;
 xsuq;frPg; rd;dp K];yPk; gphpitr; rhh;e;jth;
 ,];yhkpd; Gdpj E}y;- Fuhd;> ,g;GdpjE}ypid jpde;NjhWk; gbj;Jte;jth; -
xsuq;frPg;
in
 K];yPk; my;yhjth; kPJ tpjpf;fg;gl;l thp - n[rpah
s.
 ,e;Jf;fs; kPJ n[rpah thpiaAk;> Gdpj gaz thpiaAk; tpjpj;jth; xsuq;frPg;. ,th;
,e;Jf;fis murg;gjtpapypUe;J mfw;wpath; es
 xsuq;frPg;ghy; nfhy;yg;gl;l rPf;fpa FU - FUNj[;gfJ}h;
pr
 FUNj[;gfJ}h; rPf;fpah;fspd; 9tJ FU
ex
 rPf;fpah;fspd; 10tJ FU - FUNfhtpe;j;rpq;

 rPf;fpah;fis nkhfyha vjph;g;G r%fkhf;fpath;
lvi
 ‘fy;rh” vd;w rPf;fpa ,uhZt mikg;ig Vw;gLj;jpath; - FUNfhtpe;j;rpq;
ka
 rPf;fpa kjj;ijg; Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - FUehdf;

 fy;rh mikg;gpy; 5 ‘K” vd;gjd; nghUs; - Nf\;> fph;ghd;> fr;rh> fq;fh> fuh
w.
 rpth[pia mlf;f xsuq;frPg;ghy; mDg;gg;gl;l jf;fhz MSeh; - nrap\;lfhd;
ww
 rpth[papd; jhf;Fjypy; jdJ tpuy;fspy; xd;iw ( fl;il tpuy;) ,oe;J jg;gp Xbath;
- nrap\;lfhd;
 rpth[pia mlf;f xsuq;frPg;ghy; mDg;gg;gl;l ,uh[Gj;jpujiyth;- n[a;rpq;
 rpth[pia ifJ nra;j ,uh[Gj;jpu jiyth; - n[a;rpq;
 xsuq;frPg; jf;fhzg; gilnaLg;ig Nkw;nfhz;l fhyk; - 25 Mz;Lfs;
 jf;fhzg; Gw;WNeha;jhd; xsuq;frPg;ig mopj;jJ - jf;fhzg; gilnaLg;Gjhd;
 xsuq;frPg; ,we;j Mz;L - fp.gp.1707-y;
 nkhfyhah;fspd; Ml;rpKiw - ,uhZtk; rhh; ‘ty;yhl;rp” MFk;
 nkhfyhah; fhyj;jpy; ‘trPh;” vd;gth; jiyik mikr;rh;
 mf;gh; fhyj;;jpy; NguuR 15 Rghf;fisg; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ
 rh;f;fhh; gFjpia Ml;rp Ghpe;jth; - gT[;jhh;
 nkhfyhah; fhyj;jpy; rpwe;j tUtha;j;Jiw mikr;rh;- ,uh[hNjhlh;khy;
 [g;jp Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - mf;gh;
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 mf;ghpd; Kd;Ndhb vd;W fUjg;gLgth; - n\h;\h
 nkhfyha ,uhZtg;gilapy; Fjpiug;gil Kf;fpa gq;F tfpj;jJ
 kd;rg;jhhp Kiwia ,uhZtj;jpy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpath;- mf;gh;
 kd;rg; vd;why; - juk; my;yJ ,lk; vd;gJ nghUshFk;. kd;rg;jhh;fs; 10 Kjy;
10>000 Fjpiufis itj;jpUe;jhh;fs;
 nkhfyhah; fhyj;jpy; ePjp ghpghydk; nra;jth; - jiyikfhrp
 nkhfyhah;fspd; jiyefuk; - nly;yp
 nkhfyhag;Nguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;F fhuzkhd gilnaLg;G ehjph;\h; (1739)> mfk;kJ \h
mg;jhyp gilnaLg;Gfs; 1761 -y;
 ghguhy; cUthf;fg;gl;L> mf;guhy; epiyepWj;jg;gl;L xsuq;frPg; fhyj;jpy; epiy
Fiye;J NghdJ - nkhfyha NguuR
 [`hq;fPh; murhpd; muz;kidapy; ePjpr;rq;fpyp fl;lg;gl;bUe;jJ
 FU mh;[Pd;Njt; - 5tJ FU> FU Nj[;gfJ}h; - 9tJ FU> FU Nfhtpe;j; - 10tJ FU
in
 ,uz;lhk; ghdpg;gl; Nghhpy; mf;guhy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lth; - n`K
s.
 rpth[papd; fhyk; - 1627-1680 tiu
gifth;fsplkpUe;J fhg;ghw;wpaJ
es
 kuhj;jpah;fs; tho;e;j gFjp - jf;fhzk;> kfhuh\;buh kiyg;gFjp
 kuhl;bah;fis mth;fspd; Nfhl;ilfs;>
pr
kiyg;gFjpfs;
ex
 kuhj;jpah;fs; mwpe;j Nghh; Kiw- ‘nfhhpy;yh Nghh; Kiw”

 nfhhpy;yh vd;gJ- (Nghh; Kiw) Kiwrhuh Nghh; Kiw
lvi
 kuhj;jpah;fspd; khngUk; jiyth; - rpth[p
ka
 rpth[p gpwe;j ,lk; - G+dhTf;F mUfpy; rptNdhp vd;Dkplj;jpy;

 rpth[papd; je;ij - \h[pghd;];Ny> jha; - [P[hgha;
w.
 \h[p ghd;];Nytpd; ,uz;lhtJ kidtp -Jh;f;fhgha; ( nkd`l;)

ww
 rpth[papd; fhg;ghsh;> rpth[papd; FU - jhjh[p nfhz;l Njt;

 rpth[p jdJ jha; %yk; ,sikapy; fw;wJ - ,uhkhazk;> kfhghujf;fijfs;>
Guhzq;fs;
 rpth[pf;F Fjpiug;gapw;rp> eph;thfg;gapw;rp mspj;j FU jhjh[p nfhz;l Njt;
 rpth[p ifg;gw;wpa Nfhl;ilfs;- Gue;jh;> nua;fh;> Njhh;dh> fy;ahz; Mfpatw;iw 1646-
y; gP[g;G+h; Ry;jhdplkpUe;J ifg;gw;wpdhh;.
 rpth[pia nfhiy nra;a mDg;gg;gl;l gP[g;G+h; Ry;jhd; - mg;ry;fhd;
 rpth[p jdJ Gyp efj;jhy; ahiuf; nfhd;whh;- mg;ry;fhd;
 rpth[pia nfhy;y xsuq;frPg;ghy; mDg;gg;gl;l jf;fhz MSeh; - 1660-y;
nra;]l
; fhd;
 nrap];lfhd; vd;gthpd; fl;iltpuy; rpth[pahy; Jz;bf;fg;gl;lJ
 xsuq;frPg; ,uz;lhtJ Kiwahf rpth[pia nfhiy nra;a mDg;gg;gl;lth; - ,uh[h
n[a;rpq;
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 Gue;jh; cld;gbf;if Vw;gl;l Mz;L - 1665-y;
 kiy vyp> jf;fhz Gw;WNeha; vd xsuq;frPg;ghy miof;fg;gl;lth; - rpth[p
 rpth[p KbR+l;bf;nfhz;lJ - 1674-y; (nrq;Nfhl;ilapy;) nua;fh;
 rpth[p R+l;bf; nfhz;l gl;lk; - rj;ugjp
 rpth[papd; KbR+l;L tpohtpy; Vw;gl;l epjp neUf;fbahy; fh;ehlfg; gilnaLg;ig
Nkw;nfhz;lhh;
 rpth[p caph; Jwe;jJ -680-y; nua;fhpy;
 rpth[pf;F eph;thfj;jpy; cjtpGhpa mikf;fg;gl;l 8 mikr;rh;fs; FOtpw;F
‘m];lg;gpuhjhd; FO” vdg;ngah;
 rpth[papd; NguuR Rauh[;[pak; vd miof;fg;gl;lJ
 rpth[papd; fhyj;jpy; gP\;th vd;gth; jiyik mikr;rh;
rr;rt
P h vd;gth; - cs;Jiw mikr;rh;> Nrdhjpgjp vd;gth; - ,uhZt mikr;rh;
epjp mikr;rh; - mkhj;jpah> ePjpj;Jiw mikr;rh; - epahajP\; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lhh;
in
 [kPd;jhhp Kiwia xopj;jhh; - rpth[p
s.
 rpth[p fhyj;jpy; epythpapd; gq;F 2/3 gq;F
es
 rpth[p fhyj;jpy; tR+ypf;fg;gl;l thpfs; - rTj;> rh; Nj\;Kfp
 rpth[p fhyj;jpy; ePjp eph;thfk; ‘,e;J kj rl;lk;” mbg;gilapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ
pr
 gl;Nly; vd;gh; - Fw;wtpay; ePjpgjp> epahajP\; vd;gth; - chpikapay;> Fw;wtpay;
ex
Nky;KiwaPl;L ePjpgjp
 rpth[p ,uhZt eph;thfj;jpy; Nfhl;ilfs; Kf;fpa mq;fk; tfpj;jd
lvi
 kuhl;bah;fs; Nfhl;ilia jhahf fUjpdh;
ka
 rpth[p xU Kiwahf gbg;gwpT mw;wth;

 typikahd kuhj;jpa Nguuir cUthf;fpath; rpth[p
w.
 rpth[pf;Fg;gpd; kuhl;ba kd;duhdth; - rk;gh[p
ww
 kuhj;jpa Nguurpy; gpujk mikr;rh;fs; - gP\;thf;fs;

 kuhj;jpa Nguurpy; gP\;thf;fspd; Ml;rp njhlq;fpaJ - 1713-y;
 kuhj;jpah;fspd; Kjy; gP\;th - ghyh[p tp];tehj;
 gP\;th gjtpia guk;giuahf;fpath; - ghyh[p tp];tehj;
 kuhj;jpa Nguurpd; ngUikia kPz;Lk; GJg;gpj;jth; - ghyh[p tp];tehj;
 ghyh[p tp];tehj;Jf;Fg;gpd; gP]t
; h Mdth; - gP\;th gh[puht;
 gP\;thf;fspy; jiyrpwe;jth; - gP\;th gh[puht;
 gP\;th gh[puht; gpd;gw;wpa nfhs;if - Kw;Nghf;F nfhs;if
 gP\;th gh[puht; - %d;whtJ gP\;th
 kuhj;jpa Nguurpd; ngUikiaAk;> GfioAk; cr;r epiyf;F nfhz;L nrd;w gP\;th -
ghyh[p gh[puht;
 1761-y; kuhj;jpa NguuR Gfopd; cr;r epiyia mile;jJ - ghyh[p gh[puht;
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 %d;whtJ ghdpg;gl;Nghh; 1761-y; Mg;fhdpa murh; mfk;kJ\h mg;jhypf;Fk;
rjhrptuht; jiyikapyhd kuhl;baUf;Fk; Njhy;tp - kuhl;bah;fs;
 kuhj;jpa Nguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;F fhuzkhd Nghh; 3tJ ghdpg;gl;Nghh;
 ehjph;\h ghurPfj;jpd; jiyrpwe;j Nghh;tPuh;. ehjph;\h gilnaLg;G 1739-y;
 ehjph;\h gilnaLg;gpd; Kf;fpa fhuzk; - ,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;if nry;tj;ij
nfhs;isabf;f
 Nfh`pD}h; ituk;> ikyhrdj;ij nfhs;isabj;Jr; nrd;wtd; - ehjph;\h
 nkhfyhag; NguuRf;F rhT kzp mbj;jJ - ehjph;\h gilnaLg;G
 ,e;jpahit ,uj;j G+kpahf khw;wp gilnaLg;G ehjph;\h gilnaLg;G
 mfk;kJ\h mg;jhyp gilnaLg;G ele;j Mz;L 1761-y;
 mfkJ \h mg;jhyp Mg;fhdp];jhdk; ehl;ilr; rhh;e;jth;
 mfkJ \h mg;jhyp gilnaLg;gpd; Nehf;fk; - ,e;jpa nry;tq;fis nfhs;isabf;f
 mfkJ \h rPff
; pah; kPJ gilnaLj;j Mz;L 1767-y;
in
 kuhj;jpa Nguurpd; tPo;rr
; pf;F fhuzk; - mfkJ\h mg;jhyp gilnaLg;G( 3tJ
s.
ghdpg;gl;Nghh;)
es
 ,e;jpahtpy; Mq;fpNyah; epiyngw fhuzkhd gilnaLg;G - mfkJ \h mg;jhyp
gilnaLg;G
pr
 rpth[papd; mikr;ruitf;FOthd m\;lg;gpujhdpy; ,lk; ngw;wpUe;j mikr;rh;fspd;
ex
vz;zpf;if - 8
 Gue;jh; cld;gbf;if 1665-y; rpth[pf;Fk;> ,uh[hn[a;rpq;Ff;Fk; ,ilNa Vw;gl;Lj
lvi
Unit – IV
Foundation of British rule in India – Robert Clive – Warren
ka
Hastings – Corn Wallis, Wellesley, Hastings, William Bentick –
Dalhousie.
w.
ww
 fhd;];lhz;b Nehgpis Ml;Nlhkhdpa JUf;fpah;fs; ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L

fp.gp. 1453-y;
 ,e;jpahtpw;F fly; top fz;Lgpbf;Fk; Kaw;rpapy; Kjypy; ,wq;fpath;fs;
- Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah;fs;
 khYkpfSf;F gapw;rpaspf;f mwptpay; Kiwapy; gapw;rp gs;spia
epWtpath; - ,sturh; n`d;wp
 khYkp n`d;wp vd;W Nghw;wg;gl;lth; - n`d;wp
 ghh;j;jNyhkpah la]; Nghh;r;Rf;fy; ehl;lth;
 Kjd;Kjypy; fly;top gazj;ij Nkw;nfhz;lth; fp.gp. 1487-y;
‘ghh;j;jNyhkpah la];”
 Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; njd;Nfhb Kidf;F te;j khYkp- ghh;j;jNyhkpahla];
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 Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; njd;Nfhb Kidf;F Gay; Kid vdg; ngahpl;lth;-
ghh;j;jNyhkpahla];
 th];Nfhlfhkh ,e;jpahtpd; Nkw;F flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;s
fs;spf;Nfhl;ilf;F te;jJ -1498-Nk 27-y;
 ,e;jpahTf;F fly;top fz;Lgpbj;jth; - th];Nfhlfhkh ( Nk 27 1498-y;)
 th];Nfhlfhkh xU Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpa ehl;L khYkp
 fs;spf;Nfhl;ilia Ml;rp Ghpe;j tp[aefu kd;dh; - rhkhpd;
 th];NfhlfhkhTf;F thzpgk; nra;a mDkjp toq;fg;gl;l ,lq;fs;
fz;zD}h;> (Nfhopf;$L) fs;spf;Nfhl;il> nfhr;rpd;
 Kjy; Nghh;j;Jf;fPrpa MSeh; - gpuhd;rp];Nfh-b-my;nka;lh
 gpuhd;rp];Nfh-b- my;nka;lh ,e;jpahtpw;F te;jJ 1505-1509 tiu
in
 mNugpa tpahghhpfisj; Njhw;fbj;J Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpahpd; Mjpf;fj;ij
s.
epiyehl;bath; - gpuhd;rp];Nfh-b-my;nka;lh
 fg;gw;gilia typikg;ngwr; nra;J es
,e;jpa ngUq;fly;
gFjpapy;
Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpahpd; nry;thf;if cWjp nra;jth; - my;nka;lh
pr
 ePyePh; nfhs;if ahUilaJ - my;nka;lh
ex
 gpuhd;rp];Nfh-b-my;nka;lh gpd;gw;wpa nfhs;if - ePyePh; nfhs;if

lvi
 my;nka;lh 1509-y; vfpg;jpauhy; nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;
ka
 Nghh;r;RfPrpahpd; ,uz;lhtJ MSeh; - my;Nghd;]h-b-my;Gfh;f;

 khngUk; ntw;wpahsuhfj; jpfo;e;j Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpa MSeh; - my;Gfh;f;
w.
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpahpd; ,e;jpa jiyefuk; - Nfhth
ww
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah; Nfhthit ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L - fp.gp. 1510-y;> gP[g;G+h;

Ry;jhdplkpUe;J
 tp[aefug; NguuRld; cwit gyg;gLj;jpf;nfhz;l Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah; -
my;Gfh;f;
 Mh;kR JiwKfk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - ghurPf tisFlh
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah; Mjpf;fj;ij ,e;jpahtpy; cz;ikahf epiyehl;bath; -
my;Gfh;f;
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah;fs; ,e;jpa ngz;izj; jpUkzk; nra;tij Cf;Ftpj;jth;
- my;Gfh;f;
 my;Gfh;f; fhykhd ,lk; - Nfhth fp.gp. 1515-y;
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 tp[a efug;Nguurpd; tPo;r;rpf;F fhuzkhf Nghh; - jiyf;Nfhl;ilg;Nghh;
1565
 Nghh;r;Rf;fy; 1580-y; ];ngapd; ehl;bd; fl;Lg;ghl;by; te;jJ
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah;fspd; tPo;r;rpf;Fg; gpwF ,e;jpahTf;F te;jth;fs; -
lr;Rf;fhuh;fs;
 lr;R fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp epWtg;gl;l Mz;L 1602-y
 lr;R fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp epWtg;gl;l ,lk; - `hye;J
 lr;Rf;fhuh;fs; mjpf ehl;lk; nrYj;jpa ,lk; - ,e;NjhNdrpah
 eWkzj;jPTfs; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ - ,e;NjhNdrpah
 lr;Rf;fhuh;fspd; thzpgj;jsk; mike;j ,lq;fs; - rpd;Ruh> ehfg;gl;bdk;>
R+uj;> kR+ypg;gl;bdk;
in
 Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah; tzpfj;jsk; mikj;j ,lq;fs; - Nfhth> ilA+> lhkd;>
s.
rhy;nrl;> fz;zZ}h; Nfhopf;NfhL> nfhr;rpd;
 Gypfhl; vd;wiof;fg;gLk; gFjp - goNtw;fhL es
 lr;Rf;Nfhl;il mikf;fg;gl;l ,lk; - Gypfhl; (m) goNtw;fhL
pr
 lr;Rf;fhuh;fspd; jiyikaplk; - Gypfhl; (m) goNtw;fhL
ex
 mk;gha;dh gLnfhiy epfo;r;rp eilg;ngw;w Mz;L 1823-y;

lvi
 Mq;fpNya tpahghhpfis lr;Rf;fhuh;fs; fp.gp. 1823-y; ,e;NjhNdrpahtpy;
ka
cs;s ‘mk;gha;dh” vd;Dkplj;jpy; nfhd;W tpl;ldh;

 cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa Nghh;f;fg;gy; ‘];ghdpa Mh;klh”
w.
 INuhg;ghtpy; fly; typik ngw;w ehL - ,q;fpyhe;J
ww
 Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp njhlq;fg;gl;l Mz;L brk;gh;31-y; 1600-y;(

100 ,q;fpyhe;J tpahghhpfs;)
 tpy;ypak; `hf;fpd;]; vd;w tpahghhp ,e;jpahTf;F ahh; fhyj;jpy; tUif
Ghpe;jhh; [`hq;fPh; 1608-y;
 rh; jhk];Nuh vd;Dk; Mq;fpNyah; ,e;jpahTf;F te;jJ fp.gp.1615-y;
[`hq;fPh; fhyj;jpy;
 ,e;jpahTld; tpahghuk; nra;a mDkjp ngw;w Mq;fpNyah; - rh; jhk];
Nuh fp.gp.1615-y;
 Mq;fpNyah; tzpfj;jsq;fs; mikj;j ,lq;fs; R+uj;> mfkjhghj;> Mf;uh>
GNuhr;> nrd;id> Kk;ig> fy;fj;jh
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 nrd;id efiu epWtpath; (m) nrd;idia tpiyf;F thq;fpa
Mq;fpNyah; - gpuhd;rp];Nl fp.gp. 1639-y;
 gpuhd;rp];Nl ahhplkpUe;J nrd;idia tpiyf;F thq;fpdhh; - re;jpufphp
murh;
( nrd;dg;g ehaf;fhplkpUe;J)
 nrd;idapy; nrapz;l; [hh;[; Nfhl;iliaf; fl;bath; ahh;? vg;NghJ?
gpuhd;rp];Nl fp.gp.1640-y;
 ,q;fpyhe;J ,sturh; 2-k; rhh;yRf;F jpUkzg;ghprhf nfhLf;fg;gl;l
,e;jpa gFjp - Kk;ig
 gk;ghia Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdpf;F tpw;wth; - 2-k; rhh;y]; ( 10
gTz;L thliff;F tpw;whh;)
in
 xsuq;frPg; mDkjp ngw;W fy;fj;jhtpy; th;j;jfj;jsk; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ
s.
 fy;fj;jhtpy; tpy;ypak; Nfhl;il ahh; epidthff; fl;lg;gl;lJ-
,q;fpyhe;J kd;dh; 3-k; tpy;ypak; es
 fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdpapd; nry;thf;F ,e;jpahtpy; Kbtile;jJ -1858-y;
pr
 nld;khh;f; ehl;ilr; rhh;e;jth;fs; - Nldpah;fs;
ex
 Nldpah;fs; tzpfj;jsk; mikj;j ,lq;fs; - 1620-y; juq;fk;ghb> 1676-y;

lvi
rpuhk;G+h;>
ka
 gpuQ;R fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdpia epWtpath; - fhy;gh;l; fp.gp.1664-y;

 gpuQ;R fpoe;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp epWtg;gl;l ,lk; - gpuhd;rpy; fp.gp.1664-y;
w.
 14-k; Y}apapd; nghUshjhu mikr;rh; - fhy;gh;l;
ww
 gpuQ;Rf;fhuh;fs; tzpfj;jsk; mikj;j ,lq;fs; - ghz;br;Nrhp> khfp>

Vdk;> fhiuf;fhy;> re;jpueh$h;> R+uj; 1668-y; kR+ypg;gl;bdk; 1669-y;
 gpuQ;Rf;fhuh;fspd; jiyik ,lk; - ghz;br;Nrhp
 ghz;br;Nrhp jQ;rhT+h; kd;dhplkpUe;J tpiyf;F 1674-y; thq;fg;gl;lJ
 kh`pia gpnuQ;Rf;fhuh;fs; ngw;w Mz;L 1725-y;
 gpuQ;R MSeh; ( fth;duhf) ,e;jpahTf;FmDg;gg;gl;lth; - bA+g;Ns
 bA+g;Ns ghz;br;Nrhpapd; MSeuhdJ 1742-y;
 khngUk; thzpg ikakhd fhd;];lhd;bNehgps; Ml;Nlhkhd;
JUf;fpah;fshy; fp.gp.1453-y; ifg;gw;wg;gl;lJ.
 1453-y; Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpah;fs; Nfhthit gP[g;G+h; Ry;jhdplkpUe;J
ifg;gw;wpdh;
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 rh;jhk];Nuh ,e;jpahTf;F tUifGhpe;j Mz;L 1615-y;
 1742-k; Mz;L bA+g;Ns vd;gth; gpnuQ;R fth;duhf nghWg;Ngw;whh;
 fh;ehlfg; Nghh;fs; ele;jJ - Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; gpnuQ;Rf;fhuUf;Fk;
 fh;ehlfj;jpd; jiyefh; - Mh;f;fhL
 Kjy; fh;ehlfg;Nghh; epfo;ej
; Mz;L - 1746-1748-y;
 Kjy; fh;ehlfg;NghUf;fhd fhuzk; - M];jphpa thhpRhpikg;Nghh;
 yhNghh;l;lhd;ah]; vd;gth; nkhhPrpa]pd; gpnuQ;R fth;dh;
 milahW Nghhpy; ntd;wth; - gpnuQ;Rf;fhuh;fs;> Njhy;tp - Mq;fpNyah;
 nrapd;l; [hh;[; Nfhl;il mike;Js;s ,lk; - nrd;id
 tpy;ypak; Nfhl;il mike;Js;s ,lk; - fy;fj;jh
 nrapd;l; Nltpl; Nfhl;il mike;Js;s ,lk; - flY}h;
in
 Mq;fpNyah; mikj;j Nfhl;ilfs; - 3
s.
 M];jphpa thhpRhpikg;Nghh; INuhg;ghtpy; KbTw;wJ - fp.gp.1748-y;
es
 Kjy; fh;ehlfg;Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if - ma;yh\Ngy;
pr
cld;gbf;if (1748-y;)
 ma;yh\Ngy; cld;gbf;ifapd;gb nrd;id kPz;Lk; Mq;fpNyaUf;F
ex
fpilj;jJ
lvi
 ,uz;lhtJ fh;ehlfg;Nghh; 1748-1752 tiu eilngw;wJ
ka
 ,uz;lhtJ fh;ehlfg;NghUf;Ff; fhuzk; - Ijuhghj;> fh;ehlfk; gFjpapy;

Vw;gl;l thhpRhpikg;Nghh;
w.
 eh\ph;[q; Ijuhghj; eprhk; vd;gthpd; kfd;
ww
 Mrg;[h vd;gth; Ijuhghj; eprhk;

 Krhgh;[q; vd;gth; Ijuhghj;eprhk; Mrg;[htpd; Ngud;
 Njh];j; myp vd;gth; fh;ehlf ethg;> Njh];j; mypapd; kUkfd;
re;jhrhfpg;> Njh];j; mypapd; kfd; md;thUjPd;fhd;
 Mh;f;fhl;L mhpaizf;F Nghl;bapl;lth;fs; - md;thUjPd;fhd;> re;jhrhfPg;
 2-tJ fh;ehlfg;Nghhpy; Krhh;[q;> re;jhrhfpg;ig Mjhpj;j gpnuQ;Rf;fhuh;fs;
- ehrph;[q;> md;thUjpd;fhid Mq;fpNyah;fs; Mjhpj;jdh;
 2-k; fh;ehlfg;Ngh; Muk;gkhdJ 1748-y;
 Mk;G+h; Nghh; 1749-y; re;jhrhfpg;Gf;Fk; md;thUjPd;fhDf;Fk; - md;thUjPd;
nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;
 md;thUjPd;fhdpd; kfd; KfkJ myp jpUr;rpf;F Xb jQ;rk; GFe;jhH
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 ,uz;lhk; fh;ehlfg;Nghhpd; NghJ fh;ehlf ethg;ghf jd;id mwptpj;jth;
- re;jhrhfpg;
 Mh;f;fhl;L tPuh; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - ,uhgh;l; fpist;
 2-k; fh;ehlfg; Nghhpy; ntw;wpngw;wth;fs; - Mq;fpNyah;
 2-k; fh;ehlfg;Nghpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if - ghz;br;Nrhp
cld;gbf;if fp.gp.1755-y;
 3-tJ fh;ehlfg; Nghh; fp.gp.1756-1763 tiu
 3-tJ fh;ehlfg; NghUf;F fhuzk; - INuhg;ghtpy; Vw;gl;l Vohz;L Nghh;
 3-tJ fh;ehlfg;Nghhpd;NghJ ,Ue;j gpnuQ;Rjsgjp - fTz;l;yhyp
 te;jthrp Nghh; fp.gp.1760-y; rh;mah;$l; Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk;>
gpnuQ;Rg;gilf;Fk; - Njhy;tp gpnuQ;Rg;gil
in
 ghz;br;Nrhp Mq;fpNyahplk; 1761-y; jsgjp fTz;l;yhyp xg;gilj;jhh;
s.
 3-k; fh;ehlfg;Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;ghL - ghhP]; cld;ghL
1763-y; Vw;gl;lJ es
 tq;fhsj;ij Rje;jpu murhf mwptpj;jtd; - mypth;jpfhd;
pr
 mypth;jpfhdpd; Ngud; - rpuh[; cj;njsyh
ex
 rpuh[; cj;njsyh tq;fhsj;jpd; ethg;ghdJ - fp.gp.1757-y;

lvi
 tq;fhsj;jpy; Mq;fpNyah; fhY}d;w eilngw;w Nghh; - gpshrpg;Nghh; 2>
ka
gf;rhh; Nghh;
 gpshrpg;Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.gp.1757 [Pd; 23-y; rpuh[;
w.
cj;njsyhTf;Fk;> ,uhgh;l; fpisTf;Fk;> ntw;wp - ,uhgh;l; fpist;
ww
 ,Ul;liwj;Jau rk;gtk; (m)fj;fj;jh ,Ul;liwj;Jau rk;gtepfo;r;rp

eilngw;w Mz;L 1757-y;
 ,Ul;liwj; Jaurk;gtj;jpy; capUld; ,Ue;jth;fs; - 23 Ngh;> 146 Ngh;
,Ul;liwapy; milf;fg;gl;ljpy; 120 Ngh; caph; Jwe;jdh;
 gpshrp vd;Dk; ,lk; fy;fj;jhTf;F mUfpy; mike;Js;sJ
 gpshrpg;Nghhpd; tpisthf tq;fhs ethg;ghf;fg;gl;lth; - kPh;[hgh;
 gpshrpg;Nghhpd; NghJ rpuh[; cj; njsyhtpd; tq;fhs gilj;jsgjp -
kPh;[hgh;
 kPh;[hghpd; kUkfd; - kPh;fhrpk;
 gf;rhh; Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.gp.1764-y; mf;Nlhgh; 22-y; kPh;fhrpKf;Fk;
Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk;
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 gf;rhh; Nghh; tq;fhs ethg; kPh;fhrpKf;Fk;> mNahj;jp ethg; M[h
cj;njsyh + nkhfyhag; Nguurh; ,uz;lhk; \hMyKf;Fk;
Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; eilngw;wJ . ntw;wp - Mq;fpNyah;
 gf;rhh; Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if - 1765-y; myfhghj;
cld;gbf;if
 gf;rhh; Nghhpd; tpisthf tq;fhsk;> gPfhh;> xhp];]h khepyq;fspy; thp
tR+y; nra;Ak; chpikia Mq;fpNyah; ngw;wdh;
 Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa epWtdj;ij ,e;jpahtpy; cah; mjpfhuk; gilj;j
xU epWtdkhf khw;wpa Nghh; gf;rhh; Nghh;
 KjyhtJ ikR+h; Nghh; fp.gp.1767-1769 tiu
 Ijh;myp el;GwT nfhz;bUe;j ehL - gpuhd;];
in
 ‘rq;fkh” Nghh; - Ijh;mypf;Fk;> Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; 1767-y; ele;jJ.
s.
Ijh;myp Njhy;tpAw;whh;
 Kjy; ikR+h; Nghhpd; tpisthf es
Vw;gl;l
cld;gbf;if - kjuh];
(nrd;id) cld;gbf;if fp.gp.1769-y;
pr
 Ijh;myp gpwe;j Mz;L fp.gp.1722-y;> fy;tpawpT mw;wth;> Ez;zwpT
ex
ngw;wth;
lvi
 ,uhgh;l; fpist; tq;fhsj;jpd; fth;duhf nghWg;Ngw;wJ - fp.gp.1765-y;
ka
 ,uhgh;l; fpist; ,uz;L Kiw fth;duhf ,Ue;jhh;

 Kjy;Kiw tq;fhs fth;duhf ,Ue;jNghJ ngUk; tPuuhfTk;> ,uz;lhk;
w.
Kiw tq;fhs fth;dh; n[duyhf ,Ue;jNghJ rpwe;j eph;thfpahfTk;
ww
jpfo;e;jhh;
 fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdp Copah;fs; ve;j tpjj;jpYk; ,e;jpah;fsplk;
md;gspg;G ngwf;$lhJ vdf;$wpath; - ,uhgh;l; fpist;
 fk;ngdp Copah;fs; kw;Wk; mth;fspd; tpjitfSf;F cjt fpisthy;
Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l epWtdk; ‘fpistpd; epjp” Vw;gLj;jpdhh;
 tq;fhsj;jpy; ,ul;ilahl;rp Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - ,uhgh;l;
fpist;
 tq;fhs ,ul;ilahl;rp Kiw ,uj;J nra;ag;gl;lJ - fp.gp. 1722-y;
 fh;ehlfg; Nghh;fs; eilngw;w fhyk; fp.gp.1746-1763 tiu
 Mq;fpyg; Nguuir ,e;jpahtpy; Njhw;Wtpj;jth; - ,uhgh;l; fpist;
 rh; mah;$l; te;jthrpg; Nghhpy; fGz;l;yhypiaj; Njhw;fbj;jhh;
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 gf;rhh; Nghhpy; (1764) Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdpia ,e;jpahtpy; cah;
mjpfhu epWtdkhf Vw;gLj;jpaJ
 ,e;jpahtpy; Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa fk;ngdpapd; Ml;rp fp.gp.1773 Kjy; 1857
tiu
 tq;fhs fth;duhf thud;N`h];bq;]; epakpf;fg;gl;l Mz;L fp.gp.1772-y;.
,th; tq;fhsj;jpd; Kjy; jiyik MSeh;
 xOq;FKiwr;rl;lk; ,aw;wg;gl;l Mz;L fp.gp.1773-y; thud;N`];bq;];
fhyj;jpy;
 ,e;jpa murpay; mikg;G tsh;r;rpf;F Kjy;gbahf mike;j rl;lk; 1773-
y; xOq;FKiwr;rl;lk;
 tq;fhs MSeh; ,e;jpahtpd; jiyik MSeh; vd mwptpj;j rl;lk;
in
1773-y; xOq;F Kiwr;rl;lk;
s.
 xOq;FKiwr;rl;lg;gb jiyik MSeh; eph;thff;FO cWg;gpdh;
vz;zpf;if - 4 es
 fy;fj;jhtpy; cr;rePjpkd;wk; mikf;f tif nra;j rl;lk;
pr
xOq;FKiwr;rl;lk;
ex
 Kjy; cr;rePjpkd;wk; mikf;fg;gl;l ,lk; - 1744-y; fy;fj;jhtpy;

lvi
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; cr;rePjpkd;w ePjpgjp - rh; vyp[h ,k;Ng
ka
 xOq;FKiwr;rl;lj;jpy; cs;s Fiwfis epth;j;jp nra;a ,aw;wg;gl;l

rl;lk; - gpl; ,e;jpar; rl;lk;
w.
 gpl; ,e;jpar; rl;lj;ijf; nfhz;L te;jth; - ,isagpl;
ww
 gpl; ,e;jpar;rl;lk; nfhz;Ltug;gl;l Mz;L - 1784-y;

 ‘fl;Lg;ghl;L thhpak;” ( Board of Control) cUthf;f tif nra;j
rl;lk; fp.gp..1784-y; gpl; ,e;jpar; rl;lk;
 tq;fhsj;jpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l ,ul;ilahl;rp Kiwia xopj;jth; -
thud;N`];bq;];
 Mq;fpy murpd; fUT+yj;ij Kh;\pjh ghj;jpypUe;J fy;fj;jhtpw;F
khw;wpath; - thud;N`];bq;];
 fy;fj;jhtpy; Nky;KiwaPl;L ePjpkd;wkhd jpthdp mjhyj; vd;w rptpy;
ePjp kd;wj;ijAk; > rhjh; eprhkj; mjhyj; vd;w fphpkpdy; (Fw;wtpay;)
ePjpkd;wj;ijAk; nfhz;L te;jth; - thud;N`];bq;];
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 tUtha;j;Jiw fofk; ( thhpak;) cUthf;fg;gl;l ,lk; - fy;fj;jh>
thud;N`];bq;]; cUthf;fpdhh;
 xt;nthU khtl;lj;jpYk; xU Mq;fpy fnyf;liu epakpj;jth; -
thud;N`];bq;];
 fnyf;lh; gjtp Kjd; Kjypy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ ahuhy; -
thud;N`];bq;];
 fy;fj;jhtpy; ‘kjuh]h” vd;Dk; ,];yhkpa fy;tp epWtdj;ij
mikj;jth; - thud;N`];bq;]; fp.gp.1781-y;
 Nuhfpy;yhh; Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L fp.gp.1774-y;> thud;N`];bq;];f;Fk;>
Nuhfpy;yh;fSf;Fk;> ntw;wp - thud;N`];bq;];
 Nuhfpy;yh;fs; vd;gth;fs; Mg;fhdpa kf;fs;
in
 Nuhfpy;fz;l;ia ifg;gw;wpaath; thud;N`];bq;]; 1774-y;
s.
 ,uz;lhtJ ikR+h; Nghh; fp.gp.1780 Kjy; 1784 tiu Ijh; mypf;Fk;>
Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; ,ilNa ele;jJ es
 ,uz;lhtJ ikR+h; NghUf;F fhuzk; gpnuQ;Rf;fhuh; gFjpahd kh`pia
pr
Mq;fpNyah; ifg;gw;wpdh;
ex
 Nghh;l;Nlh Nehth Nghh; fp.gp.1781-y; rh; mah;$l; Mq;fpy jsgjp

lvi
Ijh;mypia Njhw;fbj;jhh;
ka
 ,uz;lhk; ikR+h; Nghh; Ijh; myp Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;l Nghh;fsk; -

Nghh;l;Nlh Nehth Nghh;f;fsk;
w.
 Muzpg;Nghh; 1782-y; Ijh; mypf;Fk;> Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; eilngw;wJ.;
ww
ntw;wp - Mq;fpNyah;
 ,uz;lhk; ikR+h; Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if 1784 kq;f@h;
cld;gbf;if
 ,uz;lhk; ikR+h; Nghh;> Kjy; kuhj;jpa Nghh;fs; thud;N`];bq;];
fhyj;jpy; eilngw;wJ
 thud;N`];bq;]; kPJ Fw;wk; Rkj;jpath;fs; 1. ee;jFkhh; tof;F
2.mNahj;jp Ngfk;fspd; tof;F 3. nrapj;rpq;fpd; tof;F
 nrapj;rpq; Ml;rpGhpe;j gFjp - gdhu];
 Ijh; myp Gw;WNehahy; 1782-y; ,we;jhh;
 Ijh; mypapd; kfd; jpg;G Ry;jhd;
 nghUj;Jf:
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1. mNahj;jp ethg; m) rptpy; ePjpkd;wk;
2. i`jh; myp M)gdhu]; kd;dh;
3. rhjh; jpthdp mjhyj; ,) ikR+h; murh;
4. ,uh[h nrapj;rpq; <) `P[h; cj;njsyh
tpil: 1) < 2) , 3) m 4) M
 fhh;d;thyp]; gpuG fhyk; 1786 Kjy; 1793 tiu> ,e;jpahtpd; fth;duhdJ
- fp.gp.1786-y;> gpd;gw;wpa nfhs;if -RNjrp rhk;uh[;[paj;jpy; jiyaplhf;
nfhs;if
 epiyahd epythp jpl;lj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - fhh;d;thyp]; 1793-y;
mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;
 fhh;d;thyp]; gpuG epiyahd epythp jpl;lj;ij mwpKfk; nra;j ,lk; -
in
fp.gp.1793-y; tq;fhsk;> gPfhhpy;
s.
 Ie;jhz;L epythp rPh;jpUj;jj;ij nfhz;L te;jth; - fhh;d;thyp];
 [kpd;jhuh;fs; 10 Mz;Lfl;F es
epyj;jpw;F nrhe;jf;fhuh;fs;
MdJ
epiyahd epythp jpl;lj;jhy;
pr
 vy;yh cah;gjtpfSk; Mq;fpNyaUf;Nf xJf;fg;gl;lJ. fk;ngdp
ex
Copah;fspd; jdpg;gl;l tpahghuj;ij jilnra;jth; - fhud;thyp];

lvi
 ,e;jpahtpy; epiyahd fhty; Jiwia cUthf;fpath; - fhh;d;thyp];
 Kjd;Kjyhf xU fhty;Jiw Mizah; gjtp cUthf;fg;gl;lJ -
ka
fp.gp.1791-y; fy;fj;jhtpy;
w.
 khtl;lq;fs; jhdhf;fshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ ahh; fhyj;jpy; - fhh;d;thyp];>

ww
jhdhit Ml;rp Ghpe;jth; - ‘jNuhf;fh”

 nghJ> fphpkpdy; ePjpkd;wq;fs; khtl;lk; NjhWk; epWtpath; - fhh;d;thyp];
 lhf;fh> fy;fj;jh> Kh;\pjhghj;> ghl;dh cah;ePjpkd;wq;fis epWtpath; -
fhh;d;thyp];
 fhh;d;thyp]; rl;lj;njhFg;G ntspaplg;gl;lJ fp.gp.1793-y;
 fhh;d;thyp]; rl;lj;njhFg;G nra;J ntspapl;lth; - rh;.[hh;[;. ghh;Nyh
 Mq;fpNyah; ,e;jpa tpahghhpfNshL Neubahf nghUs; thq;Fk;> tpw;Fk;
Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - fhh;d;thyp];
 %d;whtJ ikR+h; Nghh; ahh; fhyj;jpy; eilngw;wJ - 1790 Kjy; 1792
tiu fhh;d;thyp]; gpuGTf;Fk;> jpg;G Ry;jhDf;Fk;
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 jpg;GRy;jhd; gpuhd;];> JUf;fp ehl;L cjtpAld; Mq;fpNyah;fis
,e;jpahtpypUe;J ntspNaw;w vz;zpdhh;
 %d;whtJ ikR+h; NghUf;F fhuzk; - jpg;GRy;jhd; Mq;fpNyahpd; el;G
ehlhd jpUtpjhq;$iuj; jhf;fpdhh;
 %d;whtJ ikR+h; Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;ghL
=uq;fg;gl;bd;cld;gbf;iffp.gp.1792-y;
 jpg;GRy;jhd; gpwe;j Mz;L fp.gp.1753-y; ikR+hpy;
 jpg;GRy;jhdpd; Gfo;ngw;w Nfhl;il - J}h;f;Nfhl;il (ePyfphpapy; cs;sJ)
 ikR+hpd; Gyp vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - jpg;GRy;jhd;
 jpg;Gtpd; md;Gf;Fhpa kpUfk; - Gyp
 ,e;jpahtpy; Mq;fpyg; Nguuir cUthf;f nty;ny];yp gpuG NguuRf;
in
nfhs;ifia gpd;gw;wpdhh;
s.
 Jizg;gilj; jpl;lj;ijf; nfhz;L te;jth; nty;ny];yp gpuG
 nty;ny];yp gpuGtpd; es
Jizg;gilj;jpl;lj;ij
Kjd; Kjypy;
Vw;Wf;nfhz;lth; - Ijuhghj; eprhk;
pr
 Ijuhghj; eprhk; Jizg;gilj;jpl;lk; %yk; ,dhkhfg; nfhLj;j gFjpfs;
ex
- ngy;yhhp> flg;ig> mde;jG+h;> fh;D}y;

lvi
 nty;ny];yp gpuG ahiuf; fl;lhag;gLj;jp Jizg;gilj; jpl;lj;ij Vw;fr;
ka
nra;jhh; - mNahj;jp ethg;

 Jizg;gilj;jpl;lj;ij Vw;w Ng\;th (kuhl;bah; ) ,uz;lhk; gh[puht;
w.
 Jizg;gilj;jpl;lj;ij Vw;f kWj;jth; - jpg;G Ry;jhd;
ww
 jpg;GRy;jhd; gpuhd;];> fhG+y;> mNugpah> fhd;];lhz;bNehgps; ehLfSf;F

cjtpf;fhf J}Jth;fis mDg;gpdhh;
 khsts;sp Nghhpy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lth; - 1799-y; jpg;G Ry;jhd;
 4-tJ ikR+h; Nghh; eilngw;w Mz;L 1799
 jpg;GRy;jhd; nfhy;yg;gl;lJ 4-tJ ikR+h; Nghhpy; fp.gp.1799 Nk 4-k; ehs;
 jpg;G Ry;jhd; ,we;j gpd; ikR+h; fpU\;zh (fpU\;zuh[ thbahh;)
vd;gthpd; fPo; te;jJ
 2-tJ Mq;fpNya kuhl;ba Nghh; fp.gp.1803-y; nty;ny];yp gpuG fhyj;jpy;
eilg;ngw;wJ
 Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa epWtdj;ij ,e;jpahtpy; xU typik kpFe;j
murpay; rf;jpahf khw;wpaikj;jth; - nty;ny];yp gpuG
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 fhh;thyp]; gpuG fp.gp.1786-y; tq;fhs fth;dh; n[duyhdhh;
 ,e;jpa nghJ Fbikapay; gzpapd; je;ij vd fhh;d;thyp]; gpuG
miof;fg;gLfpwhh;
 nghUj;Jf:
1. epiyahd epythpj;jpl;lk; m) nty;ny];yp gpuG
2. Jizg;gilj; jpl;lk; M) rPuq;fg;gl;bd cld;gbf;if
3. rh;[hd; N\hh; ,) fhud;thyp]; gpuG
4. %d;whtJ Mq;fpNya ikR+h; Nghh; <) jiyaplhf; nfhs;if
tpil: 1) , 2) m 3) < 4) M
 ,e;jpa tpthfhuq;fspy; jiyaplhf; nfhs;ifiag; gpd;gw;wpa Mq;fpNyah;
rh;[hd; N\hh;
in
 nty;ny];yp gpuG fp.gp.1796-k; Mz;L jiyikahSeh; Mdhh;
s.
 khh;f;Ftp]; vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - N`];bq;];
 nty;ny];yp gpuGit mLj;j es
jiyikahSeh; Mdth;
- khh;f;Ftp];
N`];bq;]; ( 1813-1823)
pr
 nty;ny];ypapd; gzpfis epiwT nra;jth; - N`];bq;];
ex
 1813-k; Mz;L gl;lar;rl;lk; Mq;fpy murhy; epiwNtw;wg;gl;lJ ahh;

lvi
fhyj;jpy; ? - N`];bq;]; fhyj;jpy;
ka
 1813-k; Mz;L gl;lar;rl;lj;jhy; Mq;fpy th;j;jf chpik 20

Mz;LfSf;F ePl;bf;fg;gl;lJ
w.
 fpof;fpe;jpa epWtdj;jpd; thzpf jdp chpik ,uj;jhdJ 1813 gl;lar;
ww
rl;lj;jhy;
 ,e;jpah;fspd; fy;tp tsh;r;rpf;fhf Mz;LNjhWk; &gha; xU ,yl;rk;
xJf;fg;gl;lJ 1813 gl;lar; rl;lj;jhy;
 fpwpj;Jt rka Nghjfh;fs; jq;fs; rkaj;ij ,e;jpahtpy; gug;g mDkjp
toq;fpa rl;lk; 1813-k; Mz;L gl;lar;rl;lk;
 $h;f;fh;fs; Neghsk; gFjpiar; rhh;e;jth;fs;
 $h;f;fh;fs; ,dj;jiyth; - mkh;rpq;
 Kjy; $h;f;fh Nghh; Neghsg;Nghh; - 1814- Kjy; 1816 tiu
Mq;fpNyaUf;Fk; $h;f;fUf;Fk;> ntw;wp - Mq;fpNyah;
 Kjy; $h;f;fh; ( Neghs Nghh;) Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if
1816-y; Vw;gl;lJ
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 gpz;lhhpfs; Nghh; fp.gp.1917-y; N`];bq;]; fhyj;jpy; gpz;lhhpfspd;
jiyth; mkph;fhd;> fhpk;fhd;> thrpy; KfkJ
 gpz;lhpfis mopj;jth; - N`];bq;]; gpuG
 kuhj;jpa gP\;th gjtp KbTf;F te;jJ - ehd;fhk; kuhj;jpag; Nghuhy;
 tq;fhs Fj;jifr; rl;lj;ij epiwNtw;wp tptrhapfspd; eyd;fisg;
ghJfhj;jth;- N`];bq;];
 Mq;fpy fy;tp tsh;r;rpf;fhf fp.gp.1817-y; fy;fj;jhtpy; xU fy;Y}hpia
epWtpath; - N`];bq;];
 ,uaj;thhp epythp Kiw nrd;id khfhzj;jpy; ahh; fhyj;jpy;
mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ - N`];bq;];
 ,uaj;thhp epythp Kiwia nrd;idapy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - kd;Nwh
in
(1820-1823)
s.
 N`];bq;]; gpuGthy; ntspte;j tl;lhu nkhop gj;jphpf;ifapd; ngah; ‘
rkhr;rhh; gj;jphpf;if” es
pr
 N`];bq;]; gpuG ,uaj;thhp epythp Kiwia tUtha;j;Jiwapy;
mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;
ex
 nghUj;Jf:
lvi
1. Nkh;rpq; m) gpz;lhhpfspd; jiyth;
ka
2. khh;Ftp]; M) Neghsk;
3. mkph;fhd; ,) $h;f;fh; jiyth;
w.
4. fhj;khz;L <) jiyik MSeh;
ww
tpil: 1) , 2) < 3) m 4) M
 rjhuh muR ahhplk; xg;gilf;fg;gl;lJ - gpujhg; rpq;
 N`];bq;]; gpuGf;F gpd; jiyikahSeh; Mdth; - Mk;n`h;];l; gpuG
 Kjy; gh;kpag; Nghh; - 1824-26-y; `hk;n`h;];l; gpuG fhyj;jpy;; ele;jJ
 Kjy; gh;kpag; Nghhpd; tpisthf Vw;gl;l cld;gbf;if 1826- y; ahz;lG+
cld;gbf;if
 ahz;lG cld;gbf;ifgb Mq;fpNyah; ngw;w ,lq;fs; - muf;fhd;>
nldhnrhPk; gFjpfs;
 `hk;n`h;];l; gpuGitg; gpd;gw;wpa jiyikahSeuhf Mdth; - tpy;ypak;
ngz;bq; gpuG ( fhyk; 1828- 1835 tiu)
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 ,e;jpa RNjr murh;fsplk; jiyaplhf; nfhs;ifia gpd;gw;wpath;> ,e;jpa
fth;dh; n[duy;fspy; jiyrpwe;jth; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
 ,e;jpahtpy; mgpdp tpahghuj;ij Kiwg;gLj;jp fk;ngdpapd; tUthiag;
ngUf;fpath; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
 khepy Nky;KiwaPl;L ePjp kd;wq;fis tpy;ypak; ngz;bq;gpuG fiyj;jhh;
 rhjh; jpthdp mjhyj; vd;gJ rptpy; Nky;KiwaPl;L ePjpkd;wk;
 rhjh; eprhkj; mjhyj; vd;gJ fphpkpdy; Nky;KiwaPl;L ePjpkd;wk;
 myfhghj;jpy; Nky; KiwaPl;L ePjpkd;wq;fis epWtpath; - tpy;ypak;
ngz;bq; gpuG
 khtl;l Ml;rpah; kw;Wk; kh[p];jpNul; gjtpfis xd;wpizj;jth; -
tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
in
 ,e;jpa ePjp kd;wq;fspy; ghurPf nkhopf;Fg;gjpyhf tl;lhu nkhopfspy; ePjp
s.
toq;f Vw;ghL nra;jth; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
 jiyikahSehpd; eph;thff;FOtpy; es
,lk;ngw;w
Kjy; rl;lkd;w
cWg;gpdh; nkf;fhNy
pr
 tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuGtpw;F ngUk; Gfioj; Njbj;je;jJ - r%f
ex
rPh;jpUj;jq;fs;
lvi
 rjp vd;gJ - cld;fl;il Vwk; tof;fk;
ka
 rjp vd;Dk; cld;fl;ilNaWk; tof;fk; ,uh[Gj;jpu kf;fspilNa

fhzg;gl;lJ
w.
 rjp vd;Dk; cld;fl;ilNaWk; tof;fj;ij xopj;jth; - tpy;ypak;
ww
ngz;bq; gpuG
 rjp xopg;G rl;lk; nfhz;L tug;gl;l Mz;L 1829
 ,uh[uhk; Nkhfd;uha; vd;Dk; r%f rPh;jpUj;jthjpapd; cjtpAld;
tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG rjp vd;Dk; cld;fl;ilNaWk; tof;fj;ij jil
nra;jhh;
 ngz; rpRf;nfhiy fhzg;gl;l ,lk; - fj;jpathh;> ,uh[];jhd;
 ngz;rpRf;nfhiyia xopj;jth; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
 flTisj; jpUg;jpgLj;j kdpj caph;fis gypapLk; tof;fk; - eugyp
 eugypapLk; tof;fk; xhp];]h; kiytho;kf;fsplk; fhzg;gl;lJ
 eugypapLk; tof;fj;ij jil nra;jth; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq;
 hpg;gd; gpuGNthL xg;gplg;gLk; jiyikahSeh; - tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG
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 tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuG rPh;jpUj;jq;fs; (r%f) %yk; Gfo;ngw;whh;
 Mq;fpNyah; fhyj;jpy; ePjpkd;w nkhopahf gad;gLj;jg;gl;L te;j nkhop –
ghurPfk;
 ,e;jpa rKjhaj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l kpff;nfhba gof;fk; - rjp vd;Dk;
cld;fl;il VWk; gof;fk;
 nghUj;Jf:
1 rjp xopg;G m) Mq;fpyf;fy;tp
2. Nk[h; ];yPnkd; M) 1829
3. ,uh[huhk; Nkhfd;uha; ,) jf;fh;fs; xopg;G
4. nkf;fhNy <) r%f rPh;jpUj;jk;
tpil: 1) M 2) , 3) < 4) m
in
 ly;nysrp gpuG fth;dh; n[duyhdJ - 1848-y;
s.
 Mq;fpNyag; Nguuir tphpTgLj;j ly;nysrp gpuG gpd;gw;wpa nfhs;if -
thhprpog;Gf; nfhs;if es
 thhpR ,og;G nfhs;if %yk; ly;nysrp Mq;fpy murpd; fPo;
pr
,izj;Jf;nfhz;l gFjpfs; - rjhuh> n[a;G+h;> rhk;gy;G+h;> cja;G+h;
ex
[hd;rp> ehfGhp
lvi
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpf;F xU Kf;fpa fhuzkhf mike;jJ ly;nysrpapd;
ka
thhpR ,og;Gf; nfhs;if

 2-k; rPf;fpa Mq;fpyg; Nghhpy; <Lgl;l rPf;fpa jiyth; - %y;uh[;
w.
 gQ;rhig Mq;fpyg;NguuRld; ,izj;Jf;nfhz;lth; - 1849-y; ly;nysrp
ww
gpuG
 2-tJ gh;kpag; Nghh; ahh; fhyj;jpy; Vw;gl;lJ- 1852-y; ly;nysrp gpuG
fhyj;jpy;
 ,uz;lhk; gh;kpag;Nghhpd; tpisthf Mq;fpNyah; ngw;w gFjp - fPo;gh;kh
ly;nysrpahy; ,izj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gl;l ey;yhl;rpaw;w ehLfs; vd;gd -
mNahj;jp> jQ;rhT+h;
 tq;fhsj;ij ftdpf;f Jiz fth;dh; xUtiu epakpj;jth; - ly;nysrp
gpuG
 xt;nthU khepyKk; gy khtl;lkhf gphpf;fg;gl;L xU Jiz Mizahplk;
eph;thfj;ij xg;gilj;jhh; - ly;nysrp gpuG
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 ly;nysrp gpuG fhyj;jpy; Nfhilf;fhy jiyefuhf nray;gl;l ,lk; -
rpk;yh> Fsph;fhy jiyefh; - fy;fj;jh
 ,e;jpahtpy; Kjd; Kjypy; ,Ug;Gg;ghijia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; -
ly;nysrp gpuG
 Kjy; ,Ug;Gg;ghij 1853-y; Kk;igf;Fk; jhdhTf;Fk; ,ilNa
Nghlg;gl;lJ. ,uz;lhtJ ,Ug;Gg;ghij 1854-y; `TuhTf;Fk;
,uhzpfQ;r;f;Fk; ,ilNa Nghlg;gl;lJ.
%d;whtJ ,Ug;Gg;ghij 1856-y; nrd;idf;Fk; muf;Nfhzj;jpw;Fk;
,ilNa Nghlg;gl;lJ
 ,e;jpa ,uapy; ghij jpl;lj;jpd; je;ij vd;wiof;fg;gl;lth; - ly;nysrp
gpuG
in
 Kjd; Kjypy; ,e;jpah KOtJk; jghy; je;jp mYtyfq;fs;
s.
epWtg;gl;lJ. ehL KOtJk; xNu khjphp fbj fl;lzk; eph;zapf;fg;gl;lJ
 Kjd; Kjypy; mQ;ry;tpy;iyia es
,e;jpahtpy;
mwpKfg;gLj;jpaJ -
ly;nysrp gpuG
pr
 ly;nysrp gpuG mwpKfg;gLj;jpa mQ;ry; tpy;iy (jghy; jiy)
ex
miuazh my;yJ %d;W igrh

lvi
 Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;wJ - ly;nysrp
gpuG fhyj;jpy;
ka
 ,e;jpahtpy; jilapy;yh thzpgj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; - ly;nysrp
w.
gpuG
ww
 tpjitfs; kWkzr;rl;lk; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ vg;NghJ? fp.gp.1856-y;

ly;nysrp gpuG nfhz;L te;jhh;
 ,e;jpahtpy; nghJg;gzpj;Jiwia Vw;gLj;jpath; - ly;nysrp gpuG
 Kjy; Njrpa neLQ;rhiy - fy;fj;jh Kjy; ng\hth; tiu ly;nysrp
mikj;jhh;
 fq;if fhy;tha; ntl;lg;gl;lJ - ly;nysrp gpuG fhyj;jpy;
 cl;]; fy;tpf;FO mikf;fg;gl;l Mz;L fp.gp.1854. ly;nysrp gpuG
fhyj;jpy; rh; rhh;y]; cl; vd;gth; jiyikapy; 1854-y; fy;tpf;FO
mikf;fg;gl;lJ
 Mrphpah; gapw;rp gs;spfs; ehL KOtJk; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl tif nra;jJ
cl;]; fy;tpf;FO
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 nrd;id> Kk;ig> fy;fj;jh> gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; epWtg;gl;lJ - cl;];
fy;tpf;FO ghpe;Jiuahy; ly;nysrp gpuG fhyj;jpy;
 Kjy; nghwpapay; fy;Y}hp vq;F njhlq;fg;gl;lJ - &h;f;fpapy;
ly;nysrpahy;
 ly;nysrp ,uhZtj;jpd; jiyikaplj;ij fy;fj;jhtpypUe;J rpk;yh
gFjpf;F khw;wpdhh;. gPuq;fpgil jiyikaplj;ij fy;fj;jhtpypUe;J
kPul;Lf;F khw;wpdhh;
 ,e;jpa fth;dh; n[duy;fspy; kpfTk; ,sikahdth; - ly;nysrp gpuG
 etPd ,e;jpahit cUthf;fpath; - ly;nysrp gpuG
 thhpR ,og;Gf; nfhs;ifapd; fPo; Mq;fpyg; NguuRld; ,izj;Jf;
nfhs;sg;gl;l Kjy; NguuR -rhjhuh
in
 nghUj;Jf:
s.
1. Kjy; ,Ug;Gg;ghij m) ,uz;lhk; gh[puhtpd; jj;Jg;gps;is
2. cl;]; fy;tpf;FO es
M) mNahj;jp ethg;
3. ehdhrhfpg; ,) 1853
pr
4. th[pj; myp\h <) 1854
ex
tpil: 1) , 2) < 3) m 4) M
lvi
Unit-V
ka
Great Mutiny 1857 – Social and religious reform movements in

India in the nineteenth century –Indian – National Movement –
w.
Constitutional development in India from 1858 to 1947.

ww
INuhg;gh - etPd fhy Jtf;fk;

 Nuhkhdpag; Nguurpd; tPo;r;rp eilg;ngw;w Mz;L - fp.gp. 476
 jpUr;rigahy; typAWj;jg;gl;l fUj;Jf;fs;: moF xU #o;r;rp tiy>
,d;gk; ghtk;> cyfNk xU khaj;Njhw;wk;> kdpjd; Jauj;jpy;
mope;JNghfpd;whd;> ,wg;G kl;LNk cWjpahdJ.
 kWkyHr;rpf; fhyk; vd;gJ fp.gp. 16k; E}w;whz;L.
 fpNuf;f> ,yj;jPd; ,yf;fpaq;fs; kPz;Lk; GJg;gpf;fg;gl;l fhyk; kWkyHr;rp
fhyk;.
 kWkyHr;rp vd;gjd; nghUs; : GJg;gpj;jy;> kWgpwg;G> kPl;LWthf;fk;>
njhd;ikahd fpNuf;f> Nuhkhdpa ,yf;fpa czHit gJg;gpj;jy; vd;gJ
mwpTf;fhyk; (Age of Reason)
www.kalviexpress.in
 kWkyHr;rp : tpLjiy kw;Wk; ntspg;ghL Mfpatw;iwf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
 INuhg;gpa kWkyHr;rpapd; jhafk; / gpwg;gplk; : ,j;jhyp
 INuhg;gpahtpd; fy;tpf; $lk; vd;gJ : ,j;jhyp
 fiy kw;Wk; ,yf;fpaj;ijg; Nghw;Wk; ,lk;: tl ,j;jhyp
 gz;ila Nuhkhdpa ehfhpfj;jpd; jhafk;: ,j;jhyp
 kWkyHr;rp fhyj;jpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLf;fg;gl;lJ : tl;lhu nkhopf;F
 14 k; E}w;whz;L kpfr; rpwe;j ,j;jhypf; ftpQH : jhe;Nj
 (Divine comedy)nja;tPf ,d;gpay; E]iy vOjpatH - jhe;Nj
 ,yf;fpa kWkyHr;rpapd; Kd;Ndhb - ngl;uhHf;
 gpshl;Nlh> rprNuh MfpNahhpd; ifnaOj;J gpujpfSf;F Gj;JapH
nfhLj;jtH - ngl;uhHf;
in
 ngl;uhh;f;fpd; rPlH - nghf;fhrpNah
s.
 nghf;fhrpNah vOjpa E}y; - nlf;fkhuhd;
es
 kWkyh;r;rp fhyj;jpy; ,yf;fpa Gul;rp Vw;glf;fhuzk; - mr;R ,ae;jpuj;jpd;
pr
fz;Lgpbg;G
 kf;fs; kdjpy; fpNuf;f fiy kw;Wk; ,yf;fpaq;fs; kPJ ngUj;j
ex
<Lghl;bid Vw;gLj;jpaJ- kWkyHr;rp

lvi
 kWkyHr;rp fhyj;jpd; NghJ ,Ue;j gy;JiwNkij> rpwe;j vOj;jhsH>
ka
gilg;ghsp> tpQ;Qhdp> nghwpahsH> fl;blf;fiy epGzH> XtpaH -

ypahdhHNlh lhtpd;rp
w.
 kWkyHr;rp fhyj;jpd; NghJ (,j;jhypapy;) ,Ue;j kpfr;rpwe;j XtpaHfs; -
ww
ikf;Nfy; VQ;rNyh> ypahdhHNlh lhtpd;rp> D.D. uNgy;> jpjpad.;

 ikf;Nfy; VQ;rNyhtpd; kpfr; rpwe;j Xtpak; - (Last Judgment )
,Wjpj;jPHg;G
 ypahdhHNlh lhtpd;rp tiue;j Xtpaq;fs; - Nkhdhyprh> ,Wjp ,uT
(tpUe;J) rhg;ghL
 D.D. uNgypd; kpfr;rpwe;j Xtpak; - kNlhd;dh Xtpak;
 kWkyHr;rp fhy Xtpaq;fspy; tz;zf; fyitfisf; ifahStjpy;
Gfo;ngw;wtH - jpjpad;
 kWkyHr;rpf; fhy fl;blf; fiyf;F v.fh. - NuhkhGhpapy; cs;s ‘Gdpj
gPl;lH Njthyak;”
www.kalviexpress.in
 ikf;Nfy; VQ;rNyhtpd; kWkyHr;rpf; fhy kpfr; rpwe;j rpw;gfiy -
Nkh]];
 kWkyHr;rp fhyj;jpy; ,irapy; kpfg;nghpa Kd;Ndw;wk; Vw;gl;lJ - 14 k;
E}w;whz;L
 kWkyHr;rp fhy kdpj jj;Jtj;jpd; etPd fhy Njhw;Wtpg;ghsH - ngl;uhHf;
 kWkyHr;rp fhyj;jpy; mwpQHfis Mjhpj;j gpshud;]; ehl;bd; murH -
Nyhuq;Nfh - b- nkbrp
 kdpj jj;Jtk; ,j;jhypapy; ,Ue;J INuhg;gh vq;Fk; gutpaJ.
 kdpj jj;Jtk; Jiwapy; rpwe;J tpsq;fpatHfs; - ikf;Nfy; VQ;rNyh>
khf;fpaty;yp> ypahdhHNlhlhtpd;rp> Nlhyd;NlNyh Nghl;bnry;yp> Nuhgpah>
gprpNdh KjyhNdhH
in
 NguurH rhHy]; -f;F kUj;Jtuhf ,Ue;jtH - Mz;l;& ntrhypa];
s.
 Mz;l;& ntrhypa]; vOjpa E}y; - kdpj clyikg;G gw;wp VO E}y;fs;
 vjpHfhy Mfha fg;gy; vd;gjw;fhd es
tiuglj;ij
cUthf;fpatH -
ypahdhHNlhlhtpd;rp
pr
 etPd mwptpaypd; je;ij - ‡nuaH Nuh[HNgf;fd;
ex
 ghHj;jwptJ> ghpNrhjpj;J cWjp nra;J vd;gij mwptpay;

lvi
topKiwfisf; nfhz;l Kd;Ndhbahf ,ilf;fhy mwptpayhsH -
ka
Nuh[HNgf;fd;
 ‘#hpaid (G+kp) cyfk; Rw;wptUfpwJ” vd;gij fz;Lgpbj;jtH - NfhgH
w.
epf;f];
ww
 njhiyNehf;fpia fz;Lgpbj;jtH - fypypNah

 #hpaFLk;gk; jhd; ,t;tz;lj;jpd; ikak; vd;w fUj;ij $wpath;fs;-
NfhgH epf;f];> fypypNah
 GtpaPHg;G tpiriaf; fz;Lgpbj;jtH - epA+l;ld;
 thdtpay; fzpjj;jpw;F mbf;fy; ehl;batH - nfg;sH
 ,ilf;fhy INuhg;ghtpy; khdpl tho;f;ifapy; xU Gul;rpfukhd
khWjy;fisAk;> tpisTfisAk; Vw;gLj;jpaJ - Gtpapay; fz;Lgpbg;Gfs;
 jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtpia fz;Lgpbj;jtHfs; - rPdHfs;
 kWkyHr;rpapd; tpisthf kdpj rpe;jid Mw;wy; tsh;r;rp ngw;wJ>
Ma;Tf; fz;Nzhl;lk; tsh;r;rpAw;wJ. mwptpay;> fiy> murpay;> rkak;>
,yf;fpak; Mfpa Jiwfspy; khWjy;fs; Vw;gl;lJ.
www.kalviexpress.in
 Gjpa fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; Gfo;ngw;w kdpjHfspd; vOj;Jf;fs;> kf;fspd;
tho;f;ifia KOikahf khw;wp mikj;jJ
 rka rPHj;jpUj;jk; vd;gJ - fj;Njhypf;f jpUr;rigapy; Vw;gl;l rka
rPHj;jpUj;jj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;.
 fpUj;JtHfspd; gpuhl;l];lz;L (vjpHg;ghshfs;) vd;w Gjpa gphpit
cUthf;fpaJ - rka rPHj;jpUj;j ,af;fk;
 rka rPHj;jpUj;j ,af;fk; Njhd;wpaJ - 16k; E}w;whz;L
 Nuhkd ;fj;Njhypf;f jpUr;rigapypUe;J Guhl;l];lz;L vd;w gphpT
Njhd;wpaJ - rka rPHj;jpUj;j ,af;fj;jhy;
 ,ilf;fhyj;jpy; jpUr;rigapd; jiytuhf Nuhk; efhpy; ,Ue;jtH -
Nghg;ghz;ltH
in
 ,ilf;fhyj;jpy; xt;nthU fpwpj;JtDk; jdJ tho;tpy; ghjphpahhpd;
s.
Jizf;nfhz;L 7 tpjkhd Gdpj rlq;Ffis nra;aNtz;Lk; vd;wJ -
Nuhkd; fj;Njhypf;f jpUr;rig es
 ,ilf;fhyj;jpy; jpUr;rigapd; Nfhl;ghLfSf;Fk;> fUj;Jf;fSf;Fk;
pr
,irtpy;yhj vJTk; - kj tpNuhjk; vdf; $wg;gl;lJ
ex
 [hd;`]; vd;w kjFU neUg;gpy; nghRf;fg;gl;l Mz;L - fp.gp. 1415

lvi
 khHl;bd; Y}jH fpq; fpsHr;rpf;F cldbf; fhuzk; - ‘ghtkd;dpg;Gr;
ka
rPl;Lfs; tpw;gid’ nra;jjhFk;.

 ghtkd;dpg;Gr; rPl;Lfis tpw;Fk; Gjpa Kiwia Nkw;nfhz;lth; -
w.
nlhkpdpf;fd; jiyik ghjphpahH N[h`d; nll;ry;
ww
 ght kd;dpg;Gr; rPl;L tpw;fg;gl fhuzk; -‘Gdpj gPl;lH Myak; fl;Ltjw;F

gzk; jpul;l”
 ‘xUtd; ghtr; nraiy nra;Jtpl;L Nghl;bw;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhifia
mspg;gjd;; %yk; jz;lidapypUe;J jg;gyhk;” vd;wJ - ghtkd;dpg;Gr;
rPl;L
 Nuhkhdpa jpUr;rigapd; ghtkd;dpg;Gr; rPl;L tpw;gidf;F vjpHg;GFuy; /
NghHf;nfhb caH;j;jpath; - khHl;bd; Y}jh;fpq;
 ghtkd;dpg;G rPl;L tpw;gidf;F vjpuhf 95 thjq;fisj; njhFj;J
mwpf;ifahf vOjp rhf;rdp murpy; cs;s tpl;ld;gHf; khjh Nfhapy;
fjtpy; gjpj;jtH - khHl;bd; Y}jh;fpq; fp.gp. 1517
www.kalviexpress.in
 khHl;bd; Y}jh;fpq; ntspapl;l E}y;fs;. 1. n[Hkdpa ehl;bd; gpuGf;fSf;F
Ntz;LNfhs;> 2. ghgpNyhdpa jpUr;rigapd; rpiwthrk;> 3. fpwpj;Jtdpd;
Rje;jpuk;
 khHl;bd; Y}jH fpq; - I rka JNuhfp vd mwptpj;jtH > rkaj;jpypUe;J
tpyf;fpatH - Nghg;ghz;ltH ‘gj;jhk; ypNah”
 khHl;bd; Y}jH fpq; tprhuiz nra;ag;gl;l ,lk; - Nuhkhdpa NguurH 5 k;
rhHy]; jiyikapy; lal; rig NthHk;]; efhpy; $l;lg;gl;L tprhhpj;jJ.
 khHl;bd; Y}jH fpq; - I Mjhpj;J milf;fyk; nfhLj;j murH -
rhf;rdpapd; rpw;wurH gpulhpf;
 klhya JwT tho;f;if Kiwia fz;bj;jtH - khHl;bd; Y}jH fpq;
 khHl;bd; Y}jiug; gpd;gw;wpa fpUj;Jt rkaj;jtH - gpuhl;l];ld;Lfs;
in
 gpuhl;l];ld;Lfs; gphpT cUthdJ - 1529
s.
 Nghg;ghz;ltHpd; Mizfis vjpHj;j kd;dHfs; - Rtpl;rHyhe;J efuhkhd
es
[Phpr; efhpd;>‘cy;hpr;];tpq;sp> gpnuQ;R ehl;L FU [hd; fhy;tpd;”
pr
 Mq;fpyj; jpUr;rig Nuhkpd; fl;Lg;ghl;bypUe;J tpLngw;wJ - fp.gp. 1533
vl;lhk; n`d;wpahy; (Mq;fpyhpd; jpUr;rig typik ngw;wJ)
ex
 vjpH rka rPHj;jpUj;j ,af;fk; vd;gJ - fj;Njhypf;f rka kWg;G ,af;fk;

lvi
 vjpH rka kWg;G ,af;fj;jpd; Nehf;fk; - Nuhkd; fj;Njhypf;f jpUr;rigf;F
ka
J}a;ikiaAk;> Gdpjj;jd;ikiaAk; kPl;Lj;jUtJ

 jpUr;rigf;Fs;Ns rPHjpUj;jq;fisf; nfhz;L tUtJk;> kWg;G ,af;fj;jpd;
w.
tphpitj; jLg;gJk; ‘rPHj;jpUj;j kWg;G ,af;fk;” vdg;gl;lJ.
ww
 ,NaR rigia epWtpatH - ,f;ndrpa]; yNahyh

vjpH rka rPHj;jpUj;j ,af;fj;jhy; cUthdJ - ,NaR rig 1.
ml;ltiz> 2. ,d;Frprpd;> 3. bnud;l;fTd;rpy;
,d;Ndrpa]; yNahyh - 1491y; ];ghdpa gpuGf;Fbapy; gpwe;jhH. ,uhzt
tPuuhfp> 5 k; rhHy]; fPo; gpuhd;Rf;fhf Nghhpl;lhH.
 ,NaR rigapdhpd; Nehf;fk;- fpwpj;Jtj;jpw;fhfTk;> flTSf;fhfTk;
Copak; nra;jy;.
 fp.gp. 1545 Kjy; 1563 tiu fj;Njhypf;f jpUr;rigia jpUj;Jtij
Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;lJ - bnuz;l; fTd;rpy; > (jFjpaw;w FUkhHfis
gjtp ePf;fk; nra;jJ)
 ,d;Frprd; vd;gJ - tprhuiz ePjpkd;wk;
www.kalviexpress.in
 fj;Njhypf;f ek;gpf;ifia Fiw $wpatHfis tprhhpj;J jz;lid toq;f
mikf;fg;gl;lJ - ,d;Frprd;
 ];ghdp tprhuiz ePjpkd;wk; (m) ,d;Frprd; epWtg;gl;lJ - ngHbdhz;L>
,uhzp ,rngy;yh fhyj;jpy;
 Fj;Njhypf;f kjj;jpw;F vjpuhd fUj;Jf;fs; nfhz;l Gj;jfq;fspd;
gl;bay; - (Index) ml;ltiz
 jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtpapd; gad; - khYkpfs; jpirfis mwpe;Jf;nfhs;s
cjtpaJ
flypy; jpir njhpahky; jtpf;Fk; NghJ jpirawpe;J flw;gazk; njhlu
cjtpaJ - jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtp
 Gtpapay; fz;Lgpbg;gpd; mwpthy; kf;fs; njhiyJ}u ,lq;fSf;F gazk;
in
nra;Ak; JzpT Vw;gl;lJ
s.
 Kjd; Kjypy; flw;gazj;ij Nkw;nfhz;ltHfs; - NghHj;JfPrpaHfs;
es
 khYkpfs; gapw;rpg; gs;spia epWtpatH> flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhs;s Kjd;
Kjypy; Cf;fk; nfhLj;jtH - NghHj;Jf;fPrpa kd;dH ,sturH n`d;wp
pr
 khYkp n`d;wp vd;wiof;fg;gl;ltH - ,sturH n`d;wp.
ex
 ,sturH n`d;wpapd; fhyk; - fp.gp. 1394 - 1460

lvi
 N`d;wpapd; khYkpfs; fz;Lgpbj;jJ - mN[hhp]; jPT kw;Wk; khgPuh
ka
jPTfs; > #lhd; kw;Wk; nrdPfy; tiu nrd;wdH

 Ml;Nlhkd; JUf;fpaH fhd;];lhd;bNehgpisf; ifg;gw;wpa Mz;L - fp.gp.
w.
1453
ww
 INuhg;ghtpypUe;J MrpahTf;F gazk; nra;tJ fbdkhdJ vjdhy; -

JUf;fpaH fhd;];lhd;b Nehgpisf; ifg;gw;wpajhy;
 INuhg;gpaH Gjpa fly;topfz;Lgpbf;f Ntz;bajd; mtrpak; - Mrpahit
milaTk;> thrid jputpaq;fis ngwTk;
 Ntspehl;Lg; gazk; kw;Wk; thzpgk; gw;wpa Mtiy mjpfkhf
cUthf;fpaJ. - rpYitg;NghHfs;
 khh;f;NfhNghNyh xU - ,j;jhypa ehl;L ntdp]; efug;gazp
 khHf;NfhNghNyh fp.gp. 13k; E}w;whz;by; rPdhtpw;F (Nfj;Nj) jiutopahf
gazk; Nkw;nfhz;lhH
 ghHj;jNyhkpah la]; flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhz;lJ - 15k; E}w;whz;L 1487y;
www.kalviexpress.in
 ghHj;jNyhkpah la]; vd;w Nghh;j;Jf;fPrpaH flw;gazk; nra;j gFjp -
Mg;gphpf;fhtpy; njw;F Kid
 Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; njw;FKidia ‘ed;dk;gpf;if Kid” vdg; ngahpl;ltH -
ghHj;jNyhkpah la];
 ,e;jpahtpw;F fly;topiaf; fz;Lgpbj;jtH - th];Nfhlfhkh
 th];Nfhlfhkh xU - NghHj;Jf;fPrpa ehl;L khYkp
 th];Nfhlfhkh mugpf;fliyf; fle;J ,e;jpahtpd; fs;spf;Nfhl;ilia
te;jile;j Mz;L- fp.gp. 1498 Nk 27
 th];Nfhlfhkh flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhz;lJ - fp.gp. 1497
 nfhyk;g]; - ,j;jhyp ehl;ilr; rhHe;jtH
 Kjd; Kjyhf ml;yhz;bf; kfhrKj;jpuj;ijf; fle;jtH - nfhyk;g];
in
1492
s.
 nfhyk;g]; 3 fg;gy;fspy; 88 khYkpfSld; flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhz;lhH.
 nfhyk;g]; flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhs;s es
nghUshjhu
cjtp mspj;jtH -
pr
];ngapd; ehl;L murp- ,rngy;yh
 nfhyk;g]; flw;gazk; Nkw;nfhz;l fg;gy;pd; ngaH - rhd;lh> khpah>
ex
epdh(gpz;lh 1472)
lvi
 mnkhpf;fhitf; fz;Lgpbj;jtH - mf;NlhgH 11> 1492y; nfhyk;g];
ka
 nfhyk;g]; fz;Lgpbg;ghd Gjpa epyg;gFjpf;F - Gjpa cyfk; vd;W

ngahplg;gl;lJ
w.
 ‘ngHbdhd;Nlh fhHnl];” - ];ngapd; ehl;L gazp.
ww
 kj;jpa mnkhpf;fhTf;F gazk; Nkw;nfhz;ltH - ‘ngHbdhd;Nlh fhHnl];”

 nkf;rpNfhit fz;Lgpbj;jtH - ngHbdhd;Nlh fhHnl];
 nkf;rpNfh> ngU gFjpapy; fpilj;j jq;fk; ml;yhz;bf; fly; topahf
];ngapd; ehl;bw;F nrd;W mjid tsg;gLj;jpaJ
 nkfy;yd; - ];ngapd; ehl;Lg;gazp
 nkfy;yd; gpwg;ghy; NghHj;Jf;fPrpa ehl;ilr; rhHe;jtH
 mnkhpf;fhtpd; njd;Kidiar; Rw;wp nghpa fliyf; fz;Lgpbj;jtH
 mikjpf;fly; (m) grpgpf; ngUq;fliyf; fz;Lgpbj;jtH - nkfy;yd;
 mnkhpf;Nfh nt];Gfp - ,j;jhyp ehl;Lg; gazp(,tH 4 flw; gazq;fis
Nkw;nfhz;lhH)
www.kalviexpress.in
 nfhyk;g]; fz;Lgpbj;j ,lj;ij Kjypy; mile;J mjid tphpthf
Muha;e;jtH - mnkhpf;Nfh nt];Gfp
 khHl;bd; thy;L Ky;yH vd;gtH n[Hkhdpa ehl;ilr; rhHe;jtH.
 khHl;bd; thy;L Ky;yH vd;gtH - tiuglk; tiugtH
 nfhyk;g]; fz;Lgpbj;j - Gjpa cyfj;jpw;F - mnkhpf;Nfh nt];Gfpapd;
epidthf mnkhpf;fh vd ngahpl;ltH - khHl;bd; thy;L Ky;yH vd;gtH
 Gjpa fz;Lgpbg;gpd; tpisthf - Mg;gphpf;fh> Mrpah> gpNurpy; ehLfs; -
NghHr;Rf;fYk;.
tlf;F kw;Wk; njw;F mnkhpf;fhit - ];ngapDk; gq;fpl;Lf;nfhz;lJ
 ];ngapd; ehl;ltH mnkhpf;fhTf;F tuf;fhuzk; - jq;fk;> nts;spiaj;
Njb
in
 1. jhe;Nj - nja;tPf ,d;gpay;
s.
2. ikf;Nfy; VQ;rNyh - ,Wjpj;jPHg;G
3. Nuh[HNgfd; es
- etPd mwptpaypd; je;ij
4. khYkpfs; jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtp - Gjpa fly;top
pr
5. mnkhpf;Nfh nt];Gfp - mnkhpf;fh
ex
 If;fpa ehLfs; rig epWtg;gl;l epWtg;gg

; l;l Mz;L “ 1945 mf;NlhgH
lvi
24
ka
 If;fpa ehLfs; rig Njhd;wf; fhuzkhd khehL “ rhd;gpuhd;rp];Nfh

khehL 1945
w.
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapy ;jw;NghJ cWg;gpduhf cs;s ehLfs; - 193
ww
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; jiyikafk; mike;js;s ,lk; - epA+ahHf;

 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk;- cyf muq;fpy; mikjp kw;Wk;
ghJfhg;ig epiyehl;Ljy;> ehl;Lg;Gw tsHj;jy;> rpf;fiy mikjpahd
Kiwapy; jPHj;jy;
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; cWg;Gfs; > mq;fq;fs; - 6
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; - nghJr;rig xU epue;ju mikg;G.
 nghJr;rifg;G xt;nthU ehLk; 5 cWg;gpdHfis mDg;Gk;
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapy; nghJr;rigapd; jiytuhf NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l
,e;jpah; - 1953 tp[ayl;Rkp gz;bl;
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; Kf;fpa cWg;G “ ghJfhg;G kd;wk;
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 cyfpy; mikjpiaAk;> ghJfhg;igAk; epiyehl;Lk; mq;fk; - ghJfhg;G
mit.
 If;fpa ehLfs; rig ghJfhg;G kd;wj;jpy; cs;s epue;ju cWg;G ehLfs; -
mnkhpf;fh> gphpl;ld;> gpuhd;];> rPdh> u\;ah
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; ghJfhg;G kd;wj;jpy; epue;jukw;w (m)
jw;fhypfkhd cWg;gpdHfs; - 10 ehLfs;
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; ghJfhg;G kd;wj;jpy; epue;jukw;w cWg;gpdHfis
Nje;njLg;gtHfs; - nghJr;rig (,uz;L Mz;LfSf;F xU Kiw
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; ghJfhg;G kd;wj;jpy; epue;jukw;w
cWg;gpdHfSf;F - ,uj;J Miz mjpfhuk; (Voto power)cz;L
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; 3 tJ mq;fk; - r%f nghUshjhu kd;wk;.
in
 nghUshjhu r%f kd;wj;jpd; cWg;gpdHfs; - 54
s.
 nghUshjhu r%f kd;wj;jpd; gjtpf;fhyk; - 9 Mz;Lfs;
es
 If;fpa ehLfspd; gd;dhl;L ePjpkd;wk; mike;Js;s ,lk; - jpN`f;
pr
 jpN`f; vq;F cs;sJ “ nejHyhe;jpy;
ex
 I.eh. gd;dhl;L ePjpkd;wj;j;py; cs;s ePjpgjpfs; - 15 Ngh;

lvi
 cWg;G ehLfspd; tof;Ffis tprhhpj;J jPHg;G toq;FtJ “ gd;dhl;L
/ rHtNjr ePjpkd;wk;
ka
 If;fpaehLfs; rigapd; epHthf gzpfs; midj;ijAk; epiwNtw;WtJ
w.
“ nrayfk;
ww
 If;fpa ehLfs; rigapd; jiyikr; nrayfj;jpd; jiyik epHthfp

nghJr;nrayhsH “ gjtpf;fhyk; 5 Mz;Lfs;
 nghJr; nrayhsiuj; NjHe;njLf;Fk; mit “ nghJ mit
 1857 rpg;gha; fyfk; fhdpq;gpuG fth;dh; n[duyhf ,Ue;jNghJ
eilg;ngw;wJ
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpfis Mq;fpy tuyhw;W mwpQh;fs; tpthpf;Fk;
tpjk; - rpg;gha; fyfk; my;yJ giltPuh; fyfk;
 1857 Gul;rpia ,e;jpa tuyhw;W mwpQh;fs; tpthpf;Fk; tpjk;- Kjy;
,e;jpa Rje;jpug; Nghh;
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 Mq;fpNyah; nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;a ,ae;jpuq;fis
mwpKfg;gLj;jpajd; tpisT - ,e;jpa Fbirj; njhopy;fs; mope;jd
 nghJg;gzp gilr;rl;lk; nfhz;L tug;gl;l Mz;L 1856-y;
fhdpq;gpuG
 ,e;jpa tPuh;fs; Mq;fpNyaUf;F fly; fle;Jk; Nghh; Ghpa Ntz;Lk;
vd;gJ - nghJg;gzp gilr;rl;lk; ( nghJ uhZt gzpahsh; rl;lk;)
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpf;F fhuzk; -
Gjpa uf vd;gy
P ;L Jg;ghf;fp mwpKfk;
gR my;yJ gd;wpapd; nfhOg;Gj; jltg;gl;l Njhl;lhf;fs; MFk;
,e;Jf;fspd; Gdpj tpyq;F gR> K];yPkf
; s; ntWf;Fk; tpyq;F -
gd;wp
in
 gR my;yJ gd;wpapd; nfhOg;Gj; jltg;gl;l Njhl;lhf;fisj; njhl
s.
kWj;J Kjd; Kjypy; fpsh;r;rp nr;ajth; - kq;fy; ghz;Nl 1857 - k;
es
Mz;L Gul;rp Kjd; Kjypy; Njhd;wpa ,lk; - guf;G+h;
pr
 1857 rpg;gha;fyfk; Kjd; Kjypy; (ntspg;gilahf) 1857-y; Nk 10
ex
kPul;by; ntbj;jJ
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpapd; NghJ Gul;rpahsh;fs; ,uz;lhk; gfJ}h;
lvi
\hit nly;ypapd; kd;duhfg; gpufldg;gLj;jpdh;
ka
 nly;ypia Gul;rpahsh;fsplkpUe;J ifg;gw;wpath; - epf;fy;rd; 1857-y;
w.
nrg;lk;gh;
ww
 kq;fy; ghz;Nl guf;G+h;> 34tJ fhyhl;gil ,uhZtg;gphpitr; rhh;e;j

tPuh;
 1857 Gul;rpf;Fg;gpd; ,uhZt ifjpahf uq;$Df;F mDg;gp
itf;fg;gl;lth; ,uz;lhk; gfJ}h; \h
 nkhfyhag;g NguuRfspy; filrp kd;dh; - 2-k; gfJ}h;\h
 ,uz;lhk gfJ}h;\h; fhykhd ,lk; 1862-y; uq;$d;
 gP\;th ,uz;lhk; gh[puhtpd; tsh;gG
; kfd; - ehdhrhfPg;
 fhd;G+h; Gul;rpia Kd;dpd;W jiyik Vw;W elj;jpath; - ehdhrhfPg;
 ehdhrhfPgg
; pd; gilj;jsgjp - jhe;jpahNjhg;
 ehdhrhfPgi
; g Njhw;fbj;j Mq;fpy jsgjp - `ht;yhf; fhd;G+iu
[Piy 17>1857-y; ifg;gw;wpdhh;
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 mNahj;jp ethg; th[pj; mypapd; kidtp Ngfk; `\uj; kfhy; Ngfk;
 `\uj; kfhy; mNahj;jpapd; ethg;ghf ahiu gpufldg;gLj;jpdhh;- jd;Dila
kfdhd gph;[p]; fhjh;
 yf;Ndhtpy; Gul;rpia jiyikNaw;W elj;jpath; `\uj;kfhy; Ngfk;
 kj;jpa ,e;jpahtpy; Gul;rpia Kd;dpd;W elj;jpath; - [hd;rpuhzp ,yl;Rkpgha;
 Mq;fpNyaUf;F vjpuhf ngz;fs; NghhpLtij Cf;Ftpj;jth; - [hd;rpuhzp
,yl;Rkpgha;. ,th; ifg;gw;wpa Mq;fpNyah; Nfhl;il - Fthypah; Nfhl;il
 jhe;jpahNjhg; vd;gthpd; kuzj;Jld; rpg;gha; fyfk; KbTw;wJ
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpf;F Kf;fpakhd murpay; fhuzk; ehL ,of;Fk; nfhs;if
 rh;[hd; epy;fpy;rd; jiyikapyhd Mq;fpyg;gil nly;ypia ifg;gw;wpaJ
 nghUj;Jf:
1. kq;fy; ghz;Nl m) kj;jpa ,e;jpah
in
2. jhe;jpahNjhg; M) guhf;G+h;
3. fhdpq;gpuG ,) ehdhrhfpg;gpd; gilj;jsgjp
s.
4. ,uhzp yl;rkp gha; <) Kjy; ,e;jpa muRg; gpujpepjp
tpil: 1) M 2) , 3) < 4) m
es
pr
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rp Kjd; Kjypy; vq;F ahuhy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ- guf;G+hpy; >
kq;fy; ghz;Nl
ex
 1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rpapy; ,uhzp ,yl;Rkpgha; cld; Nrh;e;J Gul;rp nra;jth; -

lvi
jhe;jpahNjhg;
 Mq;fpy fpof;fpe;jpa tzpfh; FOtpd; Ml;rpia KbTf;F nfhz;L te;j Gul;rp
ka
1857-k; Mz;L Gul;rp
w.
 tpf;Nlhhpah kfhuhzpahh; Nguwpf;ifia ntspapl;lth; - fhdpq;gpuG. myfhghj;

(jh;ghhpy;) nghJf;$l;lj;jpy; ntspapl;lhh;. 1858 etk;gh; 1-k; ehs;
ww
 ,e;jpahtpd; filrp fth;dh; n[duy; kw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy;

muRg;gpujpepjpahf (it];uha;) ,Ue;jth; - fhdpq;gpuG
 fl;Lg;ghl;Lf;FO> ,af;Feh; FOTk; fiyf;f tif nra;jJ “ tpf;Nlhhpah
kfhuhzpahh; Nguuwpf;if
 ,e;jpa muR nrayh; gjtp cUthf;fg;gl;lJ -1858-y;.
,e;jpa muR nrayh; cs;s ,lk; - ,q;fpyhe;J.
,e;jpa murg;gpujpepjp cs;s ,lk; - ,e;jpah
 ,e;jpah ,dp ,q;fpyhe;J murpapd; ngauhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk; vd
mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ 1858 tpf;Nlhhpah kfhuhzp Nguuwpf;if

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 9 k; tFg;G Kjy; 12 k; tFg;G tiu cs;s tuyhW ghl gFjpfisAk; , QR-

 muR Njh;T Ke;ija (2001-2019) tpdhj;jhs;fisf; Kf;fpakhf gbf;fNtz;Lk;.

age – Jainism and Buddhism – mauryas – Chandra gupta- Ashoka – mayuran

 gz;ila fhy ,e;jpah vd;gJ fp.gp. 1206 tiuapyhdJ.

 ,e;jpa fiy tsHr;rpapy; rpwg;gplk; ngw;w gy;yt kd;dHfSk; ,q;NfNa Ml;rp

tlf;NfAs;s jhho;epyq;fs; tiu nry;fpwJ.

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 rkz rka ,yf;fpaq;fs; E}y;fs; nghJthf Mfkrpj;jhq;fs; vd miog;gH

 nfsby;aH (m) rhzf;fpaH vOjpa E}y; - mHj;jrh];jpuk; (nkshpa Ml;rpKiwia

 tprhfjj;jH vOjpa E}y; - Kj;uhl;rrk;> Njtp re;jpuFg;jk; (,J re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH

 ghzH vOjpa E}y; - `H\rhpjk;> fhjk;ghp

vip2010trbenglish@gmail.com 9600736379 Page 3

 lhykp 2k; E}w;whz;il rhHe;jtH Kjd; Kjypy; cyf tiuglj;ij tiue;jtH

 gh`pahd; vOjpa E}y; - Ngh- Nfh - fp

 `H\H fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpah te;jtH - Athd; Rthq;

 Nry;Af]; epNfluhy; ,e;jpah mDg;gg;gl;l fpNuf;f J}JtH - nkf];jdp];

vip2010trbenglish@gmail.com 9600736379 Page 4

 ];Ntjk;guH rkz gphpTf;Fj; jiytH - gH\ehjH

 kfhtPuhpd; je;ij - rpj;jhHj;jH> [dj;hpfh vd;Dk; rj;jphpa Fyj;jpd; jiytH

vip2010trbenglish@gmail.com 9600736379 Page 5

 Ie;Jtpujk;> Kjy; tpujk; - mfpk;ir>tha;ik> fsthik> gpuk;krhHak;> nghUs;

 Mil mzptijAk;> Ntshz;ik nra;tijAk;> NghhpLjiyAk; jtpHj;jtHfs; -

 NfhkjP];tuH rkzH rpw;gk; cs;s ,lk; - ruztngyNfhNyh

 rkz rkaj;jpd; Kjy; khehL fp.K. 3k; E}w;whz;by; ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; - ];J}yghF

 2tJ rkz rka khehL - ty;ygpapy; fp.gp. 5k; E}w;whz;by; ele;jJ

vip2010trbenglish@gmail.com 9600736379 Page 7

 Gj;jH gpwe;jJ - fp.K. 567/fp.K. 563 > ,we;jJ - fp.gp. 487/483

 khahNjtpapd; rNfhjhp/Gj;jhpd; rpj;jp - gpu[hgjp nfsjkp

 16 tJ tajpy; - aNrhjiu/ gj;jfr;rhid> Rgj;jpufh> gpk;gh Nfhgh vd;w ngaH

 Gj;jhpd; 21 tJ tajpy; ,uhFyd; kfd; gpwe;jhd;

 80tJ tajpy; - F\pefH vd;w ,lj;jpy; ghpepHthzk; mile;jhh; (If;fp;a khfhzk; -

 Gj;jH - gpk;gprhuH> m[hjrj;Uit Gj;j rkaj;ij jOTk;gb nra;jhH

 Nghjpkuk; cs;s ,lk; - cUNtyh fpuhkj;jpy; epuQ;rdh ejpf;fiuapy; (cUNtyhtpd;

 Gj;jkj;jpd; NtWngaH - ghypngsj;jk;> jpUkiw ngsj;jk;> njd;dhl;L ngsj;jk;>

 ngsj;j Jwtpfspd; tpfhuq;fs; klq;fs; epiwe;j khepyk; - gPfhH

 Gj;j rka Xtpaq;fs; - m[e;jh> vy;Nyhuh

 ngsj;j rkaj;Jwtpfspd; gpuhHj;jidf; $lq;fs; - irj;jpaw;fs;

 kzpNkfiy> Fz;lyNfrp E}y;fs; - ngsj;j rkaE}y;fs;

 ,yq;if tPufhtpak - kfhtk;rk;> jPgtk;rk; -ngsj;j rka ,yf;fpak;

 mte;jpapd; jiyefh; - c[;[apdp

 Nfhryj;ij Ml;rp Ghpe;jtd; - kfhNfryd;

 16ngUk; ehLfisg; gw;wp $Wk; Gj;j ,yf;fpak; - mq;Fj;jhuepfak;

 tj;rk; murpd; jiyefH - Nfhrhk;gh

 16 ngUk; muRfspy; gpw muRfis ntd;W Nguurhf vOr;rp ngw;wJ - kfjk;

 ee;jtk;rj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpj;jtd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;

 rHt#j;jpuhe;jpfh vdg;gl;ltd; - kfhgj;kee;jd;

 ee;jHfspd; nry;t nropg;G gw;wp $Wk; rq;f ,yf;fpak; - mfehD}W

 MhpaHfspd; Gdpj E}y; - hpf;Ntjk;

 4. nksrpfd; - rpe;J> nrstjp gfjpfis Mz;lhH

 mnyf;rhz;lH gilfs; ,e;JF\; kiyia fle;jJ - 327 Nk

 mnyf;];rhz;lH rpe;J ejpiaf; flf;f cjtp Ghpe;jtH - mk;gp

 mnyf;];rhz;lH ntd;w Nfhl;il - k];]fh> MH;E}];

Gfiog;ngw> 2. cyif nty;y Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nguhir

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 mnyf;];rhz;lH ,e;jpa gilnaLg;G fp.K. 326 [Piy

 nkshpaH vd;Dk; nrhy; re;jpuFg;j nkshpaHpd; jha; %uh vd;gthpd; epidthf

 Gj;j rka topr; nra;jpfs; nkshpaHfis NkhhpaH vd;fpwJ

vip2010trbenglish@gmail.com 9600736379 Page 14

 re;jpuFg;j nkshpaH Kb Jwf;ff; fhuzk; - nfhba gQ;rk;

 mth; ,we;j kiy re;jpug];jp /re;jpufphp kiiy vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ

 Gfo;ngw;w RjH]dh Vhpia cUthf;fpatH F[uhj;jpd; G\;aFg;jd;

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