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STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. ___

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
MODULE OVERVIEW

While you might think of child development as something that begins during infancy, in this
module, you will learn that the prenatal period is also considered an important part of the
developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of remarkable change that helps set the stage
for future psychological development. All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed
dwelt on the developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development
went on before birth. To make the description of as human development complete, it may be good to
understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent, the learners.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Trace the course of the prenatal development process that you went through.
2. Explain the most common hazards to prenatal development.
3. Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.

LEARNING CONTENTS (Prenatal Development)

1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal development, also called antenatal development, in humans, the process
encompassing the period from the formation of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to
birth (or parturition).

1.1. Activity: Read and reflect! ☺

1. Watch the video on Abortion and Personhood: What the Moral Dilemma Is Really About
video by Glenn Cohen, and High Tech Photographs of Fetal Development on YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ezS5vQ1j_E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ra6ruBzbADs
2. Read the article “Life Before Birth”
a) What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?
b) Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of tissue” or
uterine contents as abortionists claim?
c) What gives a being the right to life?
d) Is a fetus a human being?
e) Does the fetus have a right to be carried in the woman's womb until it's ready to be
born?
f) Under what circumstances, if ever, can we take an 'innocent' human life?
g) If the woman's life is in danger because of the pregnancy, how do we decide whose
rights should prevail?

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3. Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink alcohol drinks, not to take
any medication without doctor’s advice?

1.2. The Stages of Prenatal Development

The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after
conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the
embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

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1.2.1. Germinal stage

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the
two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception,
the single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.
Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process
of mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A
significant number of zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many
as half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.
Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on
certain characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the
cells multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells or layer,
which is the trophoblast, will eventually become the placenta, while the inner cells form the
embryo.
Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from
fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The
blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the
body.
1.2.1.1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system
1.2.1.2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
1.2.1.3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems
* Researchers estimate that approximately 60% of all natural conceptions never become
properly implanted in the uterus, which results in the new life ending before the mother is
ever aware she is pregnant.
When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal menstrual cycle and
cause a whole host of physical changes. For some people, activities they previously enjoyed
such as smoking and drinking alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of
nature’s way of protecting the growing life inside them.

1.2.2. Embryonic stage

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third
week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells
becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the
development of the brain.
Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later
develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural
tube begins to form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of
development of the neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side
of the neural plate.
Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed.
Once this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center. The tube begins to close
and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain,
including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose,
ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth
week, buds that will form the arms and legs appear.
By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts
except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about
one inch in length.
By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central
nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral
nervous system is also defined.
This process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development is
called organogenesis.
As the three layers of embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop rapidly.
These life-support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amnion. The

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placenta is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which

blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. The umbilical
cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion
is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All
these embryo life-support systems develop from the fertilized egg and not from the mother’s
body.

1.2.3. Fetal stage

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and
becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important
changes in the brain. This period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until
birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.
The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to
develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to
form. Once these neurons have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations.
Synapses, or the connections between neurons, also begin to develop.
Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge.
The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.
During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of
the month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three
ounces. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the
physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.
The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During
the second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other
body systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails
form. Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.
So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development?
The brain and central nervous system also become more responsive during the second
trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly
resembles that of a sleeping newborn.
During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on
weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract,
preparing the muscles for breathing.
*While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with
prenatal development occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have
a powerful impact on how the brain develops during this critical period.

1.3. Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the cause of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen
is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means “monster”.
Teratology is concerned with all features of abnormal generation and development of the
embryo (embryogenesis) and their end products. The incidence of defective development is
high. One infant in 14 that survive the neonatal period bears an abnormality of some kind and
degree, and half of these babies have more than one malformation. Internal, concealed defects
are more numerous than external ones, and some defects do not become apparent until
childhood. One baby in 40 is born with a structural defect that needs treatment. Some types of
abnormality are more common in males (e.g., pyloric stenosis, the narrowing of the opening
between the stomach and the intestine), while other types predominate in females (e.g.,
dislocated hip). Besides obvious congenital disorders, there are aberrations at the molecular
level known as inborn errors of metabolism. In these an enzyme deficiency blocks the course
of intermediary metabolism and results in abnormal chemical functioning. Such errors involve
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and pigments. The abnormal products may be stored or
excreted.

1.3.1. Important among causes of abnormalities are hereditary factors. Such include gene

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mutations, which may be Mendelian dominant (e.g., fused fingers need be inherited from
only one parent to appear in the offspring), recessive (e.g., albinism does not become evident
unless its gene is inherited from both parents), or sex-linked (e.g., hemophilia, ambiguous
genitalia). Besides the heritable defects, whose possibilities of recurrence can be estimated,
there are many genetic results that are due to chance, are not passed on, and do not occur
in other offspring. An unequal distribution of chromosomes during meiosis, leading to
abnormal assortments, occurs in somatic (non-sex) chromosomes (e.g., Down syndrome)
and in sex chromosomes (e.g., Klinefelter syndrome).

1.3.2. Environmental factors, both external and internal, are also important. Among physical
agents are
1.3.2.1. Mechanical pressures or blows are no longer considered significant, because of the
protection supplied by the uterus and the fluid-filled amniotic sac. On the other hand,
irradiation is a wholly effective physical agency, as experiments have amply proved.
1.3.2.2. Psychoactive drugs or various chemical agents, nicotine, caffeine, alcohol, illegal
drugs (marijuana, cocaine and heroin).
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated drinks were more
likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their
counterparts who did not drink caffeinated drinks. (Eskanazi, et al, 1999 quoted by
Santrock, 2002).
Heavy-drinking-pregnant-women results to the so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink
alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial deformities and
defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of this children are below
average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess,
1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher
incidences of preterm births and lower birthweights among children with smoking
mothers (Wang, et al, 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than the average size babies
with more incidence of toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained placenta,
hemorrhaging after birth, and breech deliveries.
1.3.2.3. Even some prescription and nonprescription drugs/medications are highly
teratogenic (producing physical defects within the uterus). Examples of teratogens
include drugs such as thalidomide and phenytoin, the synthetic hormone
diethylstilbestrol, and infection with varicella (chickenpox). Deficiencies of some fetal
hormones are associated causally with bodily defects (e.g., male hormone and false
hermaphroditism, a condition in which the gonads are of one sex but some
appearances suggest the other). Similarly, hormonal excess can cause abnormalities
(e.g., growth-promoting hormone and gigantism).
1.3.2.4. Radiation, X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged
exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.

1.3.3. Maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS,
nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early, below 19 or too late, beyond 30).
a mother can infect her child in three ways; 1) during gestation across the placenta, 2) during
delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum through
breastfeeding.
Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. Folic
acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. It can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious
birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the ‘neural tube’. A baby with spina bifida, the
most common neural tube defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves
are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental
retardation.
A maternal age increases the risk for numerical chromosomal abnormalities. The mortality

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rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their
twenties. A baby with Down Syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk
increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100,
and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher before age 18 (Santrock, 2002).

1.3.4. Paternal factors such as, exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals
may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood
cancer.
Just like the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for
certain defects. (Santrock, 2002)

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

SUMMARY
In this module, you’ve learned that prenatal development is the process that occurs during
the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a child, and is heavily influenced by genetics, teratogens and
maternal factors. Human life begins from the moment of conception, and that which is in the
mother’s womb is indeed a developing human being. The development that takes place in three
stages proves that the developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being.

REFERENCES

Corpuz, Brenda B., et.al. The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing
Inc. 2018

Santrock, John W. A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
2005

https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

https://www.britannica.com/science/prenatal-development

https://www.mccl.org/prenataldevelopment

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/legal/introduction_1.shtml

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