The Sigma Phase Transformation in

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Nucleation is found to be the rate-limiting step

in the ferrite to sigma phase transformation

BY J. M. VITEK AND S. A. DAVID

ABSTRACT. The mechanism of the sigma
phase transformation in steels was stud-
ied by examining the aging behavior of
Types 308 and 308CRE austenitic stainless
steels. Various initial conditions were
examined: homogenized, homogenized
and aged, and as-welded. It was found
that the sigma phase transformation was
nucleation controlled. Phase analysis
showed that the long-range diffusion
necessary to produce chromium-rich sig-
ma phase plays only a secondary role in
the sigma phase transformation, i.e.,
long-range diffusion is not rate control-
ling. Furthermore, it was found that large
scale atomic displacements, present as a
result of either recrystallization or defor-
mation, accelerate the sigma transforma-
tion significantly. The conclusions
reached are consistent with extensive
previous observations on the sigma
phase transformation reported in litera-
ture over the last 30 years.
Introduction
The phase stability of wrought stainless
steels as well as welded stainless steels
has been the subject of many investiga-
tions. Such investigations have dealt with
either fully austenitic (7) steels or duplex
austenite plus ferrite (7 + <5) steels. During
elevated temperature aging, a variety of
transformations can occur. For example,
Weiss and Stickler (Ref. 1) have shown
that in the case of Type 316 austenitic
stainless steel, numerous carbides and
intermetallic phases appear upon ele-
vated temperature aging.
Of the various transformation prod-
ucts found in stainless steels, the sigma
phase is of particular interest. It is a hard,
intermetallic phase with a complex tetra-
gonal structure. Its occurrence, proper-
ties and structure were reviewed exten-
sively by Hall and Algie (Ref. 2). Since its
first identification as B (for brittle) phase
(Ref. 3), sigma phase has been associated
with the degradation of mechanical prop-
erties, particularly in stainless steels and
other high alloy steels.
As a result of the association of sigma
phase with embrittlement, the conditions
for sigma phase formation, as well as the
mechanism of the transformation, are of
considerable interest. In spite of numer-
ous studies on this subject, many of the
details of the sigma phase transformation
remain unknown. This may be due, in
part, to the very sluggish nature of the
sigma phase transformation, which
results in uncertainties in the final equilib-
rium phase constitution. Nonetheless,
several factors are known to influence
the sigma phase transformation. Cold
work prior to aging (Refs. 4-11), as well
as the presence of ferrite (Refs. 11-16),
have been shown to significantly
enhance the kinetics of sigma phase for-
mation. The influence of the ferrite phase
is especially important when dealing with
weld metals where duplex y + 8 struc-
tures are common and, in fact, are pre-
ferred, so as to reduce hot cracking
tendencies during welding. Furthermore,
elemental additions such as silicon
increase the compositional range over
Table 1—Compositions of Alloys Used in This Investigation
which sigma phase is found and often
hasten the kinetics of the sigma phase
transformation (Refs. 8, 17-20). Howev-
er, the exact role that these factors play
in promoting sigma phase formation is still
somewhat obscure.
Studies have been conducted recently
on the phase stability of Types 308 and
308CRE* stainless steel, both in the as-
welded (Ref. 21) and initially homoge-
nized (Ref. 22) conditions. During the
course of this work, several new results
related to the sigma phase transformation
were found. The objective of this paper
is to incorporate these new results with
those of previous investigations in order
to arrive at a better understanding of the
controlling factors in the sigma phase
transformation. In turn, a greater knowl-
edge of the rate-controlling mechanism in
the sigma phase transformation will pro-
vide insight into how sigma phase forma-
tion can be better controlled.
Experimental Details
Two alloys were used in this study:
Type 308 stainless steel and Type 308
stainless steel with controlled residual ele-
ment additions. The latter alloy typically
contains small additions of phosphorus,
titanium and/or boron, and is referred to
as Type 308CRE stainless steel. Others
have shown (Ref. 23) that such additions
*CRE = Controlled Residual Elements, see
Experimental Details.

Composition, wt-%'a*
Paper presented at the 65th Annual AWS Alloy Condition Cr Ni Mn Si C S Nj
Convention in Dallas, Tex., April 8-13, 1984.
308 Homogenized 20.9 10.3 1.6 0.49 0.068 0.012 0.039 0.018 <0.01 <0.001
J M. VITEK is a Research Staff Member in the 308 Welded 20.2 9.4 1.8 0.46 0.053 0.008 0.058 0.018 <0.01 0.002
Electron Microscopy Croup andS. A. DA VID is 308CRE Homogenized 20.0 10.0 2.0 0.62 0.043 0.015 0.011 0.011 0.57 0.002
Croup Leader of the Materials Joining Labora- 308CRE Welded 19.8 9.9 2.0 0.61 0.036 0.014 0.022 0.012 0.50 0.003
tory, Metals and Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn. '•'Balance Fe.

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308CRE stainless steels

result in improved elevated temperature
creep properties. The major element
compositions of the t w o alloys studied
are given in Table 1. In the present case,
the major difference between the t w o
alloys was their titanium content.
Several initial conditions were exam-
ined: homogenized, homogenized and
cold worked, and as-welded. The
homogenization treatment for both
alloys was the same: 1080°C/1 h
(1976°F/1 h), followed by a water
quench. The homogenized Type 308
stainless steel structure was fully austenit-
ic, with no carbides or ferrite present —
Fig. 1A. In contrast, the homogenized
Type 308CRE steel had a duplex struc-
ture, with approximately 5-10% ferrite in
an austenite matrix —Fig. 1B. A section of
the Type 308 stainless steel rod was cold
swaged 20% to yield the homogenized
and cold-worked material. Cold rolling
did not affect the phase constitution of
the homogenized Type 308 stainless
steel; it remained 100% austenite. The
as-welded material was taken from multi- Results and Discussion
pass gas tungsten arc (GTA) welds depos-
ited on type 304L stainless steel base In the t w o steels presently investi-
plates. The as-welded microstructures of gated, as well as in related steels, four
both steels were duplex ferrite plus aus- phases are commonly found: austenite,
tenite structures, with ferrite levels of ferrite, sigma and M23C6 carbide. A com-
approximately 10% —Figs. 1C and 1D. posite of typical EDS spectra from these
Various aging treatments were given four phases is presented in Fig. 2. A
to the alloys in these three initial condi- comparison of the relative peak heights
tions. Aging was at 550, 650, 750 or of chromium and iron clearly shows an
850°C (1022, 1202, 1382 or 1562°F) for increase in chromium content for the
times up to 10,000 h. Prior to aging, order of phases given above. A compar-
samples were encapsulated in quartz ison of nickel to iron peak heights in Figs.
tubes filled with subatmospheric argon. A 2A, B and C also shows that the nickel
JEOL 100CX transmission electron micro- content is substantially higher in austenite.
scope was used for the structural and Relative absorption effects can be
compositional analysis of the aged speci- ignored when comparing only chromium,
mens. Microscopy specimens were pre- iron and nickel peaks. In terms of actual
pared by electropolishing 3 mm (0.12 in.) concentrations, considering only the iron,
diameter discs ground to a thickness of chromium and nickel constituents, typical
0.25 mm (0.01 in.) prior to thinning. normalized compositions are (in weight
Composition analyses were made using percent): 69 Fe, 23 Cr, 8 Ni (austenite); 68
an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS); Fe, 28 Cr, 4 Ni (ferrite); 59 Fe, 38 Cr, 3 Ni
the procedure used has been described (sigma); and 17 Fe, 79 Cr, 4 Ni (carbide).
in detail elsewhere (Ref. 24). This trend in relative compositions has

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT 1107-s


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Fig. 2 — Typical EDS spectra of phases found in Type 308 stainless steel
been noted often, and the mechanism of
the sigma phase transformation has often
been associated with it. However, as our
results will show, the composition change
necessary for sigma phase formation is
not the rate-controlling step in the trans-
formation. The first results presented will
be related to the nucleation of sigma
phase, and their interpretation will be
given. Second, the growth of sigma
phase will be addressed, including the
effect of the chromium enrichment nec-
essary for sigma phase formation.
During the aging of Type 308 stainless
steels, the first reaction observed was the
formation of M23Q carbide (Ref. 21). For
alloys with an initial duplex austenite plus
ferrite structure, this carbide formed at
the ferrite/austenite interfaces. With fur-
ther aging, ferrite consolidation occurs,
followed by sigma phase formation. The
transformation proceeds at the fastest
rate at aging temperatures of 650° and
750°C (1202° and 1382°F). Upon exami-
nation of many specimens aged under a
variety of conditions, a trend was noted
with respect to the ferrite transformation
to sigma. It was rare to find a partially
transformed ferrite grain. Instead, at
intermediate stages of aging, the initial
ferrite areas remained intact (except for
some dissolution and carbide formation)
or were transformed completely to sig-
ma. This characteristic is illustrated in Fig.
3. Singhal and Martin (Ref. 11) observed
the same phenomenon earlier. The fact
that partially transformed ferrite areas
were rarely observed indicates that once
nucleation of sigma phase begins, the
subsequent growth of sigma phase is
108-s I APRIL 1986
| KEUEX its composition in order to achieve meta-
stable equilibrium. This compositional
I cb) |||||||| fj; adjustment is independent of the ferrite
_W~ HbHHITE II | " j to sigma transformation. The final (meta-
stable) equilibrium composition of ferrite
3^ is a function of aging temperature (Ref.
-m
SM ••
26). Upon aging homogenized Type
308CRE stainless steel at 650°C (1202°F),
residual ferrite was found after aging
Ni
times of 10,000 h. The presence of the
iiiiNHiiliiiiliii; ' 1 ' ni 1 residual ferrite was relatively rare. Analy-
09 ' 92 '94 '96 08
sis of both the ferrite and sigma phase
ENERGY ( k e V ) was performed, and the representative
EDS spectra are shown in Fig. 4. A com-
1 • EUEX !i,ii parison of the relative chromium to iron
(d) TT ...Cr. peak heights shows that the chromium
Wmiiiniiii liHIIII T | j | |
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J
content in ferrite has increased signifi-
cantly (compare Figs. 2B and 4A), and that
^2
ftj.. j
the sigma phase and ferrite have essen-
tially identical iron, chromium and nickel
contents. Analysis of the major constitu-
IHF =" 11 ents (iron, chromium and nickel) in the
Hllliilllllll 1
1' ILL , t w o phases yielded the following compo-
sitions: ferrite —60 Fe, 37 Cr, 3 Ni; sig-
92 94 06. i * 08
tt r t i l Si ma — 57 Fe, 38 Cr, 4 Ni. Therefore, under
these aging conditions, the ferrite did not
ENERGY(keV) transform to sigma phase, even though
essentially no further diffusion was neces-
sary to achieve the chromium concentra-
tion found in sigma phase. This result
relatively fast. This situation is analogous dramatically shows that the nucleation of
to classical homogeneous nucleation sigma phase is the rate controlling step in
experiments with liquid droplets (Ref. 25). the transformation.
In these experiments, liquid droplets
Sigma phase formation is characteristi-
were undercooled in an inert medium,
cally very sluggish in a homogenized, fully
and once nucleation occurred, the drop-
austenitic steel. In the present study, the
let solidified very quickly. However, solid-
first signs of sigma formation in a homo-
ification of one droplet does not influ-
ence the nucleation (and solidification) of
others so that at one time both complete-
ly liquid and completely solid droplets
exist; partially solidified droplets are not
observed.
The ferrite to sigma phase transforma-
tion may be viewed as a solid-state anal-
ogy to the nucleation experiments. The
transformation occurs in what may be
assumed to be a relatively inert matrix,
namely the austenite. If nucleation of the
sigma phase is the critical rate-controlling
step, once nucleation does occur, subse-
quent growth of sigma is relatively rapid.
Hence, partially transformed ferrite grains
should be rarely found, as was the case.
Also, the transformation of one ferrite
grain is proposed to be relatively inde-
pendent of the behavior of other ferrite
grains. Even though sigma formation
results in some minimal matrix depletion
in chromium, it is suggested that the
nucleation of new sigma grains is not
overly sensitive to these matrix composi-
tion changes.
Further evidence supporting the con-
clusion that nucleation is the rate-control-
fig. 3 — Intermediate stage of aging in welded
ling step was found in the aging behavior
Type 308 stainless steel (750°C/100 h). Ferrite
of initially homogenized Type 308CRE areas were either: A — untransformed or B —
stainless steel, containing 5-10% ferrite — completely transformed. The M23C6 precipi-
Fig. 1B. It has been shown elsewhere tate outlines the original, as-welded austenite/
(Ref. 26) that during aging, ferrite changes ferrite interface
genized, fully austenitic Type 308 stain- atomic displacement, but not necessarily gishness of the transformation.
less steel were found after aging 5000 h long-range diffusion, is important in pro- The arguments given above indicate
at 750°C (1382°F). It is also well known moting sigma phase formation is support- that the formation of sigma nuclei is the
(Refs. 4-11) that cold work prior to aging ed by the microstructures found in a rate-controlling step in the sigma transfor-
significantly hastens the sigma phase homogenized Type 308 stainless steel mation. The results suggest that the actual
transformation. This was confirmed in the creep specimen tested at 650°C (1202°F) crystallographic rearrangements neces-
present investigation. Sigma phase was for 8500 h to failure. The microstructure sary to form a sigma nucleus are critical.
found after aging homogenized and cold- in the unstressed shoulder section (Fig. Furthermore, the results indicate that the
worked Type 308 stainless steel only 100 6A) is comparable to that found in diffusion necessary to form the chromi-
h at 750°C (1382°F). However, a more homogenized and aged specimens: um-enriched (compared to ferrite) sigma
detailed investigation of the deformed extensive carbide formation (M23Q) in an phase is not a rate-controlling step in the
and aged microstructure showed that austenite matrix with little, if any, sigma nucleation process. Several features sup-
partial recrystallization had taken place. phase present (in fact no sigma phase port the idea that the diffusion is of
Furthermore, the sigma phase was was found in the shoulder specimen secondary importance. First, as shown in
present only in the recrystallized areas of examined). However, the microstructure Fig. 4, under some aging conditions the
the foils, whereas no sigma phase was in the gage section (Fig. 6B) was consider- ferrite and sigma had essentially identical
found in the deformed areas — Fig. 5. This ably different. Extensive sigma phase for- compositions, and yet some ferrite
evidence strongly suggests that it is not mation was found, primarily at grain remained untransformed after aging
the cold work itself that accelerates sigma boundaries. Thus, in the deformed gage 10,000 h at 650°C (1202°F). Thus, even
phase formation, but rather the recrystal- section, where significant atomic dis- when no diffusion is necessary, the trans-
lization that subsequently occurs during placement occurred due to deformation formation does not proceed automatical-
aging that acts as a catalyst in the sigma during testing, sigma phase formation ly. A second, less direct example that
phase transformation. The observation was enhanced. The conclusion reached is diffusion is not responsible for the slug-
that it is the recrystallization that promot- the same as before —significant atomic gish nature of sigma formation may be
es sigma phase formation has been made displacement, but not necessarily long- found in the cold worked and aged
before (Refs. 4, 6, 9). ln other studies range diffusion, is a critical step in pro- structures. Sigma phase is found in the
(Refs. 5, 8), the possible relationship moting and accelerating the formation of recrystallized areas only, and not in the
between recrystallization and sigma sigma phase. cold-worked regions. However, diffusion
phase formation was not evaluated, but rates are expected to be significantly
Qualitatively, several features of the greater in cold-worked sections due to
such a relationship is strongly implied by
sigma phase structure indirectly support the high dislocation density. Therefore, if
the results. Finally, it was found by Singhal
the conclusions reached. First, the sigma diffusion were of primary importance,
and Martin (Ref. 11) that cold work alone,
phase structure involves a very large one would expect to find the sigma
without recrystallization, may in fact
tetragonal unit cell of 32 atoms, and it can phase in the cold-worked areas. In fact,
hinder the sigma phase transformation. It
be easily understood why formation of some evidence indicates that the chromi-
is suggested that the moving recrystalliza-
this complicated structure may be very um enrichment that occurs during sigma
tion front and the considerable atomic
slow. Secondly, the difficulty in forming formation actually proceeds faster than
motion at this front are instrumental in
the sigma structure is supported by the the chromium enrichment that takes
promoting sigma nucleus formation. As
common observation (Refs. 11, 27) that place in the ferrite as it attains metastable
shown in Fig. 5, sigma phase is found at
sigma grains contain numerous stacking
the recrystallization front, as well as with-
faults. This indicates that forming perfect
in the recrystallized area.
sigma crystals may be very difficult and,
The suggestion that considerable
hence, may be responsible for the slug-

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88 ' 92 '94 '96 88
Fig. 5 - Homogenized, cold-worked and aged Fig. 6 — Microstructure of homogenized Type
ENERGY(kev) (750°C/100 h) Type 308 stainless steel show- 308 stainless steel creep specimen tested at
Fig. 4-EDS spectra of A —ferrite and B- ing sigma formation only in recrystallized 650°C for 8500 h. A-unstressed shoulder
sigma in a sample aged 10,000 h at 650°C areas section; B — stressed gage section

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT 1109-s

equilibrium. Whereas the ferrite compo-
sition equals that of sigma phase after
aging 10,000 h at 650°C (1202°F), after
aging 500 h at 650° C the ferrite enrich-
ment is limited, attaining a composition of
64 Fe, 33 Cr, 3 Ni. On the other hand,
diffusion of chromium to form sigma
phase is faster in some areas, so that after
aging only 100 h at 650°C (1202°F), the
sigma phase that has formed has a com-
position of 62 Fe, 36 Cr, 2 Ni. As another
example of the potential for fast chromi-
um diffusion, the M23C.6 carbide that
forms on aging homogenized Type 308
stainless steel is even richer in chromium
than sigma phase —Fig. 2. The chromium
diffusion to form M23C.6 must take place
through the austenite matrix, and yet this
is sufficiently fast to form nearly all the
carbide within 100 h of aging at 650° or
750°C (1202° or 1382°F) (Ref. 22). In a
duplex 7 + 5 steel, the formation of
M23Q is even faster. Thus, diffusion of
chromium in the austenite matrix is a
potentially fast process. Either through
direct or indirect evidence, it is apparent
that although long-range diffusion is usu-
ally necessary to achieve the chromium
concentration required in sigma phase,
this diffusion is not a rate-controlling step
in the nucleation process and cannot
account for the sluggish nature of sigma
phase formation.
It has been shown that the transforma-
tion kinetics to sigma phase follow a
classic " C curve" behavior (Ref. 21). This
is typically indicative of a nucleation con-
trolled reaction at temperatures above
the knee and a diffusion controlled reac-
tion at temperatures below the knee.
Such an interpretation is based on the
assumption that the free energy of for-
mation of the product phase increases
with decreasing energy. However, in the
case of sigma phase formation, this
assumption is not valid since sigma phase
is not the equilibrium phase below
approximately 500°C (932°F) (Ref. 28).
Therefore, the C curve type transforma-
tion behavior of sigma phase cannot be
interpreted as indicating diffusion-con-
trolled behavior at temperatures below
the knee of the curve.
In several earlier investigations (Refs.
13, 17, 29, 30), it was concluded that
sigma phase formation is in direct compe-
tition with carbide precipitation, since
both are enriched in chromium when
compared to the austenite matrix com-
position. It was suggested that the pres-
ence of carbide resulted in a chromium-
depleted matrix which in turn inhibited
sigma formation. In the case where sigma
did form, it was proposed that the car-
bide dissolved during the transformation
to sigma. However, it is concluded in this
work that the "competition for chromi-
u m " is only of secondary importance,
and it does not play a critical role in
forming sigma phase. Rather, the relative-
110-S | APRIL 1986
ly easy growth of sigma phase, once
nucleated, proposed in this paper and
also by others (Refs. 11, 31), implies that
chromium is readily available during
aging. The conclusion that competition
for chromium plays a minor role is sup-
ported by the observation that in some
cases the presence of M23Q carbide
actually enhanced the transformation
rate of sigma (Ref. 14), and also by the
observation that the amount of carbide
remains constant as sigma phase forms
during the aging of Type 308 stainless
steel (Ref. 21). However, it should be
noted that on a very local scale, chromi-
um depletion of the matrix may hinder
sigma formation, thus explaining the
observation that sigma phase did not
nucleate preferentially at chromium-rich
M 2 3 C 6 carbides (Ref. 6).
The results of this study are likely to be
applicable to a wide range of alloys in
which sigma phase is found. It is suggest-
ed that nucleation is the rate-controlling
step in most, if not all, sigma phase
transformations. It is expected that com-
positional changes that require less or
more diffusion to achieve the sigma com-
position are not of first-order impor-
tance. Once sigma phase is thermody-
namically stable, nucieation is the critical
feature. It is suggested that recrystalliza-
tion and deformation promote nucleation
by means of the large atomic movements
involved. It is likely that ferrite in an
austenite matrix accelerates sigma phase
formation by providing more sites for the
nucleation event. In addition, the shrink-
age of ferrite associated with its enrich-
ment during aging (Ref. 26) provides a
moving interface, with concurrent large-
scale atomic movements conducive to
sigma phase formation. The effect of
elemental additions on promoting sigma
phase formation was not studied here.
However, it is likely that additions such as
silicon may result in the formation of
silicides which could act as preferred
nucleation sites for sigma. Preferred
nucleation of sigma phase on epsilon
phase was found earlier (Ref. 17).
Summary and Conclusions
Several new results on the aging
behavior of Types 308 and 308CRE stain-
less steels have provided valuable insight
into understanding the mechanism by
which sigma phase forms in these and
other related alloys. A range of initial
conditions prior to aging was examined,
including homogenized, homogenized
and cold worked, and as-welded struc-
tures. In addition, the effect of stress
during aging was also briefly addressed.
Structural examination and quantitative
compositional analyses using electron
microscopy were used. All the results, as
well as observations reported in the liter-
ature, present a consistent picture of the
sigma phase transformation mechanism:
the transformation is nucleation con-
trolled, and subsequent growth of sigma
phase is relatively fast. The critical nature
of nucleation has been suggested before
(Refs. 9, 11, 17, 31); the new results
indicate that diffusion necessary for the
chromium enrichment found in sigma
phase does not play a major rate-limiting
role during nucleation. Rather, it is sug-
gested that the structural requirements
for establishing sigma phase nuclei are of
primary importance. In agreement with
this conclusion, it was observed that
large-scale atomic movements, such as
the advance of a recrystallization front,
or deformation, significantly accelerate
the sigma phase transformation. As a
consequence of this conclusion, the com-
petition for major constituents of sigma,
particularly chromium, among various
phases in the steels is believed to play
only a secondary role in the sigma phase
transformation.
A ckno wledgments
The authors would like to acknowl-
edge the technical assistance of W . H.
Smith, K. F. Russell and R. VV. Reed in the
preparation and evaluation of specimens.
The authors also wish to acknowledge
the work of Judy Young in the prepara-
tion of the manuscript. This research was
sponsored by the Division of Materials
Sciences, U. S. Department of Energy,
under contract DE-AC05-840R21400
with Martin Marietta Energy Systems,
Inc.
References
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210.
5. Dullis, E. )., and Smith, C. V. 1952. Effect
of cold work on sigma formation. Metal
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6. Duhaj, P., Ivan, I., and Makovicky, E.
1968. Sigma phase precipitation in austenitic
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Trans. Jap. Inst. Met. 4:222-231.
8. Morley, ). I., and Kirkby, H. W. 1952.
Sigma phase embrittlement in 25 Cr-20 Ni
heat-resisting steel. /. Iron Steel Inst. 172:129-
142.
9. Spruiell, |. E., Scott, ). A., Ary, C. S., and
Hardin, R. L. 1973. Microstructural stability of
thermally-mechanically pretreated Type 316
austenitic stainless steel. Metall. Trans. 4:1533-
1544.
10. Bindari, A. E„ Koh, P. K., and Zmeskal,
O. 1951. Sigma phase formation in a wrought
heat-resisting steel. Trans. ASM 43:226-236.
11. Singhal, L K., and Martin, J. W. 1968.
The formation of ferrite and sigma phase in
some austenitic stainless steels. Acta Metall.
16:1441-1451.
12. Kirkby, H. W., and Morley, ). I. 1948.
The formation of sigma phase in duplex Cr-
Ni-Mo corrosion-resisting steels. / Iron Steel
Inst. 158:289-294.
13. Slattery, C. F., Keown, S. R., and Lam-
bert, M. E. 1983. Influence of S-ferrite content
on transformation to intermetallic phases in
heat-treated Type 316 austenitic stainless steel
weld metal. Met. Technol. 10:373-385.
14. Barcik, ). 1983. The kinetics of sigma
phase precipitation in AISI 310 and AISI 316
steels. Metall. Trans. 14A:635-641.
15. lolly, P., and Hochmann, |. 1973. Evolu-
tion structural d'un acier inoxydable austeno-
ferritique par maintien entre 600 et 1150°C.
Mem. Sci. Rev. Met. 70:117-124.
16. Beckitt, F. R. 1969. The formation of
sigma phase from 5-ferrite in a stainless steel. /.
Iron Steel Inst. 207:632-638.
17. Blenkinsop, P. A., and Nutting, J. 1967.
Precipitation of the sigma phase in an austenitic
steel. /. Iron Steel Inst. 205:953-958.
18. Shortsleeve, F. ]., and Nicholson, M. E.
1951. Transformations in ferritic chromium
steels between 1100 and 1500°F (595 and
815°C). Trans. ASM 43:142-160.
19. Nicholson, M. E., Samans, C. H., and
Shortsleeve, F. |. 1952. Composition limits of
sigma formation in nickel-chromium steels at
1200°F (650°C). Trans. ASM 44:601-620.
20. Hull, F. C. 1973. Effects of composition
on embrittlement of austenitic stainless steels.
Welding Journal 52(3):104-s to 113-s.
21. Vitek,). M„ and David, S. A. 1984. The
solidification and aging behavior of Types 308
and 308CRE stainless steel welds. Welding
Journal 63(8):246-s to 253-s.
22. Vitek, |. M., and David, S. A. The aging
behavior of homogenized Type 308 and
308CRE stainless steel. To be submitted for
publication in the Welding Journal.
23. Stiegler, |. O., King, R. T., and Goodwin,
G. M. 1975. Effect of residual elements on
fracture characteristics and creep ductility of
Type 308 stainless steel weld metal. /. Eng.
Mater. Technol. 97:245-250.
24. Vitek, ). M „ DasGupta, A., and David,
S. A. 1983. Microstructural modification of
austenitic stainless steels by rapid solidification.
Metall. Trans. 14:1833-1841.
25. See for example Strickland-Constable,
R. F. 1968. Kinetics and Mechanism of Crystal-
lization, pp. 91-96, Academic Press, London,
England.
26. Vitek, |. M., and David, S. A. 1985.
Metastable equilibrium of ferrite in Type 308
stainless steel. Scripta Metall. 19(1):23-26.
27. Marcinkowski, M. J., and Miller, D. S.
1962. A study of defect substructure in the
Fe-Cr sigma phase by means of TEM. Phil.
Mag. 7:1025-1059.
28. Metals Handbook. 1973. Vol. 8, Eighth
Edition, American Society for Metals, Metals
Park, Ohio.
29. White, W. E., and LeMay, I. 1970.
Metallographic observations on the formation
and occurrence of ferrite, sigma phase, and
carbides in austenitic stainless steels. I 310
stainless steel. Metall. 3:35-50.
30. White, W. E., and LeMay, I. 1970.
Metallographic observations on the formation
and occurrence of ferrite, sigma phase, and
carbides in austenitic stainless steels. II 316
stainless steel. Metall. 3:51-60.
31. See discussion by J. J. Gilman at end of
Ref. 10.

WRC Bulletin 303

April 1985
Interpretive Report on Dynamic Analysis of Pressure Components—Third Edition
This third edition provides an update of WRC Bulletin 269, including: a summary of the development
programs that were completed subsequent to the second edition; an update of the reference list; an
expanded dynamic modeling section, which includes response for stochastic forces; and the inclusion of
a new section on fluid-structure interaction.
This report was prepared and sponsored for publication by the Subcommittee on Dynamic Analysis of
Pressure Components of the Design Division of the Pressure Vessel Research C o m m i t t e e of the Welding
Reseach Council.
The price of WRC Bulletin 303 is $14.00 per copy, plus $5.00 for postage and handling. Orders should
be sent with payment to the Welding Research Council, Rm. 1 3 0 1 , 345 E. 47 St., New York, NY
10017.

WRC Bulletin 305

June 1985
This bulletin contains three s u m m a r y reports prepared by the Japan Pressure Vessel Research Council
(JPVRC) Subcommittee on Hydrogen Embrittlement:
1) " H y d r o g e n Attack Limit of 2lA Cr-1 Mo S t e e l , " by Task Group I;
2) " E m b r i t t l e m e n t of Pressure Vessel Steels in High Temperature, High Pressure Hydrogen Environ-
m e n t , " by Task Group II; and
3) " H y d r o g e n Embrittlement of Bond Structure Between Stainless Steel Overlay and Base M e t a l , " by
Task Group III.
The three Task Group reports were translated and summarized for publication by JPVRC and have
been reviewed and edited by the U.S. PVRC Subcommittee on Hydrogen Effects for publication in this
bulletin.
The price of WRC Bulletin 3 0 5 is $14.00 per copy, plus $ 5 . 0 0 for postage and handling. Orders should
be sent with payment to the Welding Research Council, Rm. 1 3 0 1 , 345 E. 4 7 t h St., New York, NY
10017.

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 111-s

 AN INVITATION
TO
AUTHORS
Gentlemen:

The American Welding Society will hold its 68th Annual Convention and AWS Welding Show in Chicago,
Illinois, during March 22-27, 1987. One of the most important events of our 68th Annual Convention will be its
Professional Program.

It is indeed a pleasure to invite you as Authors to be participants in the Professional Program of our 68th
Annual Convention. On this occasion, the Society is offering an opportunity to Authors to bring the results of
outstanding work on their part to the attention of our entire membership, the welding industry, and the
nation's metalworking industries.

To this end, the Society's Technical Papers Committee will be happy to receive your application for
participation in our 68th Annual Convention Professional Program; the Committee is inviting 500-word
summaries for, basically, two categories of papers:

1. Applied Technology—unusual industrial or field applications of welding, new process or significant

equipment developments, surfacing, unique welding case histories, education, safety and health, cost
studies —also related topics such as nondestructive testing of weldments as well as maintenance and repair.

2. Research Oriented—results of significant laboratory research and/or development projects, welding

metallurgy, weldability studies, weld cracking or fracture, new test methods, arc physics — also related topics
such as fracture mechanics.

To apply for participation in our 68th Annual Convention Professional Program, please complete both sides of
the Author Application Form on the facing page. Also, please prepare a 500 to 1,000 word summary of what
you intend to say in your paper and mail it with the completed form to AWS.

The Technical Papers Committee will screen all Author applications and summaries (also the manuscripts of
completed papers if included), and we expect to notify Authors during late October or early November
concerning acceptance. Completed Author Application Forms and accompanying 500-word summaries must be
mailed by July 15, 1986, to ensure consideration for the 68th Annual Convention Professional Program.

Please note that, as it screens Author Applications and summaries, the Technical Papers Committee will be
looking for: (1) the newness of information and need for the information in its field, (2) technical accuracy, (3)
clarity of presentation, and (4) adaptability for oral presentation (a paper consisting basically of complicated
tables would not be suitable for oral presentation).

Sincerely yours,

Paul W. Ramsey ^ \
Executive Director

April 1, 1986

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135

112-s I APRIL 1986

 COMPLETE BOTH SIDES AND
AUTHOR APPLICATION FORM MAIL WITH 500-1000 WORD
SUMMARY TO:
-FOR-
68th Annual AWS Convention American Welding Society
P.O. Box 351040
Miami, Florida 33135
Chicago, Illinois, March 22-27,1987
Date Mailed
Author's Name Check how addressed: Mr. • Ms. •
Title or Position Dr. • Other
Company or Organization
Mailing Address
City State Zip Telephone: Area Number

If there are to be joint Name

authors, give name(s) Address
of other author(s) Name
Address
PROPOSED TITLE (10 words or less):

SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION:
Classify your paper by placing a check mark in the t w o appropriate boxes:
Applied Technology • Research Oriented • Other • / A n Original Contribution D A Review • Progress Report •

SUMMARY:
• Type, double spaced, a summary of not less than 500 — but preferably not more than 1000 — words and attach to this
form.
• Be sure to give sufficient information to enable the Technical Papers Committee to obtain a clear idea of content of the
proposed paper; confine background to about 100 words. Also be sure to emphasize results and conclusions, since this
material, together with information on what is new, will have a very important bearing on the decision of the Technical
Papers Committee.
• If complete manuscript is available, in addition to summary, please attach t w o copies of this form.
• Application Form and summary must be postmarked not later than July 15, 1986, to ensure consideration for inclusion on
the 68th Annual AWS Convention Professional Program.

MANUSCRIPT DEADLINES:
• All manuscripts shouldbe in the hands of the Technical Papers Committee not later than March 1, 1987. If received prior to
December 1, 1986, every effort will be made to publish them in advance of meeting.
• It is expected that the Committee's selections will be announced sometime in October 1986.
• If your paper is made a part of the program, which of the following manuscript deadlines will you be able to meet?
December 1, 1986 D lanuary 3 1 , 1987 • March 1, 1987 D

PRESENTATION A N D PUBLICATION O F PAPERS:

• Has material in this paper been previously presented in meeting or published?
YesD NoD When?
Where?
• Following presentation at the 68th Annual AWS Convention, would you accept invitations to present this paper before
AWS Sections ? Yes • No D

• Papers accepted for presentation become the property of the Society with original publication rights assigned to the
Welding Journal.

RETURN TO AWS HEADQUARTERS. MUSTBEPOSTMARKEDHOT

LATER THAN JULY 15,1986, TO ENSURE CONSIDERA TION.

Author's Signature
Author(s) of Proposed Paper:
SUMMARY CODE
(For AWS Headquarters Use Only)

Title of Paper (may be abbreviated)

TO AUTHOR(S): Please briefly answer questions in spaces provided below—also

please note that answers given below are required in addition to 500
to 1,000 word Summary. Please use typewriter.

(1) WHY WAS THE WORK DONE?

(2) WHAT WAS DONE?

(3) WHAT WAS FOUND?

(4) WHAT ARE YOUR MOST IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS?

(5) TO W H O M DO YOU THINK YOUR PAPER WILL BE IMPORTANT? HOW?

OTHER COMMENT (Optional)

RETURN TO A WS HEADQUARTERS. MUST BE POSTMARKED NOTBe sure to attach 500-1,000 word Summary when
LATER THAN JULY 15, 1986, TO ENSURE CONSIDERATION. mailing completed Author's Application Form to AWS
Headquarters.