© T.S.

Zhao, 2004
Indoor conditions:
Temperature Ti = 25 oC Outdoor conditions (Hong Kong)
Relative Humidity φ = 50 %, or Elevation 4.9 m
Wet bulb temperature Tiw = 18 oC
Air Motion: 0.15 m/s Summer Tdb 33.3 oC
Summer Twb 27.2 oC
Winter Tdb 8.9 oC

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Recall: Example 3-9
0 4

qc=?
qc ma2=? 3

td=25oC
2
φ=50%

q=? kW
(qs=? kW)
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Cooling coil load 0
Cooling load
1

2 3
d

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Contents
„ Basic concepts
„ Outdoor design conditions
„ Indoor design criteria
„ Cooling load principles
„ Cooling load components

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Basic Concepts
„ Thermal load (heating and cooling load)
X Theamount of heat that must be added or
removed from the space to maintain the
proper temperature in the space
„ When thermal loads deviate from
conditions outsider of the comfort range,
AC systems are used to bring the thermal
conditions back to comfort conditions

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Basic Concepts
„ Purpose of thermal load estimation
X Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)
X Size plant/equipment capacity
X Form the basis for building energy analysis

„ Cooling load is our main target

X Important for warm climates and summer
design
X Affect building performance and its cost

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Basic Concepts
„ Heat transfer mechanism
X Conduction
X Convection
X Radiation

„ Thermal properties of building materials

X Overall
thermal transmittance (U-value)
X Thermal conductivity
X Thermal capacity (specific heat)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

 Basic Concepts
Calculating thermal loads
needs the following
information:
X Orientation of the building
X Use of spaces
X Physical dimensions of
spaces
X Ceiling height
X Construction materials
X Surrounding conditions
X Windows, doors,
stairways
X People (number or density,
duration of occupancy,
nature of activity)
X Lighting (W/m2, type)
X Appliances (wattage,
location, usage)
X Ventilation (criteria,
requirements)
X Thermal storage (if any)
X Continuous or intermittent
operation
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Outdoor Design Conditions
„ Climatic design information
X General information: e.g. latitude, longitude,
altitude, atm. pressure
X Outdoor design conditions
oDerived from statistical analysis of weather
data
oTypical data can be found in
handbooks/databooks, such as ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbooks

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Indoor Design Conditions
Thermal comfort
X Airtemp. & air movement
oTypical: summer 24-26 oC; winter 21-23 oC
oAir velocity: summer < 0.25 m/s; winter <
0.15 m/s
X Relative humidity
oSummer: 40-50% (preferred), 30-65
(tolerable)
oWinter: 25-30% (with humidifier); not
specified (w/o humidifier)
X See also ASHRAE Standard 55-2004
oASHRAE comfort zone © T.S. Zhao, 2004
(*Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004)
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Cooling Load Principles
Terminology:
X Space – a volume w/o a partition, or a
partitioned room, or group of rooms
X Room – an enclosed space (a single
load)
X Zone – a conditioned space under the
control of a single thermostat

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Cooling Load Principles
„ Heat gains
„ Cooling load
„ Heat extraction rate

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Heat gains q& i ( time )
Heat gain is the rate at which energy is transferred to or generated within
the space to be conditioned. It includes sensible heat and latent heat.

„ Solar radiation through openings;

„ Heat conduction through boundaries with
convection and radiation from the inner
surface into space;
„ Sensible heat convection and radiation
from internal objects;
„ Ventilation (outside air) and infiltration air;
„ Latent heat gains generated within the
space.
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Convective and radiative heat in a conditioned space
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Cooling load q& c ( time )
The cooling load is the rate at which energy must
be removed from a space to maintain the
temperature and humidity at the design values.

Due to energy storage, generally q& i ( time ) ≠ q& c ( time )

Since the time lag usually exists, the thermal mass

of the building components must be taken into
account:
Thermal mass = (Mass) x (Specific Heat) [J/K]

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Effect of heat storage

X Nightshutdown period
oAC is switched off. What happens to the
space?
X Cool-down or warm-up period
oWhen AC system begins to operate
X Conditioning period
oSpace air temperature within the limits

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Effect of heat storage on cooling
load

Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from Lights

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Heat extraction rate q& x ( time )

Rate at which energy is removed from a space by an AC equipment.

Under constant design conditions: q& x ( time ) = q& c ( time )

Usually: q& x ( time ) ≠ q& c ( time )
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Cooling Load Principles
„ Load profile
X Shows the variation of space load
X Such as 24-hr cycle
X What factors will affect load profile?

„ Peak load and block load

X Peak load = max. cooling load
X Block load = sum of zone loads at a specific
time

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Block load and thermal zoning
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Cooling Load Principles
„ Moisture transfer
X Two paths:
oMoisture migrates in building envelope
oAir leakage (infiltration or exfiltration)
X If slight RH variation is acceptable, then
storage effect of moisture can be ignored
oLatent heat gain = latent cooling load
(instantaneously)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Cooling Load Components

„ Cooling load calculations

X To determine volume flow rate of air system
X To size the coil and HVAC&R equipment

„ Two categories:
X External loads
X Internal loads

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Cooling Load Components

„ External loads
X Heat gain through exterior walls and roofs
X Solar heat gain through fenestrations
(windows)
X Conductive heat gain through fenestrations
X Heat gain through partitions & interior doors
X Infiltration of outdoor air

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

记者在9楼看了一下，发现15个房间，
竟然有窗户113个。
其中8楼一个房间，居然有21个窗户。
报道 “这是什么？碉堡？”“奶酪！”“
海绵！”“马赛克！”
工人：盖这楼很费神

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Cooling Load Components
„ Internal loads
X People
X Electric
lights
X Equipment and appliances

„ Sensible & latent cooling loads

X Convert instantaneous heat gain into cooling
load
X Which components have only sensible loads?

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

[Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook 2001]
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
Cooling Load Components
„ Cooling coil load consists of:
X Space cooling load (sensible & latent)
X Supply system heat gain (fan + air duct)
X Return system heat gain (plenum + fan + air
duct)
X Load due to outdoor ventilation rates (or
ventilation load)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Cooling Load Components
„ Space cooling load
X To determine supply air flow rate & size of air
system, ducts, terminals, diffusers
X It is a component of cooling coil load
X Infiltration heat gain is an instant. cooling load

„ Cooling coil load

X To determine the size of cooling coil &
refrigeration system
X Ventilation load is a coil load

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Conduction through exterior
structure

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Conduction through interior
structure

Unconditioned Conditioned
Space space
(T=Tout-5 F)

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Solar radiation through glass

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
© T.S. Zhao, 2004
External shading effect

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Design
conditions

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Lighting

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

People

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004
 Equipment and appliances

„ The heat gain from equipment may

sometimes be found directly from
the manufacturer or the name
plate data.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

Infiltration
„ Infiltration of air
through cracks around
widows or doors
results in both a
sensible and latent
heat gain to the
rooms. Procedures for
estimating infiltration
heat gains are similar
to those for heat
losses.

© T.S. Zhao, 2004

© T.S. Zhao, 2004