PP Lab 505

Lab Manual
(Power Plants)
Mech. Engineering Department

Submitted By:
M.Usman Khan(2017-ME-505)
Submitted to:
Engr. Muhammad Shahid Farooq
University of Engineering and Technology Lahore (NWL campus)

Contents
List of Experiments ................................................................................................................................................. 8

LAB LAYOUT ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
LAB LAYOUT .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
BOILER AND ITS TYPES ......................................................................................................................................... 11
What is Boiler?................................................................................................................................................. 11
Working Principle of a Boiler:.......................................................................................................................... 11
Different Types of Boiler ................................................................................................................................. 12
1. According to the Contents in the Tubes:............................................................................................ 12
2. According to the Number of Tubes: ................................................................................................... 13
3. According to the Position of the Furnace:.......................................................................................... 13
4. According to the Axis of the Shell: ...................................................................................................... 14
5. According to the Methods of Circulation of Water and Steam: ........................................................ 14
6. According to the use: .......................................................................................................................... 14
What is Fire Tube Boiler? ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Construction and Working Principle of Fire Tube Boiler................................................................................ 15
Types of Fire Tube Boilers ............................................................................................................................... 16
1) Cochran Boiler ..................................................................................................................................... 16
2) Locomotive boiler ................................................................................................................................ 18
3) Lancashire Boiler ................................................................................................................................. 19
4) Vertical Fire Tube Boiler ...................................................................................................................... 21
5) Scotch Marine Fire Tube Boiler........................................................................................................... 21
6) Immersion Fire Tube Boiler:................................................................................................................ 22
Difference between Fire Tube Boiler and Water Tube Boiler ....................................................................... 22
Advantages and Disadvantages: ..................................................................................................................... 23
Different Components & Mountings Placed on the fire tube boiler ............................................................. 24
What is a Water Tube Boiler? .............................................................................................................................. 25
Working Principle of Water Tube Boiler ......................................................................................................... 27
Types of Water Tube Boilers ........................................................................................................................... 27
Simple Vertical Boiler ...................................................................................................................................... 27
Stirling Boiler.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Babcock and Wilcox Boilers: ........................................................................................................................... 29
Difference between Fire Tube Boiler and Water Tube Boiler ....................................................................... 30
Advantages and Disadvantages: ..................................................................................................................... 31
What is Economizer? ........................................................................................................................................... 31
What is Feed water heater?................................................................................................................................. 33
Types of feed water heater ............................................................................................................................. 34
Close feed water heater .................................................................................................................................. 34
Open feed water heater .................................................................................................................................. 35
Temperature Profiles....................................................................................................................................... 35
Feedwater Heater Geometries ....................................................................................................................... 35
What is Air Preheater? ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Working of Air Preheater ................................................................................................................................ 37
Types of Air Preheater ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Recuperative or Tubular Type:........................................................................................................................ 37
Regenerative or Feed Water Type .................................................................................................................. 37
Combine Use of Recuperative and Regenerative Type.................................................................................. 37
Advantages of Air Preheater: .......................................................................................................................... 38
Applications of Air Preheater .......................................................................................................................... 38
Experiment No -1 ................................................................................................................................................. 39
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 39
Steam turbine power plant ............................................................................................................................. 39
Basic Process .................................................................................................................................................... 39
Types of steam turbine power plants based on efficiency improvements .................................................. 40
Steamcycle with super heating ....................................................................................................................... 40
Reheating cycle ................................................................................................................................................ 41
Regenerative cycle ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Components..................................................................................................................................................... 43
Experiment No -2 ................................................................................................................................................. 44
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
Boiler 44
Types of fuel used in boiler .............................................................................................................................. 44
Type of boilers .................................................................................................................................................. 45
According to Relative Passage of water and hot gases ................................................................................... 45
According to Water Circulation Arrangement ................................................................................................ 46
According to the Use........................................................................................................................................ 46
According to Position of the Boilers ................................................................................................................ 48
According to the Position of Furnace .............................................................................................................. 49
According to Pressure of steam generated..................................................................................................... 50
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 75
Steam turbine .................................................................................................................................................. 75
1. Impulse turbine ................................................................................................................................... 75
2. Reaction turbine .................................................................................................................................. 75
Condensing turbine ......................................................................................................................................... 76
Non-Condensing turbine ................................................................................................................................. 77
Extraction turbine ............................................................................................................................................ 77
Material of turbine blades ............................................................................................................................... 78
Procedure......................................................................................................................................................... 78
Specimen Calculation ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Observations .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Graphs: ............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Experiment No - 6 ................................................................................................................................................ 82
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 82
Condenser ........................................................................................................................................................ 82
Types of condenser and their construction..................................................................................................... 82
Condenser components and their functions .................................................................................................. 83
Shell 83
Hotwell ............................................................................................................................................................. 84
Vaccum system ................................................................................................................................................ 84
Tube sheets ...................................................................................................................................................... 85
Tubes 85
Waterboxes...................................................................................................................................................... 85
Specification..................................................................................................................................................... 85
Procedure......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Experiment No –7 ................................................................................................................................................ 87
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 87
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 87
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Basic Process in a steam power plant .............................................................................................................. 87
Basic components of a steam power plant ..................................................................................................... 87
Overall efficiency of steam power plant ......................................................................................................... 88
Efficiency improvement .................................................................................................................................. 88
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow, av) ..................................................................................... 88
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh, av)........................................................... 89
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh, av)....................................................................................... 89
Specifications ................................................................................................................................................... 90
Experiment No – 8 ............................................................................................................................................... 91
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 91
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 91
Natural gas engine ........................................................................................................................................... 91
Turbocharger ................................................................................................................................................... 92
Aftercooler ....................................................................................................................................................... 92
Firing order of the engine ................................................................................................................................ 93
Heat exchangers .............................................................................................................................................. 93
Specifications ................................................................................................................................................... 94
Engine specifications ....................................................................................................................................... 94
Alternator specifications ................................................................................................................................. 94
Experiment No – 9 ............................................................................................................................................... 95
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Diesel engine .................................................................................................................................................... 95
Turbocharger ................................................................................................................................................... 96
Engine cooling system ...................................................................................................................................... 96
Diesel fuel injection system ............................................................................................................................. 97
Specifications ................................................................................................................................................... 98
Experiment No –10 .............................................................................................................................................. 99
Objective .......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 99
Cooling tower ................................................................................................................................................... 99
Working of Cooling towers .............................................................................................................................. 99
Types of cooling towers ................................................................................................................................... 99
Natural draft..................................................................................................................................................... 99
Mechanical Draft ............................................................................................................................................. 99
Forced Draft ..................................................................................................................................................... 99
Induced Draft ................................................................................................................................................. 100
Hybrid Draft.................................................................................................................................................... 100
Specimen Calculation .................................................................................................................................... 101
Theoretical Cooling ........................................................................................................................................ 101
Actual cooling ................................................................................................................................................ 101
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
Visit to Mini Steam Turbine Power Plant (Model PC-TMS-400A)
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
To determine the thermal efficiency (ηth) of a steam boiler and measure its evaporating rate
EXPERIMENT NO: 3
To determine the dryness fraction (x) of steam with the help of throttling calorimeter
EXPERIMENT NO: 4
To determine the thermal efficiency of a super heater and evaluate its performance
EXPERIMENT NO: 5
To determine the thermal efficiency of a steam turbine and evaluate its performance
EXPERIMENT NO: 6
To determine the condenser heat exchange rate and evaluate its performance
EXPERIMENT NO: 7
To determine the overall efficiency of Steam Turbine Experimental Apparatus
EXPERIMENT NO: 8
To determine the overall efficiency of Gas generator set of UET
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
To determine the overall efficiency of Diesel generator set of UET
EXPERIMENT NO: 10
To determine the thermal efficiency of Cooling towers at UET

LAB LAYOUT
LAB LAYOUT
1. Entrance
2. DieselEngine
3. Petrol Engine
4. Sectioned Petrol Engine
5. Petrol Car
6. Computer Table
7. Transparent Engine Cylinder & Diesel Inline Fuel Pump
8. Rotary Type Winkle Engine
9. Petrol Four StockEngine
10. EFI System Single Cylinder Petrol Engine
11. Diesel Inline Fuel Pump
12. Sectioned Diesel Engine
13. Scrabe
14. Document Cubebs
15. Table
16. CNC High Pressure to Low Pressure Regulator
17. Transparent Petrol Engine
18. VOX Wagon Petrol Engine
19. VOX Wagon Diesel Engine
20.Test Bed (Diesel & Petrol)
21. System PowerPlant
BOILER AND ITS TYPES
What is Boiler?
A boiler is a closed vessel which is used to convert the water into high pressure steam. The high pressure
steam so generated is used to generate power.
Working Principle of a Boiler:

The boiler works on the same principle as the water is heated in a closed vessel and due to heating, the
water changes into steam. This steam possesses high pressure kinetic energy. The boiler contains water.
The water is heated to its boiling temperature by the use of heat from thefurnace.
Due to heating of water, it gets converted into high pressure steam. The steam generated is passed
throughthesteamturbines. As thehighpressure steamstrikesthe turbine, it rotates theturbine. A generator is
attached to the turbine and the generator also starts to rotate with the turbine and produces electricity.
Different Types of Boiler
Boilers can be classified in different basis but here I am discussing the only important basis of boiler
classification.
1. According to the Contents in the Tubes:-

According to the contents in the tubes, the boilers can be classified as fire tube boiler and watertube boiler.
Fire Tube Boiler:
In fire tube boiler the fire or hot gas are present inside the tubes and water surrounds these firetubes. Since
fire is inside the tubes and hence it is named as fire tube boiler. The heat from the hot gases is conducted
through the walls of the tube to the water.
Examples:
The examples of the fire tube boiler are: simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler,Cornish
boiler, Locomotive boiler, Scotch marine boiler and Velcon boiler.
Water Tube Boiler:
In water tube boilers, the water is present inside the tubes and the fire or hot gases surroundsthese water tube.
Examples:
The examples of water tube boilers are: La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Stirling boiler, Babcockand Wilcox
boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.
WHAT IS A WATER TUBE BOILER?
A water tube boiler can be defined as a Steam boiler in which the flow of water in the tubes, as well as hot
gases, enclose the tubes. Not like fire tube boilers, this boiler attains high-pressures, as well as high-steam
capabilities, can be achieved. This is because of condensed tangential pressure on tubes which is known as
hoop stress.
Components of Water Tube Boiler
The water tube boiler can be built with boiler shell, burner, mud drum or mud ring, furnace, safety valve, strainer,
sight glass, feed check valve, steamstop valve, etc.
Boiler Shell: This shell is the external cylindrical part of a pressure container.
Mud Drum: This is a cylindrical formed space at the base of the water space. The impurities like mud, sediment,
and others will be gathered.
Strainer: This is a type of device as a filter to hold solid elements letting a fluid to supply.
Sight Glass: A glass tube is utilized on steam type boilers for giving observable signs of thewater level in boilers.
Security Valve: A spring-loaded tap that unlocks when force gets the location of the valve.This can be used for
stopping the unnecessary force from the construction of a boiler
Boiler: This is a surrounded space offered for the fuel combustion.
Feed-Test Tap: The high-force water flows via this tap, which releases to the boiler simplyand supplies the water
to the water type boiler.
\
Steam-Stop Tap: It controls the steam flow supply at outside.
Burner: This is one type of device for the beginning of air and fuel into a boiler at thepreferred velocity. This is
the most essential apparatus for the firing of gas or oil.
Working Principle of Water Tube Boiler

The working principle of water tube boiler is thermal siphoning (circulation of natural water). Basically, this type
of boiler includes two drums namely steam, lower or mud drum.
The water tube boiler diagram is shown below, and these two drums are associated via two tubessuch as down
comer and riser. At first, the water is supplied into the steam type drum with the help of a water pump.
Whenever the fuel is burned, then hot gases will be generated that are permitted to supply in the shell part of
the boiler. The hot gases which are produced by the fuelwill replace heat by the water; the water gets
changed intosteam. Because, the water temperature increases, the concentration will increase
automatically.
Clearly, the concentration of steam will be lesser than the water. Thus in the steam drum, the water, as well
as steam, gets divided obviously due to variation in concentration. Here the traveling of steam will be
upward because of low concentration as well as water will travel downward because of high concentration.
The flow of hot water at the base of the steam drum will be supplied into mud drum via down comer tube as
well as to heat the water in the mud type drum. Whenever cooler supply water isinitiated into steam type
drum due to the high concentration of cool water, and it moves down in the down comer type tube near
mud drum.
When transferring hot water from the mud type drum to steam type drum using riser tubes thenit
consequences in normal water circulation in the water tube type boiler. As additional steam isgenerated in
the boiler then the force in the drum enhances & the water supply into the drum reduces which tend for
decreasing the flow of steam. In the same way, when the production rateof steam reduces the force in the
water-tube boiler reduces, & the water supply into the boiler enhances which tends to enhance the
production rate. Like this, the water tube boiler controls the production of steam.
What is Economizer?
After producing steam, flue gas comes out from the system (flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a
flue). Some heat energy remains in the flue gas when it goes out. If we cannotutilize this heat energy, it gets lost.
Boiler economizer is a device that uses a portion this remainedenergy of the flue gas to heat up inlet water (feed
water) to the boiler. Since the heat energy is given to the water before it gets fed to the boiler, the requirement of
fuel for producing steam isoptimized. Because of that, we call this device as an economizer.
Construction and Working Principle of Boiler Economizer
The construction and working principle of the boiler economizer is simple. At the bottom part, ithas a
horizontal inlet pipe through which we feed water with normal temperature to the economizer. There is
another horizontal pipe fitted at the top of the economizer.
These two horizontal pipes, which are bottom and top pipes connected through a group of vertical pipes.
There is an outlet valve fitted on the top horizontal pipe to supply hot water to theboiler. The flue gases
from the boiler furnace flow through the vertical pipes of the economizer.
Types of Economizer in Boiler
Boiler Economizers can be classified in various ways depending upon economizer’s

function and operation.
An economizer can be made

pressurized or non- pressurized
depending on the required water
temperature through it.
Thermo dyne manufactures both

Pressurized Economizers as well as
non-pressurized Economizers to suit
your needs.
Generally, if the required water

temperature is above the normal
boiling point at atmospheric
pressure, then the Boiler
Economizers are
needed to be pressurized and if they are below the boiling point they can be made non- pressurized.
Thermo dyne boilers has a lot of experience in manufacturing Economizers and is tailor- made in order
to suit your specific requirements.
Here, the flue gases transfer remain heat to the water through the surface of the vertical pipe when the
water goes up through the vertical pipes to top horizontal pipe. In this way heat of theflue gases gets utilized
through the economizer for heating up the water before entering into theboiler for producing steam.
The flue gas will have ash particles mixed with it which will get deposited on vertical pipe surfaces.If special
care is not taken there will be a thick layer of soot on the surfaces which insulate the heat to enter the water.
To remove this soot, the scraper is attached to each vertical pipe which continuously moves up and down by
means of a chain pulley system. By scraping the soot fall down to the soot chamberplaced at the bottom of
the economizer. Then we collect the soot from the soot chamber. This ishow a boiler economizer works.
This is a very simple form of boiler economizer.
WHAT IS FEED WATER HEATER?
The main objective of feed water heater is to heat feed water with the help of steam extracted or bled from
the various intermediate stages of the turbine. This heating arrangement of feed water is called regenerative
feed water heating and the heater known as regenerative feedwaterheater. Regenerative feed water heater
improves thermal efficiency. It protects the condenser by removing air which leaks the condenser. It is
necessary to prevent corrosion into the boiler. Inthis page, we are going to discuss the different types of
feed water heater and their heating arrangements.
Types of feed water heater
Feed water heater is two types. These are:
(a) Open feed water heater
(b) Closed feed waterheater
Close feed water heater:
This type of heater is anindirect heater because the steam and water are separated by tubes andthe water is
heated by conduction. The closed feedwater heater contains two important parts: tubes and shell. Feedwater
flow through the tubes and shell-side of the feedwater heater contains hot steam, generally use steam from
exhaust turbine or waste heat generated in the steam boiler plant to improve overall plant efficiency. The
feedwater is heated as a result of heattransfer from steam to feedwater.
The close type of heater can heat water with higher temperature than close type. The close feedwater heater
is located before the steam boiler feed pump with has low pressure and a high pressure feedwater heater is
located at the downstream side of the steam boiler feed pump
Open feed water heater:
This type of heater is a direct contact heater as the water is mixed directly with steam. The openfeedwater
heater is located at the suction side above steam boiler feedwater pump. This is necessary so that the
feedwater pump can be supplied with a head pressure to permit higher feedwater temperature.
Temperature Profiles:
Figure 1 depicts the temperature profiles for a high-pressure feedwater heater which receives superheated steam
extracted from a high-pressure turbine.
If sufficient superheat is available, it is possible to make use of the large temperature differenceby specifying
a separate section within the heater in which desuperheating occurs with a dry wall.This gives a higher heat
flux than if condensation occurs, and also allows the possibility of raisingthe feedwater outlet temperature
above that of the steam saturation temperature. The steam condenses almost isothermally, and the
condensate is sub cooled below the saturation temperature.
In the sub cooling zone heater surface is assigned to extract heat from the condensate (drains) from the
condensing zone. A heater may have neither a desuperheating zone nor a drain coolingzone.
Feedwater Heater Geometries:
Figure 2 shows, in schematic form, the general arrangement of a three-zone heater. The shell contains a
bundle of tubes (normally U-tubes). Two tube passes are almost always used. The feedwater inlet and outlet
nozzles are connected to a channel onone side of the tube plate.
In the condensing zone, the tubes are supported by plates or grids of rods. The
superheating anddrain-cooling zones are contained within the shell by a shroud or wrapper, and are usually
well baffled to both support the tubes and promote a satisfactorily high shellside heat transfer
coefficient. Sometimes other types of a baffle support, based on some form of grid or array of rods, are used
to minimize the risk of tube vibration.
WHAT IS AIR PREHEATER?
A very basic word to word meaning is a device used to heat the air before further use is called asAir Preheater.
They are also recognized as air heaters or air-heating pipe. It is designed to exchange heat energy with
desuperheaters. Desuperheater is a Device which is been used to reduce the temperature of the steam in a
high heat generation plants where large amount of heat energy or steam is released in the atmosphere.
36 | P a g e
Working of Air Preheater
Mode of operation of the air preheater is in counter flow, co-current flow, co-current flow- countercurrent
or cross-countercurrent or cross-co-current flow. The design of the device is depend on the media and the
temperature conditions of the application. For small construction,finned tubes are suited to arrange in a
small space much heating surface. Is in the exhaust gas orin the air containing dust or other particles, so
that deposits are expected, preferably smooth tubes are used, which are less prone to deposits and will be
clean easier.
In most of the applications, an Air preheater is performed in several stages that mean, it consistsof several
individual heat exchangers connected in series on the air side. They are heating the airpassing through it by
means of wasted heat energy hence air preheaters are used in various areassuch as boilers, industrial furnace
units and in hot- air ventilation systems. Design of an Air preheater is depend on the application.
Types of Air Preheater

There are two basic types of Air preheater
(a) Recuperative or tubulartype

(b) Regenerative or feed water type
Recuperative or Tubular Type:
Recuperative type of air preheaters is preferably used in small and medium size boilers. In this type heat
energy exchange is carried out through the walls of heating surface that separate the heat energy carrier and
air to be heated.
Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater tube and at other endthe heated air
from inside the tubes emerges into another set of ducting Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles
which pass through the outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting. The hot
furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes inside the ducting which transfers that carries it to the furnace
of a boiler forcombustion.
Regenerative or Feed Water Type:

In feed water air preheaters exchange of heat energy takes place through alternate heating andcooling of
metallic or ceramic nozzles of the fixed or rotating heating surfaces. Regenerative air preheaters are compact
and can have stationary rotating hood.
Combine Use of Recuperative and Regenerative Type
The applications of very high capacity boilers uses combination of tubular and regenerative typeof air
preheater. For such applications primary air heating is performed by tubular type and secondary air heating is
carried out using regenerative
type. If in case the designers of boiler don’t want to use the combination of recuperative and regenerative type of
Air preheater, thenthey can go for tri-sector regenerative air heater.
Advantages of Air Preheater:

For heating the air it uses heat energy of flue gases hence there are many more advantages of Air preheaters
over the normal preheaters such as
 Increases thermal efficiency of the system
 Payback period is very short and increase combustion rate
 Improve and strengthen thecombustion
 Reducesthelossoffurnace andtheexhaustgastemperature,improve theboiler thermalefficiency.
 Air preheater is suitable for all standard fuels
 They are easy for retrofit into existing systems
 These air preheaters are suitable for all waste heat boiler / flue gas boiler / boiler types.
 They strengthen the heattransfer
Applications of Air Preheater:

There are various kind of applications from household devices to industrial purpose where we find air
preheaters
 In refrigeration economizer system Ovens used in home appliances and industrial uses
 The dryer applications are heavy energy consumers in the food and non-food industry.Air
preheater transfers hot exhaust stream to the cold air inlet stream.
 In Indirect fired air heater applications.

EXPERIMENT NO -1
Objective
Visit to Mini Steam Turbine Power Plant (Model PC-TMS-400A)
Steam turbine power plant

The diagram of the specified steam power plant is given below:
Fig.1. 1. Steam turbine power plant running on kerosene oil
Basic Process
The thermodynamic cycle for the steam turbine is known as the Rankine cycle. This cycle is the basis for
conventional power generating stations and consists of a heat source (boiler) thatconverts water to high
pressure steam. In the steam cycle, water is first pumped to elevated pressure, which is medium to high
pressure, depending on the size of the unit and the temperature to which the steam is eventually heated. It is
then heated to the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure, boiled (heated from liquid to vapor),
and then most frequently superheated (heated to a temperature above that of boiling). The pressurized steam
is expanded to lower pressure in a turbine, then exhausted either to a condenser at vacuum conditions, or into
an intermediate temperature steam distribution system that delivers the steam to the industrial or
commercial application. The condensate from the condenser or from the industrial steam utilization system is
returned to the feedwater pump for continuation of the cycle.
The simple Rankine cycle is shown below:

Fig.1. 2. T-s diagram of simple Rankine cycle
Types of steam turbine power plants based on efficiency improvements

Following modifications are done to steam turbine power plant for improving thermal efficiency of thecycle:
1. Super heating the dry saturated steam
2. Reheating of the steam
3. Regeneration with open and closed feedwaterheater
Steam cycle with super heating

In this cycle, the dry saturated steam at the boiler outlet is heated in a super heater sothat it becomes
extremely hot and becomes super-heated vapor. This increases the vapor quality at turbine outlet as well as
thermal efficiency of the cycle. But it needs extra fuel input.
 Steam at turbine inlet is super-heated
 Steam at turbine outlet is wet with high dryness fraction

Fig.1. 3. Effect of heating the steam to a higher temperature at the turbine inletIts schematic is shown below:
Fig.1. 4. Schematic diagram of a superheater
Reheating cycle
In this cycle, the steam is expanded in high pressure turbine at intermediate pressure and thenthis steam goes
into the reheater present inside the boiler which increases the temperature of the steam at constant pressure.
This steam goes into the low-pressure turbine to produce moreoutput work.
It increases the thermal efficiency of cycle but more heat input is required and the powerplant becomes more
complex.
 Steam at turbine outlet is wet with high dryness fraction
Fig.1. 5. Rankine cycle with reheating of the steamIts schematic plant layout
Fig.1. 6. Schematic diagram of the steam power plant with a reheater
Regenerative cycle
In this cycle, the steam passing through steam turbine is bleeded at an intermediate stage andit passes
through the feedwater heater to heat the feed water coming from condenser.
In open feed water heater, the steam and feedwater directly mix while in closed feedwaterheater there is no
direct contact.
This modification increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle, but plant becomes more complex and difficult to
maintain.
 Steam at turbine outlet is wet with dryness fraction less than in reheat cycle Cycle with open
feedwater heater and its schematic is shown below:

Fig.1. 7. Schematic of steam power plant with regeneration using open feedwater heater andits T-s cycle
Cycle with closed feedwater heater and its schematic is shown below:
Fig.1.8. Schematic diagram of steam power plant with regeneration using closed feedwaterheater and its T-s cycle
Components
A schematic representation of a steam turbine power plant is shown below:
Fig.1. 9. Components of a steam turbine power plant
In the simple schematic shown, a fuel boiler produces steam which is expanded in the steam turbine to produce
power. When the system is designed for power generation only, such as ina large utility power system, the
steam is exhausted from the turbine at the lowest practical pressure, using a water-cooled condenser to extract
the maximum amount of energy from thesteam.
EXPERIMENT NO -2
Objective
To determine the thermal efficiency (ηth) of a steam boiler and measure theevaporating rate
Apparatus
Boiler (Steam generating device)
Theory
Boiler
It is the component in which water is converted to steam by combusting the fuel. The phase change process
occurs in the evaporator part of the boiler at constant elevated pressure so thatmore heat can be added to the
water. Inside a boiler, there may be an economizer which preheats the water by waste flue gases. The
superheater present in the boiler heats up the dry saturated steam. There are various types of fuels for running
boiler, but coal is used commonly.
Types of fuel used in boiler
Fuel oil boiler
It runs on the fuel oil like diesel and residual fuel. They are very diverse. They are used forboth industrial and
residentialpurposes.
Propane boiler
This runs on the propane gas which is a byproduct of natural gas.
Natural gas boiler
This boiler uses natural gas to produce steam. These are mostly used for domestic purposes.
Electric boiler
These boilers use electric heater for steam production. These are very efficient and there is nowaste gas.
Biofuel boiler
This boiler uses wood and other biofuels for steam production. These are least expensive butmostly used for
domestic purposes.
Nuclear boiler
These boilers use nuclear fuel like Uranium or Plutonium for carrying out nuclear fissionreaction and the heat
released causes the water to boil.
There are some health hazards due to radiation emission and nuclear waste needs to be disposed off properly
to save the environment.
Coal boiler
This is the most commonly used boiler for power plants because of availability of coal andcheap price. But it
affects environment by the carbon emissions.
Boilers running on renewable energy
Renewable energy like solar and wind are used for steam generation and there is no effect onenvironment
since there are no emissions and this energy is renewable and abundantly available.
Type of boilers
There are various bases upon which boilers are classified, which are given below:
According to Relative Passage of water and

hot gases
Water Tube Boiler: A boiler in which the water flows
through some small tubeswhich aresurroundedbyhot
combustiongases,e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling,
Benson boilers, etc.
Fig.2. 1. Schematic of a water tube boiler
Fire-tube Boiler: The hot combustion gases pass

through the boiler tubes, whichare surrounded by
water, e.g., Lancashire,Cochran,locomotiveboilers,
etc.
Fig.2. 2. Schematic of a fire tube boiler

Accordingto Water Circulation Arrangement
Natural Circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density difference ofhot and water, e.g., Babcock and
Wilcox boilers, Lancashire boilers, Cochran, locomotive boilers, etc.
Forced Circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path, therefore, thesteam generation rate increases,
Eg: Benson, La Mont, Velox boilers, etc. Following figure explains these types:
Fig.2. 3. Forced water circulation vs natural water circulation in a boiler
According to the Use

Stationary Boiler: These boilers are used for power plants or to process steamin plants. Following figure depicts
it:
Fig.2. 4. A stationary boiler
Portable Boiler: These are small units of mobile and are used for temporaryuses at the sites. Following figure
depictsit:
Fig.2. 5. A portable boiler
Locomotive: These are specially designed boilers. They produce steam to driverailway engines. Following figure
depictsit:
Fig.2. 6. Use of the boiler in locomotive
Marine Boiler: These are used on ships.Following figure depicts this type:
Fig.2. 7. Schematic diagram of the boilers under operation in a ship
According to Position of the Boilers
Horizontal
Fig.2. 8. A boiler in horizontal position
Inclined
Fig.2. 9. A boiler with inclined

water tubes
Vertical boilers
Fig.2. 10. A boiler with vertical fire tubes
According to the Position of Furnace
Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell, e.g., Cochran,Lancashire boilers, etc.
Following figure depicts this:
Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell, e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling boilers, etc.
Fig.2. 11. Schematic of internally fired boiler on left side vs externally fired boiler on
rightside
According to Pressure of steam generated

Low-pressure boiler: a boiler which produces steam at a pressure of 15-20 baris called a low-pressure boiler.
This steam is used for process heating.
Medium-pressure boiler: It has a working pressure of steam from 20 bars to 80bars andisusedforpower
generationorcombineduseofpowergenerationandprocess heating.
High-pressure boiler: It produces steam at a pressure of more than 80 bars.
Sub-critical boiler: If a boiler produces steam at a pressure which is less thanthe critical pressure, it is called
as a subcritical boiler.
Supercritical boiler: These boilers provide steam at a pressure greater than thecritical pressure. These
boilers do not have an evaporator and the water directlyflashes into steam, and thus they are called once
through boilers.
Difference in Rankine cycle of super and subcritical boiler is shown below:
Fig.2. 12. T-s diagram of supercritical and subcritical Rankine cycle

According to charge in the furnace
Pulverized fuel (powdered coal is used)It is shown in Fig.2. 13.
Fig.2. 13. Boiler running on pulverizedcoal
Supercharged fuel (compressed air is used)It is shown below:

Fig.2. 14. Steam cycle with supercharged boiler
Fluidized bed combustion boilers (air is passed through the fluidized bed of fuel)It is shown below:
Fig.2. 15. Boiler using fluidized bed of coal and limestone for steam production
Specification
Maximum Pressure 10 kg/cm2
Equivalent evaporative 150kg/h

quantity
Heat transmission area 3.06 m2
Rated heat out put 80,850 kcal/h
Potential water quantity 54 L
Fuel consumption 10.8 L/h (keroseneoil)
Fuel tank 90 L
Pressure gauge 15
kg/cm2
Procedure
Boiler Starting up
Open water Supply valve. Turn main power ON. Open air purging valve. Opendrain valve. After total
blow-off, close drain valve and air purging valve. Openfuel valve and press feed water switch. Press
combustion switch.
Steam pressure goes up and when it gets set value, combustion stops automatically. Open main steam valve
gradually. Note feed water inlet temperature from panel and note pressure of generated steam from the outlet
pressure gauge. Note the volume of feed water fed to the boiler and fuel consumedin specific time interval,
from integral flow meters on control panel, to determine their volume flow rates.
Specimen Calculation
Thermal efficiency of the boiler is given by
ηth = ms(h1-h6)/mf x C.V where ms =
mass flow rate of steam generated =ρw Vw / t
mf = mass flow rate of fuel consumed = ρf Vf / t C V = 42700(kj/kg)
ρf = 820kg/m3
ηth = 0.0134(2682.85 – 89.8)/0.0011 x42700
ηth = 74.1%
Observations
Table 1 Prerecorded values at 0.5MPa for 2 to 8 heaters
p1 Tw1 X
No of Obs. (MPa) (ºC) (Dryness
fraction)
1 0.842 21.4 0.964
2 0.811 15.4 0.975
3 0.841 12.4 0.979
4 0.836 11.3 0.972
Table Prerecorded values
ṁs ṁf h1 h6 ηt
(kg/s) (kg/s) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%)
0.01350 0.00110 2702.04 89.7780 75.081

0.01600 0.00140 2722.86 64.6590 71.146
0.01950 0.00170 2732.34 52.0871 72.000
0.02260 0.00190 2717.95 47.4745 74.390
Table 2 Experimental values at 0.5MPa for 2-6 heaters
p1 Tw1 X
fraction)
1 0.600 21.1 0.96083
2 0.610 20.9 0.95155
3 0.590 20.8 0.97516
Table Experimental values at 0.5MPa for 2-6 heaters
ṁs ṁf h1 h6 ηt
0.02314 0.00184 2675.06 88.5450 76.277

0.02000 0.00209 2655.53 87.7070 57.564
0.01783 0.00213 2704.14 87.2890 51.310
Table 3 Experimental values at 0.3MPa for 2-6 heaters
p1 Tw1 X
fraction)
1 0.390 19.8 0.97679
2 0.400 19.9 0.98265
3 0.390 20.1 0.98578
Table Experimental values at 0.3MPa for 2-6 heaters
ṁs ṁf h1 h6 ηt
0.01656 0.00202 2687.77 83.0100 50.116

0.01793 0.00238 2701.51 83.5200 46.125
0.02922 0.00221 2706.96 84.3586 81.354
Table 4 Experimental values at 0.2MPa for 1 to 3 heaters
p1 Tw1 X
fraction)
1 0.310 21.7 0.98149
2 0.310 21.5 0.96864
3 0.310 21.4 0.98872
Table Experimental values at 0.2MPa for 1 to 3 heaters
ṁs ṁf h1 h6 ηt
0.00982 0.00194 2687.18 91.0560 30.774

0.02654 0.00198 2659.41 90.2190 80.575
0.01946 0.00225 2702.80 89.8000 53.039
Graphs:
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler vs. Water Inlet Temperature of Boiler at 0.5MPa for 2 to 8 heaters
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler vs. Water

Inlet
76
Temperature of Boiler
75
74
Efficienc
73
72
71
y
70
69
21. 15. 12. 11.
4 4 4 3
Temperatur
e
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler vs. Water Inlet Temperature of Boiler at 0.5MPa
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler vs. Water

Inlet
90
Temperature of Boiler
80
70
60
Efficienc
50
40
30
y
20
10
0
21. 20.9 20.
1 8
Temperatur
e
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler vs. Water Inlet Temperature of Boiler at 0.3MPa for 2-6 heaters
EXPERIMENT NO – 3
Objective
To determine the Dryness Fraction of steam (x) with the help of Throttlingcalorimeter.
Efficienc
Apparatus
y
Steam generating deviceThrottlingcalorimeter.
Theory
Dryness fraction/ quality of steam
 It is the ratio of vapor mass to total (vapor and water liquid) mass of steam
 Dry saturated steam has no liquid content i.e., nowetness
 Wet steam has some vapor as well as liquid water content
Throttling process & throttling calorimeter
Throttling process
The temperature change of a gas or liquid when it is forced through a valve or porous plugwhile kept insulated so
that no heat is exchanged with the environment. This procedure is called a Throttling process.
In this process here is no change in enthalpy from state one to state two, h1 = h2; no work isdone, W = 0; and the
process is adiabatic, Q = 0.
We can observe that: Pin > Pout, velin < velout (where P = pressure and vel = velocity). These observations confirm
the theory that hin = hout. In this process, steam becomes drier and nearly saturated steam becomes,
superheated.
Throttling calorimeter
It consists a narrow throat (Orifice). Pressure and temperature are measured by pressure gauge and
thermometer. The steam after throttling process passes through the heat exchangerand condensate is
collected.
Fig.3. 1. Schematic of a throttling calorimeter
It is a vessel with a needle valve fitted on the inlet side. The steam is throttled through theneedle valve and
exhausted to the condenser.
The throttling process on Mollier chart and T-s diagram is shown below:
Fig.3. 2. Throttling process on t-s and h-s chart
Specifications
Pressure gauge 10kg/cm2, 2kg/cm2
Throttle type Needle Valve type
Procedure
Open needle valve to induce steam to the throttling calorimeter. Then reduce the pressure after expansion by
means of needle valve and valve down to designated pressure.‘Designated pressure’ means the value where
the steam becomes superheated steam in combination with the temperature after the throttle. After the
temperature becomes steady,note the pressure before and after the throttle on the respective pressure gauge
and note thetemperature of outlet superheated steam.
Dryness fraction = mg/mg +mf For
throttling h1 = h2
h1 = hf1 + x hfg1
h2 = h ( at p2 , T2 ) from superheated steam tablex = (h2-hf1)/hfg1
= (2682.85– 730.213) / 2025.71
x = 0.964
Observations
Table 1 Pre-Recorded
p1 p2 T2 h1 = h2 X
No. of Obs.
(MPa) (MPa) (ºC) (kJ/kg)
1 0.597 0.117 104.5 2667.21 0.9538
2 0.597 0.117 105.5 2669.77 0.9550
3 0.593 0.122 108.0 2675.13 0.9578
Table 2 Experimental operating pressure of 0.5 MPa
p1 p2 T2 (ºC) h1 = h2 X
No. of Obs.
(MPa) (MPa) (kJ/kg)
1 0.570 0.225 124.2 2672.52 0.9608
2 0.600 0.175 114.5 2655.73 0.9516
3 0.620 0.125 105.4 2706.47 0.9752
p1 p2 T2 (ºC) h1 = h2 X
No. of Obs.
(MPa) (MPa) (kJ/kg)
1 0.400 0.125 114.0 2689.02 0.9768
2 0.400 0.175 122.2 2701.51 0.9826
3 0.300 0.225 124.7 2694.52 0.9858
p1 p2 T2 (ºC) h1 = h2 X
No. of Obs.
(MPa) (MPa) (kJ/kg)
1 0.270 0.225 117.0 2680.17 0.9815
2 0.290 0.175 105.4 2655.73 0.9686
3 0.300 0.125 119.2 2700.89 0.9887
Graphs:
Dryness Fraction vs. Calorimeter Inlet Pressure
Dryness Fraction vs. Calorimeter Inlet

Pressure
0.959
0.958
Dryness Fraction
0.957
0.956
0.955
0.954
X
0.953
0.952
0.951 0.59 0.597 0.59
7 3
Pressur
e
Dryness Fraction vs. Calorimeter Inlet Pressure at 0.5MPa
Dryness Fraction vs. Calorimeter Inlet

Pressure
0.98
0.975
0.97
0.965
Dryness Fraction
0.96
0.955
0.95
0.945
0.94
X
0.935 0.5 0.6 0.6

7 2
Pressur
e
EXPERIMENT NO - 4
Objective
To determine the efficiency of superheater and evaluate its performance
Apparatus
Steam Super Heater
Theory
Superheater
A superheater is present inside boiler. When the steam leaves the evaporator then it passesthrough the
superheater tubes which further heats up the saturated steam to increase its temperature at constant pressure.
The general working principle of superheater is that heat generated by fuel which changesphase of
feedwater also increases the temperature of the saturated steam or there may be additional supply of fuel
for superheater as shown:
Fig.4. 1. Schematic diagram of a superheater present inside boiler

Fig.4. 2. Schematic diagram of a superheater with separate fuel supply
Control methods of superheater

For temperature control of superheated steam, we have following methods:
Excess Air Control

The steam outlet temperature of a convection superheater may be increased at partial load byincreasing the
excess air supply. The reduced gas temperature decreases the furnace heat absorption for the same steam
production. The increased gas mass flow with its increased total heat content serves to increase the degree of
superheat.
Fig.4. 3. Excess air control in a superheater
Flue Gas Recirculation

The recirculation of some percentage of the combustion gases serves to control steam temperature in the
same manner as does an increase in excess air. By introducing the hotgases below the combustion zone,
relatively high efficiency may be maintained.
Fig.4. 4. Flue gas recirculation in a superheater
Gas By-pass Control

The boiler convection banks can be arranged in such a manner that portion of the gases canbe by-passed
around the superheater elements. The superheater is oversized so that it will produce the required degree of
superheat at partial load conditions. As the load increases, some of the flue gases are by-passed.
Fig.4. 5. Gas by-pass control in a superheater
Adjustable Burner Control

With a multiple burner furnace, it is possible to distribute the burners over a considerableburner wall height. This
control is obtained by selective firing.
Tilt able furnace may be adjusted to shift the position of the combustion zone.
Fig.4. 6. Adjustableburnercontrolinasuperheater
Specifications
Inlet Pressure & Temperature 5kg/cm2 ,
Saturated Steam 158 ºCOutlet 250ºC

Temperature
Fuel Kerosene Oil
Pressure gauge 15kg/cm2
Procedure
Close respective valves of super heater and wait for steam generation from steam. Induce steam which goes up
to designated pressure by opening valve of super heater inlet. Open drain valve of super heater. After drained
thoroughly and steam comes out, close drain valve. Turn power switch ON. Burner starts function and steam is
super heated. Note the readings of pressure and temperature before and after the superheater. note the
reading of the volume of the fuel consumed in superheater by the integral flow meter on the panel.
Calculations
ηth = ms (h3-h2) / mf x CV
= 43.8(2818.7 – 2758) / 0.44 x 42700
= 14.1%
Observations
Table 1: Pre-Recorded Readings
No.
p2
of p1 T2 ṁs T3 ṁf h2 h3 ηth
(MPa x
Obs MPa (ºC) (kg/s) (ºC) (kg/s) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%)
)
.
0.58 159. 0.0121 184. 0.0001 0.963 2812.2 29.62
1 0.562 2685.18
2 3 7 5 2 0 5 4
0.58 159. 0.0156 187. 0.0001 0.975 2819.3 28.83
2 0.542 2710.01
2 9 4 6 4 0 5 3
0.57 159. 0.0223 190. 0.0001 0.979 2827.8
3 0.552 2717.95 32.79
7 6 1 8 8 0 0
0.58 159. 0.0187 189. 0.0001 0.972 2703.81 2822.3 30.76
4 0.552
2 7 8 4 7 0 0 4 2
Table 2: Readings at 0.5MPa
No.
p1 p2 T2 ṁs T3 ṁf h2 h3 ηth
of x
MPa (MPa) (ºC) (kg/s) (ºC) (kg/s) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%)
Obs.
1 0.610 0.570 167 0.04217 183 0.00050 0.9608 2675.18 2817.73 28.143
2 0.610 0.570 170 0.02000 187 0.00048 0.9516 2656.01 2823.65 16.481
3 0.600 0.560 168 0.01787 185 0.00052 0.9752 2704.42 2819.81 9.327
No.
p1 p2 T2 ṁs T3 ṁf h2 h3 ηth
of x
(kg/s) (kg/s) (%)
Obs. MPa (MPa) (ºC) (ºC) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
1 0.400 0.380 169 0.01656 190 0.00060 0.9768 2688.56 2841.02 9.918
2 0.400 0.365 168 0.01793 185 0.00053 0.9826 2700.93 2831.32 10.350
3 0.390 0.360 168 0.02922 185 0.00051 0.9858 2706.58 283.61 16.773
No.
p2 T2 T3
of p1 ṁs ṁf h2 h3 ηth
(MPa (ºC (ºC x
Obs MPa (kg/s) (kg/s) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%)
) ) )
.
1 0.315 0.300 172 0.0098 183 0.00062 0.9815 2687.2 2830.85 5.355
2
2 0.310 0.290 172 0.02654 187 0.0006 0.968 2658.57 2839.70 18.80
0 6 8
3 0.29 0.280 166 0.01946 184 0.00058 0.9887 2698.8 2834.0 10.629
0 5 6
Graphs:
Super-Heater Efficiency vs Mass Flow Rate of Steam
Super-Heater Efficiency vs Mass Flow

Rate of
35
Steam
30
25
Efficienc
20
15
y
10
5
0
0.0121 0.0156 0.0223 0.0187
7 4 1 8
ṁ
s
Super-Heater Efficiency vs Mass Flow Rate of Steam at 0.5MPa
Rate of
30
Steam
25
20
Efficienc
15
10
y
0.0421 0.0 0.0178

7 2 7
ṁs

Rate of
18
Steam
16
14
12
Efficienc
10
8
6
y
4
2
0
0.0165 0.0179 0.0292
6 3 2
ṁs
EXPERIMENT NO – 5
Objective
To determine the thermal efficiency of a steam turbine and evaluate its performance
Apparatus
Steam turbine.
Theory
Steam turbine
In the steam turbine, the steam is expanded to a lower pressure providing shaft power to drivea generator or
run a mechanical process.
There are two basic types of steam turbine according to blade design:
1. Impulse turbine
In this type, steam at high velocity hits the turbine blades and rotates the turbine
2. Reaction turbine
In this type, steam passes through the blades which are designedlike air foil and there is pressure difference
between 2 sides of the blade and this causes theshaft to rotate.
Their detail is given below:
 The difference between these two designs is shown in following figure:
Fig.5. 1. Impulse turbine on left side vs reaction turbine on right side

 In Impulse turbines, the steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped
rotor blades where the pressure exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocityof the
steam to reduce as it imparts its kinetic energy to the blades.
The next series of fixed blades reverses the direction of the steam before it passes to the second row of
moving blades.
 In Reaction turbines, the rotor blades of the reaction turbine are shaped more likeairfoils, arranged
such that the cross section of the chambers formed between the fixed blades diminishes from the inlet
side towards the exhaust side of the blades. Thechambers between the rotor blades essentially form
nozzles so that as the steam progresses through the chambers its velocity increases while at the same
time its pressure decreases, just as in the nozzles formed by the fixed blades.
 The stationary nozzles accelerate the steam to high velocity by expanding it to lowerpressure. A
rotating bladed disc changes the direction of the steam flow, thereby creating a force on the blades
that, because of the wheeled geometry, manifests itselfas torque on the shaft on which the bladed
wheel is mounted. The combination of torque and speed is the output power of the turbine. A
reduction gear may be utilizedto reduce the speed of the turbine to the required output speed for
thegenerator.
 The internal flow passages of a steam turbine are very similar to those of the expansion section
of a gas turbine. The main differences are gas density, molecularweight, isentropic expansion
coefficient, and to a lesser extent, the viscosity of the twofluids.
 Compared to reciprocating steam engines of comparable size, steam turbines rotate at much
higher rotational speeds, which contribute to their lower cost per unit of powerdeveloped. In
addition, the inlet and exhaust valves in reciprocating steam engines cause steam pressure losses that
don’t contribute to power output. Such losses do not occur in steam turbines. Because of these design
differences, steam turbines are more efficient than reciprocating steam engines operating from the
steam at the same inlet conditions and exhausting into the same steam exhaust systems.
Condensing turbine
This power-only utility turbine exhaust directly to condensers that maintain vacuum conditions at the discharge of
the turbine. An array of tubes, cooled by water from a river, lake or cooling tower, condenses the steam into (liquid)
water. The vacuum conditions in thecondenser are caused by the near ambient cooling water causing
condensation of the steam turbine exhaust steam in the condenser.
Fig.5. 2. Schematic of a condensing turbine
Non-Condensing turbine
A non-condensing turbine (also referred to as a back-pressure turbine) exhausts some or allits steam flow to the
industrial process or facility steam mains at conditions close to the process heat requirements, as shown below:
Fig.5. 3. Schematic of a non-condensing turbine
Extraction turbine
An extraction turbine has one or more openings in its casing for extraction of a portion of thesteam at some
intermediate pressure. The extracted steam may be used for process purposes,or for feedwater heating, as
is the case in most utility power plants. The rest of the steam canbe expanded to below atmospheric pressure toa
condenser, or delivered to a low-pressure steam application as illustrated below:
Fig.5. 4. Schematic of an extraction turbine
Material of turbineblades
A major problem involved in turbine design is reducing the creep experienced by the blades(the tendency of a
material to deform under the influence of stresses with time). Because of the high temperatures and high
stresses of operation, steam turbine materials become damaged in course of time. To limit creep, thermal
coatings and superalloys with grain boundary strengthening are used in blade designs.
Protective coatings are used to reduce the thermal damage and to limit oxidation. These coatings are often
stabilized zirconium dioxide-based ceramics. Using a thermal protectivecoating limits the temperature
exposure of the nickel superalloy. This reduces the creep onthe blades. Oxidation coatings limit efficiency losses
caused by a buildup on the outside ofthe blades, which is especially important in the high-temperature
environment.
The nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum and titanium to improve strength andcreep resistance. The
microstructure of these alloys is composed of different regions of composition.
Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added to the alloy to improvecreep strength. The
addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the fatigue
resistance, strength, and creep resistance.
Different grades of stainless steel are also used in steam turbines when the temperature ofsteam is limited to
620°C.
Procedure
Start boiler and set steam pressure to the turbine by means of reducing valves. The
designed steam condition of turbine is approximately 5kg /cm 2 G (read value on a pressure gauge) 200 ºC of
superheated steam. Turbine out put can be obtained by varying the generatorsloadresistance. But,atthattime,
donotsetsteampressurehigher than 8kg/cm2. And steam flow must not be more than 120kg/hr. Note the readings
of the turbine inlet pressure and temperature, turbine outlet pressure and temperature, voltage and current
of the generator
ηt = V I/ ηg ms(hin - hout)
= 0.107 / 0.517 x 0.1216(2739.4 – 2711)
= 59.6%
Observations
Table 1: Pre-Recorded
No pin Tin hin Pout Tout hout ṁs VI ηg ηt

of (MPa) (ºC) (kJ/kg) (bar) (ºC) (kJ/kg) (kg/h) (kW) (%) (%)
Obs.
1 0.196 135.8 2730.28 0.102 117.2 2699.25 0.01217 0.107 51.7 54.820
2 0.254 154.9 2767.41 0.102 120.2 2705.83 0.01564 0.213 67.3 32.864
3 0.313 165.6 2786.48 0.103 127.5 2721.49 0.02231 0.313 76.0 28.410
4 0.373 169.8 2791.54 0.104 133.1 2733.31 0.01878 0.404 77.7 47.552
Table 2: Experimental operating pressure of 0.5 MPa

Obs.
1 0.290 134.0 2726.99 0.110 106.0 2676.88 0.04217 0.220 50.0 20.824
2 0.330 126.0 - 0.110 114.0 2703.34 0.02000 0.253 60.0 17.000
3 0.320 131.0 - 0.110 103.0 2680.65 0.01783 0.285 70.0 15.000
Obs.
1 0.200 127.0 2720.87 0.110 103.0 2680.65 0.01656 0.158 50.0 47.448
2 0.270 144.0 2750.76 0.110 103.0 2680.65 0.01793 0.253 60.0 33.550
3 150.0 2712.08 - 100.0 2667.86 0.02922 0.297 70.0 32.840
0.300

Obs.
1 0.170 145.0 2761.15 0.110 112.0 2699.24 0.00990 0.096 45.0 34.807
2 0.200 148.0 2764.95 0.110 113.0 2701.29 0.00982 0.168 50.0 53.770
3 0.270 147.0 2757.19 0.110 112.0 2699.24 0.02654 0.207 55.0 24.470
4 0.280 155.0 2773.45 0.110 115.0 2705.38 0.01946 0.269 60.0 33.846
Graphs:
Efficiency vs Inlet Pressure
Efficiency vs Inlet
60 Pressure
50
40
Efficienc
30
20
y
10
0
0.19 0.25 0.31 0.37
6 4 3 3
Pressur
e
Efficienc
Efficiency vs Inlet Pressure at 0.5MPa

y
Efficiency vs Inlet
25
Pressure
20
Efficienc
15
10
y
5
0
0.2 0.33 0.3
9 2
Pressur
e
Efficiency vs Inlet
50 Pressure
40
Efficienc
30
20
10
y
0
0. 0.27 0.
2 3
Pressur
e
Efficiency vs Inlet
60 Pressure
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1 0. 0.2 0.2
7 2 7 8
Pressur
e
EXPERIMENT NO - 6
Objective
To determine the Condenser heat exchange rate and evaluate its performance
Apparatus
Condenser heat exchanger
Theory
Condenser
It is a heat exchanger that removes heat from the steam at the turbine outlet and changes thesteam to
saturated water.
Following are the purposes of using condenser:
1. To keep the low back pressure at turbine outlet so as to rise turbine work output
2. To reduce the volume of expanded steam at turbine outlet
Types of condenser and their construction

There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power plant:
1. Direct Contact
2. Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with coolingwater.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power plants. The exhaust
steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the condenser, while the plant’s circulating
water flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower,
spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine,
called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hotwell. The condensate is
then pumped back to the steam generator to repeat the cycle.
Fig.6. 1. Shell and tube heat exchanger
A jet condenser which is a direct contact condenser is shown below:
Fig.6. 2. Schematic of a jetcondenser
Condenser components and their functions
Shell
The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes. The shellis fabricated from
carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to provide rigidity for the shell. When required by the selected
design, intermediate plates are installed to serve as baffle plates that provide the desired flow path of the
condensing steam. The plates also provide support that help prevent sagging of long tube lengths.
For most water-cooled surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during normal operatingconditions.
Hotwell
At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In some designs, a sump (often
referred to as the hotwell) is provided. Condensate is pumped from theoutlet or the hotwell for reuse as boiler
feedwater.
Vaccum system
For a steam ejector, the motive fluid is steam.
For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most commonly supplied by and
maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to
remove any non-condensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The Venturieffect, which is a
particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation of steam jet ejectors.Motor driven mechanical
vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also popular for this service.
Fig.6. 3. Schematic of a typical jet ejector
Tube sheets
At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless steel is provided, with holes for the
tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet end of each tube is also bell mouthed for streamlined entry of water. This
is to avoid eddies at the inlet of each tube giving rise to erosion, and to reduce flow friction. Some makers also
recommend plastic inserts at the entry of tubes to avoid eddies eroding the inlet end. In smaller units some
manufacturers use ferrules to seal the tube ends instead of rolling.
To take care of length wiseexpansion of tubes some designs have expansion joint between the shell and the
tube sheet allowing the latter to move longitudinally. In smaller units some sag is given to the tubes to take care
of tube expansion with both end water boxes fixed rigidly to the shell.
Tubes
Generally, the tubes are made of stainless steel, copper alloys such as brass or bronze, cupro nickel, or titanium
depending on several selection criteria. The use of copper bearing alloys such as brass or cupro nickel is rare
in new plants, due to environmental concerns of toxic copper alloys. Also depending on the steam cycle water
treatment for the boiler, it may be desirable to avoid tube materials containing copper. Titanium
condenser tubes are usually thebest technical choice; however, the use of titanium condenser tubes has
been virtually eliminated by the sharp increases in the costs for this material. The tube lengths range to about 17
m for modern power plants, depending on the size of the condenser. The size chosenis based on
transportability from the manufacturers‟ site and ease of erection at the installation site.
Waterboxes
The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the condenser is closed by a fabricated box
cover known as a waterbox, with flanged connection to the tube sheet or condensershell. The waterbox is
usually provided with man holes on hinged covers to allow inspection and cleaning.
These waterboxes on inlet side will also have flanged connections for cooling water inlet butterfly valves, small
vent pipe with hand valve for air venting at higher level, and hand operated drain valveat bottom to drain the
waterbox for maintenance. Similarly, on the outlet waterbox the cooling waterconnection will have large
flanges, butterfly valves, vent connection also at higher level and drain connections at lower level.
Similarly, thermometer pockets are located at inlet and outlet pipes for local measurements of cooling water
temperature.
Specification
Type Shell and tube type
Exchange heat quantity 105,000 kcal/h

EXPERIMENT NO –7
Objective
To determine overall efficiency of steam power plant.
Apparatus
Steam Turbine PowerPlant
Theory
Basic Process in a steam power plant
The thermodynamic cycle for the steam turbine is known as the Rankine cycle. This cycle is the basis for
conventional power generating stations and consists of a heat source (boiler) thatconverts water to high
pressure steam. In the steam cycle, water is first pumped to elevated pressure, which is medium to high
pressure. It is then heated to the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure, boiled (heated from
liquid to vapor), and then most frequently superheated (heated to a temperature above that of boiling). The
pressurized steam is expanded to lower pressure in a turbine, then exhausted either to a condenser at
vacuum conditions. The condensate from the condenser or from the industrial steam utilization systemis
returned to the feedwater pump for continuation of the cycle. The simple Rankine cycle is shown below:
Fig.7. 1. T-s diagram of simple ideal Rankine cycle
Basic components of a steam power plant

A schematic representation of a steam turbine power plant is shown below:
Fig.7. 2. Components of a steam turbine power plant
In the simple schematic shown, a fuel boiler produces steam which is expanded in the steam turbine to produce
power. When the system is designed for power generation only, such as ina large utility power system, the
steam is exhausted from the turbine at the lowest practical pressure, using a water-cooled condenser to extract
the maximum amount of energy from thesteam.
Overall efficiency of steam power plant

Overall efficiency of steam turbine power plant is the product of efficiency of all componentsof the powerplant.
It is given as:
ᶯ = 1-(Qout/Qin) = Wout/Qin
Where Wout and Qin are shown in Fig.7. 1.
Efficiency improvement
Following are the fundamental ways of improving efficiency by rising temp. at which heat isadded or lowering
temp. at which heat is rejected.
It can be done through (super heating), (reheating) and regeneration. Following are ways of improving
efficiency of the steam turbine power plant.
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow, av)

Steam exists as a saturated mixture in the condenser at the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure inside the condenser. Therefore, lowering the operating pressure of the condenser automatically
lower the temperature of the steam, and thus the temperature at which heat is rejected. The effect of lowering
the condenser pressure on theRankine cycle efficiency is illustrated in below figure:
Fig.7. 3. Effect of lowering the condenser pressure on efficiency of Rankine cycle
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh, av)

The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without increasing the boiler
pressure by superheating the steam to high temperatures. The effect ofsuperheating on the performance of
vapor power cycle is illustrated on a T-s diagram as shown inFigure:
Fig.7. 4. Effect of superheating the steam to a higher temperature on efficiency of Rankinecycle
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh, av)

The average temperature during the heat addition process is to increase the operating
pressureof the boiler, which automatically raises the temperature at which boiling take place. This, in turn,
raises the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam and thus raises the thermal efficiency of the
cycle. It is depicted below:
Fig.7. 5. Effect of increasing the boiler pressure on efficiency of Rankine cycle
Specifications
Work Output Maximum 0.6kW
Fuel Kerosene Oil
ηt = Wout / mf .CV
mf = mass flow rate of fuel consumed = ρf Vf / tC V = 42700(kj/kg)
ρf = 820 kg/m3
EXPERIMENT NO – 8
Objective
To determine the efficiency of Gas Generator Set of UET Power House
Apparatus
Gas Generator Set of UET Power House
Theory
Natural gas engine

This engine is a spark ignition engine that uses natural gas as a fuel. It runs on the Otto cyclewhich is shown
below:
Fig.8. 1. P-v diagram of an Otto cycle
Here, the mixture of air and natural gas is first drawn in the cylinder and then compressionoccurs and at the
end of compression, a spark ignites the fuel mixture. After this, the expansion process occurs and then
burned gases are exhausted.
Turbocharger
A turbocharger, is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an internal combustion engine's
efficiency and power output by forcing extra compressed air into the combustion chamber. This improvement
over a naturally aspirated engine's power output is due to the fact that the compressor can force more air—and
proportionately more fuel—intothe combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.
It is shown below:
Fig.8. 3. Schematic diagram of a turbocharger
Aftercooler
An intercooler is a mechanical device used to cool a gas after compression process, Compression process
increases the internal energy of the gas which in turn raises its temperature and reduces the density. In other
words intercooler is a device used in compression process, typically a heat exchanger that removes waste heat
in a gas compressor.In this natural gas engine, the temperature of the compressed fuel mixture raises to 100°C
andit becomes less dense and to increase density of this mixture we cool the mixture with an aftercooler. Its
schematic diagram is shown below:
Fig.8. 4. Schematic diagram of an aftercooler attached with intake manifold
Firing order of the engine
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-cylinder reciprocating engine.
This is achieved by sparking of the spark plugs in an engine in thecorrect order. A sample is shown below:
Fig.8. 5. Firing order of the engine
Heat exchangers
These are used to remove heat from the coolant passing through engine block as well as thefrom the coolant
passing through aftercooler.
In this gas engine, plate type heat exchangers are used in two stages i.e., high and low temperature. The
cooling water carries heat to cooling towers and then heat is removed byevaporative cooling.
Fig.8. 6. Schematic of a plate type heat exchanger

Specifications
Engine specifications
Design: 4 cycle, V-block, turbocharged low temperature after-cooled
Bore: 159 mm (6.25in.)
Stroke: 190 mm (7.48 in.)
Displacement: 60.3 liters (3685 in3) Cylinder block: Cast iron, V16 Battery charging
alternator:None
Starting voltage: 24 volts negative ground
Fuel system: Lean burn
Ignition system: Individual coil onplug
Air cleaner type: Dry replaceable element
Lube oil filter type(s): Full flow and bypass filters
Breather: Breather filter
Alternator specifications
Total capacity: 3.4 MW
Design: Brushless, 4 pole, revolving field
Stator: 2/3 pitch
Rotor: Two bearing
Insulation system: Class F and H see ADS (Alternator Data Sheet) for details Standard
temperature rise: 105 °C (221 °F) Continuous @ 40 °C (104 °F) ambientExciter type:
Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
Phase rotation: A (U), B (V), C (W)
Alternator cooling: Direct drive centrifugal blower fan
AC waveform: Total Harmonic Distortion (THDV) < 5% no load to full linear load, < 3%for any
single harmonic
Telephone Influence Factor (TIF): < 50 per NEMA MG1-22.43
Telephone Harmonic Factor (THF): < 3
mf = mass flow rate of fuel consumed = ρf Vf / t = 0.029 kg/s
ηt = Wout / mf .CV = 430 W / (0.029*50000) = 0.296

EXPERIMENT NO – 9
Objective
To determine the efficiency of Diesel Generator Set of UET Power House
Apparatus
Diesel Generator Set of UET Power House
Theory
Diesel engine
The Diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition or CI engine), named after RudolfDiesel, is an
internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber, is
caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder dueto the mechanical compression (adiabatic
compression).
Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to
such a high degree that atomized Diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously.
With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is uneven; this is
called a heterogenous air-fuel mixture. The process of mixing air and fuel happens almost entirely during
combustion, the oxygen diffuses into the flame, which means that the Diesel engine operates with a diffusion
flame. The torque a Diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air ratio; this means, that
instead of throttling the intake air, the Diesel engine relies on altering the amountof fuel that is injected, and
the air ratio is usuallyhigh.
The Diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio andinherentleanburnwhich
enablesheatdissipationbythe excess air.
Fig.9. 1. P-v and t-s diagram of diesel cycleDiagram of the diesel generator
Fig.9. 2. Diesel generator set
Turbocharger
A turbocharger, is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an internal combustion engine's
efficiency and power output by forcing extra compressed air into the combustion chamber. This improvement
over a naturally aspirated engine's power output is due to the fact that the compressor can force more air—and
proportionately more fuel—intothe combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.
Fig.9. 3. Schematic diagram of a turbocharger
Engine cooling system

Internal combustion engine cooling uses either air or liquid to remove the waste heat from aninternal
combustion engine. For small or special purpose engines, cooling using air from the atmosphere makes for a
lightweight and relatively simple system. Watercraft can use water directly from the surrounding
environment to cool their engines. For water-cooled engines onaircraft and surface vehicles, waste heat is
transferred from a closed loop of water pumped through the engine to the surrounding atmosphere by a
radiator.
Fig.9. 4. Schematic of engine cooling system
Diesel fuel injection system

Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonlyautomotive
engines, by the means of an injector.
Fig.9. 5. Schematic of diesel engine fuel injection system
Specifications
Fuel: Diesel
Power output: 440kW Displacement:15000cc
Aspiration: TurbochargedCompression ratio: 17:1 Bore: 137mm Stroke: 169 mm
Radiator: Air cooled
mf = mass flow rate of fuel consumed = ρf Vf / t =0.01 kg/s
ηt = Wout / mf .CV = 393/0.01*45500 = 86.4 %

EXPERIMENT NO –10
Objective
To determine the Thermal Efficiency and Water Efficiency of Cooling Towers atUET Power House
Apparatus
Cooling Towers at UET Power House
Theory Cooling
tower
A cooling tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an evaporative cooling

tower, asmall portion of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide
significant cooling to the rest of that water stream.
Working of Cooling towers
When water is reused in the process, it is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and will then flow down
through plastic or wood shells, much like a honeycomb. The water will emitheat as it is downward flowing
which mixes with the above air flow, which in turn cools thewater. Part of this water will also evaporate,
causing it to lose even more heat.
Types of cooling towers
Natural draft
Natural draft towers are typically about 120 m high, depending on the differential pressurebetween the cold
outside air and the hot humid air on the inside of the tower as the drivingforce. No fans are used.
Mechanical Draft
Mechanical draft towers uses fans (one or more) through the tower. They are two differentclasses:
 Forced draft coolingtowers
 Induced draft coolingtowers
Forced Draft
The forced draft tower has the fan, basin, and piping located within the tower structure. Inthis model, the
fan is located at the base. There are no louvered exterior walls. Instead, thestructural steel or wood framing is
covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or asbestos cement boards.
It is shown below:
Fig.10. 1. Forced draft cooling tower
Induced Draft
The induced draft tower shown in the following picture has one or more fans, located at thetop of the
tower, that draw air upwards against the downward flow of water passing aroundthe wooden decking
or packing. Since the airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in contact
with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in increased
heat transfer efficiency.
Fig.10. 2. Induced draft cooling tower
Hybrid Draft
They are equipped with mechanical draft fans to augment airflow. Consequently, they are also referred to
as fan-assisted natural draft towers. The intent of their design is to minimize the power required for the air
movement, but to do so with the least possible stack cost impact. Properly designed fans may need to be
operated only during periods of high ambientand peakloads.
Fig.10. 3. Cooling tower with hybriddraft
Water Efficiency = Desired losses / Total Losses = Water Efficiency = Water evaporated / make-up
water
Theoretical Cooling
Cooling Tower Inlet Temperature – Wet Bulb Temperature = CWR – WBT = 40°C
Actual cooling
Cooling Tower Inlet Temperature – Cooling Tower Outlet Temperature= CWR – CWS = 34°C
Thermal Efficiency =Actual cooling / theoretical cooling x 100
= (CWR-WBT) / (CWR – CWS) x 100 = 34/40 = 0.85*100= 85%

PP Lab 505

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PP Lab 505

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lab Manual

Mech. Engineering Department

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore (NWL campus)

List of Experiments ................................................................................................................................................. 8

To determine the overall efficiency of Gas generator set of UET

To determine the thermal efficiency of Cooling towers at UET

Working Principle of a Boiler:

Different Types of Boiler

1. According to the Contents in the Tubes:-

Fire Tube Boiler:

Water Tube Boiler:

Boiler: This is a surrounded space offered for the fuel combustion.

Working Principle of Water Tube Boiler

Construction and Working Principle of Boiler Economizer

Types of Economizer in Boiler

Boiler Economizers can be classified in various ways depending upon economizer’s

An economizer can be made

Thermo dyne manufactures both

Generally, if the required water

WHAT IS FEED WATER HEATER?

(a) Open feed water heater

(b) Closed feed waterheater

Close feed water heater:

Open feed water heater:

Feedwater Heater Geometries:

WHAT IS AIR PREHEATER?

Types of Air Preheater

(a) Recuperative or tubulartype

Recuperative or Tubular Type:

Regenerative or Feed Water Type:

Combine Use of Recuperative and Regenerative Type

Advantages of Air Preheater:

 Increases thermal efficiency of the system

 Payback period is very short and increase combustion rate

 Improve and strengthen thecombustion

 Reducesthelossoffurnace andtheexhaustgastemperature,improve theboiler thermalefficiency.

 Air preheater is suitable for all standard fuels

 They are easy for retrofit into existing systems

 They strengthen the heattransfer

Applications of Air Preheater:

 In Indirect fired air heater applications.

Visit to Mini Steam Turbine Power Plant (Model PC-TMS-400A)

Steam turbine power plant

Fig.1. 1. Steam turbine power plant running on kerosene oil

The simple Rankine cycle is shown below:

Types of steam turbine power plants based on efficiency improvements

1. Super heating the dry saturated steam

2. Reheating of the steam

3. Regeneration with open and closed feedwaterheater

Steam cycle with super heating

 Steam at turbine inlet is super-heated

 Steam at turbine outlet is wet with high dryness fraction

Fig.1. 4. Schematic diagram of a superheater

 Steam at turbine inlet is super-heated

 Steam at turbine outlet is wet with high dryness fraction

 Steam at turbine inlet is super-heated

feedwater heater and its schematic is shown below:

Fig.1. 9. Components of a steam turbine power plant

Types of fuel used in boiler

Fuel oil boiler

This runs on the propane gas which is a byproduct of natural gas.

Natural gas boiler