SYNCHRONOUS

DIGITAL HIERARCHY

OVERVIEW
Outline

 Background (analog telephony, TDM, PDH)

 SONET/SDH history and motivation
 Architecture (path, line, section)
 Rates and frame structure
 Payloads and mappings
 Protection and rings
 VCAT and LCAS
 Handling packet data

2
Background

3
The Present PSTN
tandem switch

last mile
PSTN Network
subscriber line

class 5 switch class 5 switch

• Analog voltages and copper wire used only in “last mile”,

• Time Division Multiplexing of digital signals in the
network
• Extensive use of fiber optic and wireless physical links T1/E1,
PDH and SONET/SDH “synchronous” protocols
• Signaling can be channel/trunk associated or via separate network
(SS7)
4
TDM Timing
 Time Domain Multiplexing relies on all channels
(timeslots) having precisely the same timing
(frequency and phase)
 In order to enforce this, the TDM device itself
frequently performs the digitization

digital
signals
analog
signals

5
If The Inputs Are Already Digital
 If the TDM switch does not digitize the analog signals
 then there can be a problem
 the clocks used to digitize do not have identical
frequencies
 we get byte slips! (well, actually, we can get bit slips first …)
exaggerated pictorial example
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Numerical example:
component
clock derived from 8000 Hz. quartz crystal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
signals
typical crystal accuracy =  50 ppm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
So 2 crystals can differ by 100 ppm
i.e. 0.8 samples / second
1
So difference is 1 sample after 1 ¼ seconds 2 3 4 5 6 7 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TDM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6
The Fix
 We must ensure that all the clocks have the same frequency
 Every telephony network has an accurate clock called a
“stratum 1”, or “Primary Reference Clock”
 All other clocks are directly or indirectly locked to it (master –
slave)
 A TDM receiving device can lock onto the source clock based
on the incoming data (FLL, PLL)
 For this to work, we must ensure that the data has enough
transitions
 (special line coding, scrambling bits, etc.)

1
0
transitions no transitions
7
 Comparing Clocks

 A clock is said to be isochronous (isos=equal, chronos=time)

if its ticks are equally spaced in time

 2 clocks are said to be synchronous (syn=same chronos=time)

if they tick in time, i.e. have precisely the same frequency

 2 clocks are said to be plesiochronous (plesio=near chronos=time)

if they are nominally with the same frequency
but are not locked

8
PDH principle
 If we want yet higher rates, we can mux together TDM
signals (tributaries)
 We could demux the TDM timeslots and directly remux
them
 but that is too complex

 The TDM inputs are already digital, so we must

 insist that the mux provide clock to all tributaries
(not always possible, may already be locked to a network)
 somehow transport tributary with its own clock across a higher
speed network with a different clock (without spoiling remote clock
recovery)
9
4:1 Multiplexer

10
1:4 Demultiplexer

11
 PDH Justification
In addition to FAS, PDH overhead includes
justification control (C-bits) and justification opportunity “stuffing” (S-bits)
Assume the tributary bitrate is B  T
Positive justification
payload is expected at highest bitrate B+T
if the tributary rate is actually at the maximum bitrate
then all payload and S bits are filled
if the tributary rate is lower than the maximum
then sometimes there are not enough incoming bits
so the s-bits are not filled and C-bits indicate this
Negative justification
payload is expected at lowest bitrate B-T
if the tributary rate is actually the minimum bitrate
then payload space suffices
if the tributary rate is higher than the minimum
then sometimes there are not enough positions to accommodate
so S-bits in the overhead are used and the C-bits indicate this
Positive/Negative justification
payload is expected at nominal bitrate B
positive or negative justification is applied as required 12
PDH Hierarchies
level

0 64 kbps
* 30 * 24
* 24
1 E1 2.048 Mbps T1 1.544 Mbps J1 1.544 Mbps
* 4 * 4 * 4
2 E2 8.448 Mbps T2 6.312 Mbps J2 6.312 Mbps
* 4 * 7 * 5
3 E3 34.368 Mbps T3 44.736 Mbps J3 32.064 Mbps
* 4 * 6 * 3
4 E4 139.264 Mbps T4 274.176 Mbps J4 97.728 Mbps

CEPT N.A. Japan 13

PDH Multiplex / Demultiplex

2048 kbit/s (+/-50ppm)

1
64 kbit/s 8448 kbit/s (+/-30ppm)
Data Signals 30 1
34 368 kbit/s (+/-20ppm)
DSMX 1
64k/2
1
139264 kbit/s (+/-15ppm)
0.3 to 3.1 kHz 1
30
AF signals
PCMX 30
1
15 kHz
Sound Program 5
DSMX
4
Signals 34/140

4
DSMX
8/34
PCMX 30
DSMX Channel Capacity:
64
2/8 64 x 30 = 1920
4

14
2 Mbit/s Frame Structures

2.048 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs

signalling
information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 6 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

15
2 Mbit/s Frame Structures
2.448 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs

signalling
information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS
(frames 0,2,4...)
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS Si: Reserved for international use
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...)
Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm)
A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

data links (point-to-point applications)
FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011)
NFAS: Non frame alignment signal

16
2 Mbit/s Frame Structures
2.048 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs
signalling
information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0
(frames 0,2,4...) MFAS NMFAS
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS a b c d a b c d frames 1... 15 & 17...31
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...) signalling signalling
subscr. n subscr. n+15

Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm)
A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)
Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)
E: CRC error indication (0=Error)

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

data links (point-to-point applications)
FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011)
NFAS: Not frame alignment signal

17
2 Mbit/s Frame Structures
2.048 kbit/s Multiframe, ITU-T G.704
multiframe
fr 15 fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 8 fr 9 fr 10 fr 11 fr 12 fr 13 fr 14 fr 15

sub multiframe 1 sub multiframe 2

2.048 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs signalling
information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0
(frames 0,2,4...) MFAS NMFAS
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS a b c d a b c d frames 1... 15 & 17...31
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...) signalling signalling
subscr. n subscr. n+15

Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm)
A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)
Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

data links (point-to-point applications)
FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011)
NFAS: Not frame alignment signal
18
 2 Mbit/s Frame Structures
2.048 kbit/s Multiframe, ITU-T G.704
multiframe
fr 15 fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 8 fr 9 fr 10 fr 11 fr 12 fr 13 fr 14 fr 15

sub multiframe 1 sub multiframe 2

2.048 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs signalling
information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0
(frames 0,2,4...) MFAS NMFAS
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS a b c d a b c d frames 1... 15 & 17...31
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...) signalling signalling
subscr. n subscr. n+15
Time slot 0 of CRC multiframe:
sub multiframe 2 sub multiframe 1

0 FAS C1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 Si: Reserved for international use

1 NFAS 0 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa
256 X 8 bit = 2048 bit
Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm)
6 FAS C4 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)
7
8
NFAS
FAS
1
C1
1
0
A
0
Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa
1 1 0 1 1
Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)
9 NFAS 1 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa E: CRC error indication (0=Error)
256 X 8 bit = 2048 bit
14 FAS C4 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 M: Transmitting CRC multiframe alignment signal
15 NFAS E2 1 A Sa Sa Sa a Sa ( CRC MFAS: 001011 )
Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based
data links (point-to-point applications)
FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011)
NFAS: Not frame alignment signal
19
Plesiochronous Hierarchies -
Frame Structures

8.448 kbit/s; frame length 848 bit; 100.4 us; ITU-T G.742
10 2 200 4 208 4 208 4 4 204

A: Alarm Bit
1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c s1 s2 s3 s4
N: National Spare Bit
1a: Stuffing Control Bit
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A N S: Stuffing Bit

34.368 kbit/s; frame length 1536 bit; 44.7 us; ITU-T G.751
10 2 372 4 380 4 380 4 4 376

1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c s1 s2 s3 s4

1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A N

20
Plesiochronous Hierarchies -
Frame Structures

139.264 kbit/s; frame length 2928 bit; 21 us; ITU-T G.751

12 4 472 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 4 480

1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c 1d 2d 3d 4d 1e 2e 3e 4e s1 s2 s3 s4

1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 A N N N
A: Alarm Bit
N: National Spare Bit
1a,b,c,d: Stuffing Control Bit
S: Stuffing Bit

21
Framing and Overhead
 In addition to locking on to bit-rate, we need to recognize
the frame structure
 We identify frames by adding Frame Alignment Signal
 The FAS is part of the frame overhead (which also includes
"C-bits", OAM, etc.)
 Each layer in PDH hierarchy adds its own overhead

 For example
 E1 – 2 overhead bytes per 32 bytes – overhead 6.25 %
 E2 – 4 E1s = 8.192 Mbps out of 8.448Mbps

so there is an additional 0.256 Mbps = 3 %

altogether 4*30*64 kbps = 7.680 Mbps out of 8.448 Mbps or 9.09% overhead 22
PDH overhead

digital data rate voice overhead

signal (Mbps) channels percentage

T1 1.544 24 0.52 %
T2 6.312 96 2.66 %
T3 44.736 672 3.86 %
T4 274.176 4032 5.88 %
E1 2.048 30 6.25 %
E2 8.448 120 9.09 %
E3 34.368 480 10.61 %
E4 139.264 1920 11.76 %

Overhead always increases with data rate ! 23

OAM
 Analog channels and 64 kbps digital channels
 Do not have mechanisms to check signal validity and quality
 major faults could go undetected for long periods of time
 hard to characterize and localize faults when reported
 minor defects might be unnoticed indefinitely
Solution is to add mechanisms based on overhead
 As PDH networks evolved, more and more overhead
was dedicated to
Operations, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
functions
including:
 monitoring for valid signal
 defect reporting
 alarm indication/inhibition (AIS)
24
PDH Systems Worldwide
Japan USA Europe

5. 397200 kbit/s 564992 kbit/s

x4 x4

4. 97728 kbit/s 274176 kbit/s 139264 kbit/s

x3
x3 x6 x4

3. 32064 kbit/s 44736 kbit/s 34368 kbit/s

x4
x5 x7
2. order 6312 kbit/s 8448 kbit/s

x4 x3 x4

primary rate 1544 kbit/s 2048 kbit/s

x 24 x 30/31

64 kbit/s
25
PDH ITU Standards

26
Plesiochronous Drop & Insert
140 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s

main
OLTU OLTU OLTU OLTU
stand-by
34 - 140 34 - 140 34 - 140 34 - 140

8 - 34 8 - 34 8 - 34 8 - 34

2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8

1,2 ................. 64 1,2 ................. 64

Line Terminating Drop & Insert Station Line Terminating

Unit Unit

28
PDH limitations
 Rate limitations
 Copper interfaces defined
 Need to mux/demux hierarchy of levels (hard to pull out a single
timeslot)
 Overhead percentage increases with rate

 At least three different systems (Europe, NA, Japan)

 E 2.048, 8.448, 34.348, 139.264
 T 1.544, 3.152, 6.312, 44.736, 91.053, 274.176
 J 1.544, 3.152, 6.312, 32.064, 97.728, 397.2
So a completely new mechanism was needed

29
SONET/SDH Motivation and
History

30
Idea Behind SONET
Synchronous Optical NETwork
 Designed for optical transport (high bitrate)

 Direct mapping of lower levels into higher ones

 Carry all PDH types in one universal hierarchy

 ITU version = Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
 different terminology but interoperable

 Overhead doesn’t increase with rate

 OAM designed-in from beginning

31
Standardization !
 The original Bellcore proposal:
 hierarchy of signals, all multiple of basic rate (50.688)
 basic rate about 50 Mbps to carry DS3 payload
 bit-oriented mux
 mechanisms to carry DS1, DS2, DS3
 Many other proposals were merged into 1987 draft document (rate
49.920)
 In summer of 1986 CCITT express interest in cooperation
 needed a rate of about 150 Mbps to carry E4
 wanted byte oriented mux
 Initial compromise attempt
 byte mux
 US wanted 13 rows * 180 columns
 CEPT wanted 9 rows * 270 columns
 Compromise!
 US would use basic rate of 51.84 Mbps, 9 rows * 90 columns
 CEPT would use three times that rate - 155.52 Mbps, 9 rows * 270 columns
32
SDH and SONET - International
Standards
ATM: 149.760 kbit/s
xN x1
STM-N AU-4 VC-4
STS-3N
AUG STS-3C STS-3C
C-4 E4: 139.264 kbit/s
SPE
x3

x1 ATM: 48,384 kbit/s

TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3
x3

x1 x7
STM-0 AU-3 VC-3 DS3: 44.736 kbit/s
STS-1 C-3
STS-1 STS-1 SPE E3 : 34.368 kbit/s
x7
TUG-2 x1 TU-2 VC-2
VT C-2 DS2: 6.312 kbit/s
VT-6 VT-SPE
group

TU-12 VC-12
SDH ITU-T G.707 x3
VT-2 VT-SPE
C-12 E1: 2.048 kbit/s
x4

SONET BELLCORE GR.253 TU-11 VC-11

ANSI T1.105 VT-1.5 VT-SPE
C-11 DS1: 1.544 kbit/s

33
Rates and Frame Structure

34
 SONET / SDH Frames

Framing

Synchronous Transfer Signals are bit-signals (OC are optical)

Like all TDM signals, there are framing bits at the beginning of the frame
However, it is convenient to draw SONET/SDH signals as rectangles

35
 SONET STS-1 frame
90 columns
Framing
9 rows

Each STS-1 frame is 90 columns * 9 rows = 810 bytes

There are 8000 STS-1 frames per second
so each byte represents 64 kbps (each column is 576 kbps)
Thus the basic STS-1 rate is 51.840 Mbps

36
SDH STM-1 frame
270 columns

…
9 rows

Synchronous Transport Modules are the bit-signals for SDH

Each STM-1 frame is 270 columns * 9 rows = 2430 bytes
There are 8000 STM-1 frames per second
Thus the basic STM-1 rate is 155.520 Mbps
3 times the STS-1 rate! 37
Higher SDH Bitrates

STM-1 #1 11111 STM-4

STM-1 #2 22222 12341234123412 . . . .

STM-1 #3 33333

44444
STM-1 #4
B1 B1
B2 B2
SOH termination New SOH

• The STM-4/16/64 bit rate is obtained as integer multiples of the

STM-1 tributary bit rate.
• Clock offset at the tributary side is taken into consideration by
pointer adaptation on the STM-n output signal.

38
 STS, OC, etc.
A SONET signal is called a Synchronous Transport Signal
The basic STS is STS-1, all others are multiples of it - STS-N
The (optical) physical layer signal corresponding to an STS-N is an OC-N

SONET Optical rate

STS-1 OC-1 51.84M
STS-3 OC-3 155.52M *3
STS-12 OC-12 622.080M *4
STS-48 OC-48 2488.32M *4
STS-192 OC-192 9953.28M *4
39
SONET/SDH Rates
SONET SDH columns rate
STS-1 90 51.84M
STS-3 STM-1 270 155.52M
STS-12 STM-4 1080 622.080M
STS-48 STM-16 4320 2488.32M
STS-192 STM-64 17280 9953.28M

STS-N has 90N columns STM-M corresponds to STS-N with N = 3M

SDH rates increase by factors of 4 each time
STS/STM signals can carry PDH tributaries, for example:
 STS-1 can carry 1 T3 or 28 T1s or 1 E3 or 21 E1s

 STM-1 can carry 3 E3s or 63 E1s or 3 T3s or 84 T1s

40
SONET/SDH tributaries

SONET SDH T1 T3 E1 E3 E4
STS-1 28 1 21 1
STS-3 STM-1 84 3 63 3 1
STS-12 STM-4 336 12 252 12 4
STS-48 STM-16 1344 48 1008 48 16
STS-192 STM-64 5376 192 4032 192 64

E3 and T3 are carried as Higher Order Paths HOPs)

E1 and T1 are carried as Lower Order Paths (LOPs)
(the numbers are for direct mapping)
41
Frame Structure

42
 STS-1 frame structure
90 columns
3 rows
9 rows

Synchronous Payload Envelope

6 rows

Transport
Section overhead is 3 rows * 3 columns = 9 bytes = 576 kbps
Overhead
TOH
framing, performance monitoring, management
Line overhead is 6 rows * 3 columns = 18 bytes = 1152 kbps
protection switching, line maintenance, mux/concat, SPE pointer
SPE is 9 rows * 87 columns = 783 bytes = 50.112 Mbps
Similarly, STM-1 has 9 (different) columns of section+line overhead ! 43
 STS-1 Overhead

A1 A2 J0 The STS-1 overhead consists of

section  3 rows of section overhead
B1 E1 F1
overhead  frame sync (A1, A2)
D1 D2 D3  section trace (J0)
 error control (B1)
H1 H2 H3
 section orderwire (E1)
B2 K1 K2  Embedded Operations Channel (Di)

 6 rows of line overhead

D4 D5 D6
line  pointer and pointer action (Hi)
overhead D7 D8 D9  error control (B2)
 Automatic Protection Switching signaling (Ki)
D10 D11 D12  Data Channel (Di)
 Synchronization Status Message (S1)
S1 M0 E2
 Far End Block Error (M0)
 line orderwire (E2)

44
STM-1 Frame Structure
270 Columns (Bytes)
transmit
9 270
1 row by row
1
RSOH
3
4 AU Pointer Payload
5 (transport capacity)

MSOH

RSOH: Regenerator section overhead

MSOH: Multiplex section overhead
Payload: Area for information transport
Transport capacity of one Byte: 64 kbit/s
Frame capacity: 270 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s
Frame repetition time: 125 µs

45
STM-1 Frame Structure

270 Columns (Bytes)

1 9 270

1
RSOH AU-4
3
4 AU Pointer
5 VC-4
MSOH VC-4 POH
C-4
9

46
 STM-1 frame structure
270 columns

RSOH

…
MSOH

Section
Overhead
SOH
STM-1 has 9 (different) columns of transport overhead !
RS overhead is 3 rows * 9 columns
Pointer overhead is 1 row * 9 columns
MS overhead is 5 rows * 9 columns
SPE is 9 rows * 261 columns 47
 Even Higher Rates
9*N
columns

9 rows

270*N columns

3 STS-1s can form an STS-3

4 STM-1s (STS-3s) can form an STM-4 (STS-12)
4 STM-4s (STS-12s) can form an STM-16 (STS-48)
etc. for STM-N (STS-3N)
The procedure is byte-interleaving 48
Byte-interleaving

...

49
Byte Interleaving

Each frame sent in

125 us

50
 STM-1 Overhead
m
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 res res
– media
RSOH dependent
B1 m m E1 m F1 res res
(defined for
SONET radio)
D1 m m D2 m D3

AU pointers
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 res
– reserved for
D4 D5 D6 national use

MSOH D7 D8 D9
D10 D11 D12
S1 M1 E2

SOH 51
 A1, A2, J0 (Section Overhead)
A1, A2 - framing bytes
 A1 = 11110110
 A2 = 00101000

SONET/SDH framing always uses equal numbers of A1 and A2 bytes

J0 - regenerator section trace (in early SONET - a counter called C1)

enables receiver to be sure that the section connection is still OK
enables identifying individual STS/STMs after muxing
J0 goes through a 16 byte sequence
1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
MSBs are J0 framing (1000…00)
Cs are CRC-7 of previous frame 0 S S S S S S S
S are 15 7-bit characters …
section access point identifier
0 S S S S S S S
52
 B1, E1, F1, D1-3 (Section Overhead)
B1 – Byte Interleaved Parity-8 byte
even parity of bits of bytes of previous frame after scrambling
only 1 BIT-8 for multiplexed STS/STM

E1 – section orderwire
64 kbps voice link for technicians
from regenerator to regenerator

F1 – 64 kbps link for user purposes

D1 + D2 + D3 – 192 kbps messaging channel

used by section termination as Embedded Operations Channel (SONET)
or Data Communications Channel (SDH)
53
 Pointers (Line Overhead)
In SONET, pointers are considered part of line overhead
For STS-1, H1+H2 is the pointer, H3 is the pointer action
H1+H2 indicates the offset (in bytes) from H3 to the SPE
(i.e. if 0 then J1 POH byte is immediately after H3 in the row)
4 MSBs are New Data Flag, 10 LSBs are actual offset value (0 – 782)
When offset=522 the STS-1 SPE is in a single STS-1 frame
In all other cases the SPE straddles two frames
When offset is a multiple of 87, the SPE is rectangular

To compensate for clock differences

we have pointer justification
When negative justification
H3 carries the extra data
When positive justification
byte after H3 is stuffing byte 54
 SONET Justification
If tributary rate is above nominal, negative justification is needed
When less than 8 more bits than expected in buffer
 NDF is 0110
 offset unchanged

When 8 extra bits accumulate

 NDF is set to 1001
H1 H2 extra …
 extra byte placed into H3
 offset is decremented by 1 (byte)

If tributary rate is below nominal, positive justification is needed

When less than 8 fewer than expected bits in buffer
 NDF is 0110
 offset unchanged

When 8 missing bits

 NDF is set to 1001 H1 H2 H3 stuff …
 byte after H3 is stuffing
 offset is incremented by 1 (byte)
55
B2, K1, K2, D4-D12 (Line Overhead)
 B2 – BIP-8 of line overhead + previous envelope (w/o
scrambling)
 N B2s for muxed STM-N
 K1 and K2 are used for Automatic Protection Switching (see
later)
 D4 – D12 are a 576 Kbps Data Communications Channel
 Between multiplexers
 Usually manufacturer specific OAM functions

56
S1, M0, E2 (Line Overhead)

S1 – Synchronization Status Message

indicates stratum level (unknown, stratum 1, …, do not use)

M0 – Far End Block Error

indicates number of BIP violations detected

E2 – line orderwire
64 kbps voice link for technicians
from line mux to line mux

57
Payloads and Mappings

58
 STS-1 HOP SPE Structure

We saw that the pointer the line overhead points to the STS path overhead POH
(after re-arranging) POH is one column of 9 rows (9 bytes = 576 kbps)
59
 STS-1 HOP

1 30 59 87

1 column of SPE is POH

2 more (“fixed stuffing”) columns are reserved
We are left with
84 columns = 756 bytes = 48.384 Mbps for payload
This is enough for a E3 (34.368M) or a T3 (44.736M)

60
STS-1 Path overhead

J1
B3
C2 1 column of overhead for path (576 Kbps)
G1 POH is responsible for
F2  path type identification
 path performance monitoring
H4
 status (including of mapped payloads)
F3
 virtual concatenation
K3  path protection
N1  trace
POH

61
 J1, B3, C2 (Path Overhead)
C2 Payload type
(hex)
J1 – path trace
00 unequipped
enables receiver to be sure
that the path connection is still OK 01 nonspecific
02 LOP (TUG)
B3 – BIP-8 even bit parity of bytes
04 E3/T3
(without scrambling)
of previous payload 12 E4
13 ATM
C2 – path signal label
16 PoS – RFC 1662
identifies the payload type
18 LAPS X.85
(examples in table)
1A 10G Ethernet
1B GFP
CF PoS - RFC1619 62
G1, F2, H4, F3, K3, N1 (Path Overhead)
G1 – path status
conveys status and performance back to originator
4 MSBs are path FEBE, 1 bit RDI, 3 unused

F2 and F3 – user specific communications

H4 – used for LOP multiframe sync and VCAT (see later)

K3 (4 MSBs) – path APS

N1 – Tandem Connection Monitoring

Messaging channel for tandem connections

63
LOP
7 VTGs
1 30 59 87 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 To carry lower rate payloads, divide the 84 available columns into 7 * 12

interleaved columns, i.e. 7 Virtual Tributary (VT) Groups
 VT group is 12 columns of 9 rows, i.e. 108 bytes or 6.912 Mbps
 VT group is composed of VT(s)
 there are different types of VT in order to carry different types of payload
 all VTs in VT group must be of the same type (no mixing)
 but different VT groups in same SPE can have different VT types
 A VT can have 3, 4, 6 or 12 columns 64
 SONET/SDH : VT/VC types
VT/STS VC column payload
rate
VT 1.5 VC-11 3 1.728 DS1 (1.544) 4 per group
VT 2 VC-12 4 2.304 E1 (2.048) 3 per group
LOP
VT 3 6 3.456 DS1C (3.152) 2 per group
VT 6 VC-2 12 6.912 DS2 (6.312) 1 per group
STS-1 VC-3 48.384 E3 (34.368)

HOP STS-1 VC-3 48.384 DS3 (44.736)

STS-3c VC-4 149.760 E4 (139.264)

standard PDH rates map efficiently into SONET/SDH !

65
 LO Path Overhead

LOP OH is responsible for timing, PM, REI, …

LO Path APS signaling is 4 MSBs of byte K4

H4=XXXXXX00
V1 pointer
125 msec V5
VC11 – 25B
VC12 – 34B
H4=XXXXXX01
V2 pointer
J2
500 msec
H4=XXXXXX10 V3 pointer
N2

H4=XXXXXX11 V4 pointer
VC11 – 27B K4
VC12 – 36B

66
 Payload Capacity

VT1.5/VC-11 has 3 columns = 27 bytes = 1.728 Mbps

but 2 bytes are used for overhead (V1/V2/V3/V4 and V5/J2/N2/K4)
so actually only 25 bytes = 1.6 Mbps are available

Similarly

VT2/VC-12 has 4 columns = 36 bytes = 2.304 Mbps

but 2 bytes are used for overhead
So actually only 34 bytes = 2.176 Mbps are available

67
 LOP Overhead

 V5 consists of
 BIP (2b)
 REI (1b)
 RFI (1b)
 Signal label (3b) (uneq, async, bit-sync, byte-sync, test, AIS)
 RDI (1b)
 J2 is path trace
 N2 is the network operator byte
 may be used for LOP tandem connection monitoring (LO-TCM)
 K4 is for LO VCAT and LO APS

68
SDH Containers
 Tributary payloads are not placed directly into SDH
 Payloads are placed (adapted) into containers
 The containers are made into virtual containers (by adding
POH)
 Next, the pointer is used – the pointer + VC is a TU or AU
Tributary Unit adapts a lower order VC to high order VC
Administrative Unit adapts higher order VC to SDH
 TUs and AUs are grouped together until they are big
enough
 We finally get an Administrative Unit Group
 To the AUG we add SOH to make the STM frame
69
Formally …

C-n n = 11, 12, 2, 3, 4

VC-n = POH + C-n
TU-n = pointer + VC-n (n=11, 12, 2, 3)
AU-n = pointer + VC-n (n=3,4)
TUG = N * TU-n
AUG = N * AU-n
STM-N = SOH + AUG

70
Multiplexing
 An AUG may contain a VC-4 with an E4
 or it may contain 3 AU-3s each with a VC-3s with an E3
 In the latter case, the AU pointer points to the AUG
 and inside the AUG are 3 pointers to the AU-3s

J1
B3
C2
G1 H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3
F2
H4
F3
K3
N1

71
More Multiplexing

 Similarly, we can hierarchically build complex

structures
 Lower rate STMs can be combined into higher rate
STMs
 AUGs can be combined into STMs
 AUs can be combined into AUGs
 TUGs can be combined into high order VCs
 Lower rate TUs can be combined into TUGs
 etc.
 But only certain combinations are allowed by
standards
72
 All SDH Mappings
AUG

E4 139.264 M
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4
…
ATM 149.760M

*3
AUG TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3
*3

E3 34.368 M
STM-0 AU-3 VC-3 C3 T3 44.736 M
ATM 48.384 M
*7

*7
T2 6.312 M
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2 C2 ATM 6.874M

*3
E1 2.048 M
TU-12 VC-12 C12 ATM 2.144 M
*4

T1 1.544 M
TU-11 VC-11 C11 ATM 1.6 M73
 All SONET Mappings
E4 139.264 M
STS-N STS-3c STS-3 SPE
ATM 149.760M

*N E3 34.368 M
STS-1 STS-1 SPE T3 44.736 M
ATM 48.384 M

*7

VTG

T2 6.312 M
VT6 VT6 SPE ATM 6.874M

*3
E1 2.048 M
pointer processing VT-2 VT2 SPE ATM 2.144 M

*4
T1 1.544 M74
VT1.5 VT1.5 SPE
Tributary Mapping Types
 When mapping tributaries into VCs, PDH-like bit-stuffing
is used

 For E1 and T1 there are several options

 Asynchronous mapping (framing-agnostic)
 Bit synchronous mapping
 Byte synchronous mapping (time-slot aligned)

 E4 into VC-4, E3/T3 into VC-3 are always asynchronous

 T1 into VC-11 may be any of the 3
(in byte synchronous the framing bit is placed in the VC overhead)
 E1 into VC-12 may be asynchronous or byte
synchronous 75
Tributary Mapping Type-
Example
 Mapping 3 x E3 onto 1 STM-1

76
Tributary Mapping Type-
Example
 Mapping 3 x E3 onto 1 STM-1

77
SONET/SDH Architecture

78
Layers
 SONET was designed with definite layering concepts
 Physical layer – optical fiber (linear or ring)
 when exceed fiber reach – regenerators
 regenerators are not mere amplifiers,
 regenerators use their own overhead
 fiber between regenerators called section (regenerator section)
 Line layer – link between SONET muxes (Add/Drop
Multiplexers)
 input and output at this level are Virtual Tributaries (VCs)
 actually 2 layers
 lower order VC (for low bitrate payloads)
 higher order VC (for high bitrate payloads)

 Path layer – end-to-end path of client data (tributaries)

 client data (payload) may be
 PDH
 ATM
 packet data 79
 SONET architecture
ADM regenerator ADM
Path Line Section Line Path
Termination Termination Termination Termination Termination

path
line line line
section section section section

SONET (SDH) has at 3 layers:

 path – end-to-end data connection, muxes tributary signals path section
 there are STS paths + Virtual Tributary (VT) paths
 line – protected multiplexed SONET payload multiplex section
 section – physical link between adjacent elements regenerator section

Each layer has its own overhead to support needed functionality

SDH terminology 80
SDH Network Elements

81
SDH Network Elements
Terminal Multiplexer

PDH & Applications:

STM-n
STM-m Point-to-Point
Tributaries Transmission Systems
m<n (STM-1, STM-4, STM-16)

SDH Repeater

Applications:
STM-n STM-n
Line Signal Regeneration
in Point-to-Point and Ring
Networks

82
Terminal Multiplexer
 Terminal multiplexer
 Input: Low bit rate or PDH tributaries
 Output: High bit rate SDH signals

83
Regenerator
 Terminal regenerator
 Input: STM-N synchronous signals
 Output: STM-N synchronous signals
 Reconditions transmission to minimize jitter,
dispersion, …

84
Add Drop Multiplexer

ADM
WEST EAST

STM-1/4 STM-1/4

......

Tributary Ports : n x 2 Mbit/s ( 34 Mbit/s)

85
Synchronous Cross Connect
2.4 Gbit/s 2.4 Gbit/s
16x SDH
16x
Multiplexer
622 Mbit/s 4x 622 Mbit/s
4x
155 Mbit/s
155 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s
155
VC4
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 2 VC12 2
2 VC12 2 34
140 2 VC12 2
140 Mbit/s 2 VC12 2 140
140 Mbit/s

140 VC4
VC 4 140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s VC4 140
VC 3
34
VC 12 VC3
34 (45)Mbit/s VC3 34 (45)Mbit/s
VC12
VC11
2 (1.5)Mbit/s VC12 2 2 (1.5)Mbit/s

86
Synchronous Line Equipment

4
16 x 140 Mbit/s 4
Optical STM-16
or 4
Transmit
4 Sync Unit
16 x STM-1
MUX

PC / TMN (Q) Management

Communication Unit
Service Service Channel Unit
Channels SLX 1/16
Data Overhead
Channels Processing Unit
4
16 x 140 Mbit/s 4
STM-16
or 4 Optical
Receive
4 Sync Unit
16 x STM-1 DEMUX

87
Hybrid Networks Connect Old
and New Technologies
140Mbit/s
STM-1
2Mbit/s TM

ADM

STM-1, STM-4

140Mbit/s
2Mbit/s ADM STM-4/-16 ADM
34Mbit/s
ATM 34Mbit/s
Switch STM-1 8Mbit/s

2Mbit/s
DXC
LAN

2Mbit/s STM-1 / STS-3c Gateway to SONET

ADM : Add Drop Multiplexer
34Mbit/s
DXC : Digital Cross Connect
140Mbit/s
TM : Terminal Multiplexer
STM-1
SDH
STM-4 88
SDH Network Topology
STM-4
Trunk
Network L 2 Trunk Network
L1
STM-16

STM-1
Trunk Network
Exchange L2

Local Network
Local
Exchange

FlexMux

Subscriber Mux
Access 64/2M 89
SDH Network Topology
Point-to-Point Topology

Point-to-Multipoint Topology

90
 SDH Network Topology
Hub Topology

91
SDH Network Topology
Ring Topology

92
SDH Network Topology
Mesh Topology

93
SDH Equipment: Example

Tributary Card
16 x

FTU
E1/DS1
PSU
Base Product with 2 STM-1

94
SDH Equipment: Example
Protection Slot 0 Protection Slot 1
Tributary Card 1 (Slot 4)
PSU # 1 (Slot 1)
Tributary Card 2 (Slot 5)

Fan (Slot 10)

System Card #1 (Slot 6)
OAM (Slot 2) System Card #2 (Slot 7) -
for redundancy sup`port
Tributary Card 3 (Slot 8)
PSU # 1 (Slot 3)
Tributary Card 4 (Slot 9)

95
Taxonomy of SONET/SDH
networks

96
Network Resilience

97
 What is protection ?
SONET/SDH need to be highly reliable (five nines)
Down-time should be minimal (less than 50 msec)
So systems must repair themselves (no time for manual intervention)
Upon detection of a failure (dLOS, dLOF, high BER)
the network must reroute traffic (protection switching)
from working channel to protection channel
The Network Element that detects the failure (tail-end NE)
initiates the protection switching
The head-end NE must change forwarding or to send duplicate traffic
Protection switching is unidirectional
Protection switching may be revertive (automatically revert to working channel)
working channel

protection channel
head-end NE tail-end NE
98
How Does It Work?
Head-end and tail-end NEs have bridges (muxes)
Head-end and tail-end NEs maintain bidirectional signaling channel
Signaling is contained in K1 and K2 bytes of protection channel
 K1 – tail-end status and requests
 K2 – head-end status

head-end bridge tail-end bridge

working channel

protection channel signaling channel

99
 Linear 1+1 protection
Simplest form of protection
Can be at OC-n level (different physical fibers)
or at STM/VC level (called SubNetwork Connection Protection)
or end-to-end path (called trail protection)
Head-end bridge always sends data on both channels
Tail-end chooses channel to use based on BER, dLOS, etc.
No need for signaling
If non-revertive
there is no distinction between working and protection channels
BW utilization is 50%
channel A

channel B 100
Linear 1:1 protection
Head-end bridge usually sends data on working channel
When tail-end detects failure it signals (using K1) to head-end
Head-end then starts sending data over protection channel
When not in use
protection channel can be used for (discounted) extra traffic
(pre-emptible unprotected traffic)

May be at any layer (only OC-n level protects against fiber cuts)

working channel

extra traffic
protection channel
101
Linear 1:N protection
In order to save BW
we allocate 1 protection channel for every N working channels
N limited to 14
4 bits in K1 byte from tail-end to head-end
 0 protection channel
 1-14 working channels
 15 extra traffic channel

working channels

protection channel

102
Linear Protection (G.783)
W
1 + 1 Protection scheme
P

W
P 1 : 1 Protection scheme

W
W 1 : N Protection scheme

103
Linear Protection (G.783)

W
1 + 1 Protection scheme
P

W
P 1 : 1 Protection scheme

W
W 1 : N Protection scheme

104
Linear Protection (G.783)
1+1 Protection

105
Linear Protection (G.783)
1:1 Protection

106
Linear Protection (G.783)
N:1 Protection

107
Ring Protection
SDH Attribute Value
Fiber per link 2-fiber
4-fiber
Signal direction Unidirection
Bidirection
Protection switching Line/multiplex section switching
Path switching

108
Unidirectional Operation

109
Bidirectional Operation

110
Two Fiber vs. Four-Fiber Rings
Ring based protection is popular in North America (100K+ rings)
Full protection against physical fiber cuts
Simpler and less expensive than mesh topologies
Protection at line (multiplexed section) or path layer
Four-fiber rings
fully redundant at OC level
can support bidirectional routing at line layer
Two-fiber rings
support unidirectional routing at line layer

2 fibers in opposite directions 111

 Unidirectional vs. bidirectional
Unidirectional routing
working channel B-A same direction (e.g. clockwise) as A-B
management simplicity: A-B and B-A can occupy same timeslots
Inefficient: waste in ring BW and excessive delay in one direction
Bidirectional routing
A-B and B-A are opposite in direction
both using shortest route
spatial reuse: timeslots can be reused in other sections

A-B B A-B B
B-C
B-A

A A

C-B
B-A C
112
Unidirectional and Bidirectional
Rings
Traffic A -> B Traffic A ->
ADM ADM
B
A B -> A
A
ADM B ADM ADM B ADM

ADM ADM longer

Traffic B -> A
path
Unidirectional Ring Bidirectional Ring
traffic between A-B - use the shorter or longer
uses the entire length of ring path
- increase number of paths
- short path : traffic
long path : protection
113
UPSR vs. BLSR (MS-SPRing)

UPSR Unidirectional Path switching Two-fiber

BLSR Bidirectional Line switching Four-fiber

Of all the possible combinations, only a few are in use

Unidirectional Path Switched Rings
protects tributaries
extension of 1+1 to ring topology
Bidirectional Line Switched Rings (two-fiber and four-fiber versions)
called Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring in SDH
simultaneously protects all tributaries in STM
extension of 1:1 to ring topology

114
 UPSR
Working channel is in one direction
protection channel in the opposite direction
All traffic is added in both directions
decision as to which to use at drop point (no signaling)
Normally non-revertive, so effective two diversity paths
Good match for access networks
1 access resilient ring
less expensive than fiber pair per customer
Inefficient for core networks
no spatial reuse
every signal in every span
in both directions
node needs to continuously monitor
every tributary to be dropped

115
Unidirectional Path-Switched
Ring (UPSR)
Fiber 1 : unidirectional

A Fiber 2 : unidirectional

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

116
Unidirectional Path-Switched
Ring
Fiber 1 : unidirectional

A Fiber 2 : unidirectional

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

117
Unidirectional Path-Switched
Ring

Fiber 1 : unidirectional

A Fiber 2 : unidirectional

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

118
Unidirectional Line-Switched
Ring

Working

A Protection

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

Working
D

119
Unidirectional Line-Switched
Ring

Working

A Protection

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

Working
D

120
Unidirectional Line-Switched
Ring

Working

A Protection

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

Working
D

121
 BLSR
Switch at line level – less monitoring
When failure detected tail-end NE signals head-end NE
Works for unidirectional/bidirectional fiber cuts, and NE failures
Two-fiber version
half of OC-N capacity devoted to protection
only half capacity available for traffic
Four-fiber version
full redundant OC-N devoted to protection
twice as many NEs as compared to two-fiber

Example
recovery from unidirectional fiber cut
122
Two fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)
Fiber 1

A Fiber 2

working
F Tributary B
protection

E Tributary C

123
Two fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)
Fiber 1

A Fiber 2

F Tributary working
B
protection

E Tributary C

124
Two fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)

Fiber 1

A Fiber 2

working
F Tributary B protection

E Tributary C

125
Four fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

126
Four fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

127
Four fiber Bidirectional Line-
Switched Ring (BLSR)
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

128
Four fiber Bidirectional Span-
Switched Ring
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

129
Four fiber Bidirectional Span-
Switched Ring
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

130
Four fiber Bidirectional Span-
Switched Ring
Working Fiber 1 + 2

Prot.Fiber 3 + 4 A

F Tributary B

E Tributary C

131
USA vs Europe

132
Monitoring, Maintenance and
Control Function in SDH

133
 EVENTS SDH EVENTS SONET
Phys./Reg.

Line (L) Phys./Section

LOS Loss Of Signal LOS Loss Of Signal
TSE Test Sequence Error (Bit Err.) TSE Test Sequence Error
Sect. LSS Loss of Sequence Synchron. LSS Loss of Sequence Synchr.
LTI Loss of incoming Timing Ref. LTI Loss of inc. TimingRef
OOF Out Of Frame OOF Out Of Frame
LOF Loss Of Frame LOF Loss Of Frame
B1 Regenerator Section BIP Err. B1 Section BIP Errors
Higher Order Path Mux Sect.

B2 Multiplex Section BIP Err. B2 Line BIP Errors

MS-AIS Multiplex Section AIS AIS-L Line AIS
MS-RDI Mux Sect. Remote Defect Ind. RDI-L Line remote Defect Ind.
MS-REI Mux Sect. Remote Errro Ind. REI-L Line Remote Error Ind.
AU-LOP Loss Of AU Pointer LOP-P SP Loss Of Pointer
AU-NDF New Data Flag AU Pointer NDF-P SP New Data Flag

STS Path (SP)

AU-AIS AU Alarm Ind. Signal AIS-P SP AIS
AU-PJE AU Pointer Just. Event
B3 HO Path BIP Errors B3 SP BIP Errors
HP-UNEQ HO Path Unequipped UNEQ-P SP Unequipped
HP-RDI HO Path Remote Defect Ind. RDI-P SP Remote Deect. Ind.
HP-REI HO Path Remote Error Ind. REI-P SP Remote ERrro Ind.
PDI-P SP Payload Defect Ind.
HP-TIM HO Path Trace Ident. Mismatch TIM-P SP Trace Ident. Mismatch
HP-PLM HO Path Payload Label Mism. PLM-P SP Payload Label Mismatch
TU-LOP Loss Of TU Pointer LOP-V VP Loss Of Pointer
Lower Order Path

TU-NDF New Data Flag TU Pointer NDF-V VP New Data Flag

TU-AIS TU AIS AIS-V VP AIS

VT Path (VP)
TU-LOM Loss Of Multiframe LOM Loss Of Multiframe
BIP-2/B3 LO Path BIP Errors UNEQ-V VP Unequipped
LP-RDI LO Path Remote Defect Ind. RDI-V VP Remote Defect Ind.
LP-REI LO Path Remote Error Ind. REI-V VP Remote Error Ind.
LP-RFI LO Path Remote Failure Ind. RFI-V VP Remote Failure Ind.
PDI-V VP Payload Defect Ind.
LP-TIM LO Path Trace Ident. Mismatch TIM-V VP Trace Ident. Mismatch
LP-PLM LO Path Payload Label Mism. PLM-V VP Payload Label Mism.

LCD Loss of Cell Delineation

I.610
HCOR Correctable Header Errors
ATM Path

HUNC Uncorrectable Header Errors

VP-AIS Virtual Path AIS
I.610
VP-RDI Virtual Path Remote Defect Indication
I.610
VC-AIS Virtual Channel AIS
I.610
VC-RDI Virtual Channel Remot Defect Indication
I.610
Vx-AIS Virtual Channel AIS & Virtual, Path AIS simultan.
(O.191)
Vx-RDI Virtual Channel RDI & Virtual, Path RDI simultan.
(O.191)
LOC Loss Of Continuity 134
I.610
SDH Defects:
Signaling in Forward and Backward Direction

135
SDH Defects:
Signaling in Forward and Backward Direction

 Forward/Downstream direction for a fault condition

Along the direction of fault condition received
OR Towards the Back-plane of the node receiving fault condition

 Backward/Upstream direction for a fault condition

Opposite of the direction of fault condition received
OR Away from the Back-plane of the node receiving fault condition

 Downstream & Upstream direction for a node not fixed

Depends on direction of fault condition (abbreviated as FC)

Downstream
Upstream
FC 1

FC 2

ADM 1 Downstream
Upstream ADM 2 ADM 3
136
Alarm Understanding Rules
Rule 1

Alarms reported are alarms received

Alarm reported
FC 1

ex. a

ADM 1 ADM 2
Alarm reported
FC 1

ex. b

ADM 1 ADM 2
Rule 2

Alarms are reported on SDH Objects

137
Alarm Understanding Rules
Rule 3

3a. No Object => No Alarms reported

NO TU12
ex. (1-1-1)
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

ADM 1 ADM 2
NO Alarm reported for
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

3b. Object Mismatch => No Alarms reported

TU11
ex. (1-1-1)
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

ADM 1 ADM 2
NO Alarm reported for
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

138
Alarm Understanding Rules
Rule 4

4a. No PT XC => No Alarms pass-through

NO VC4
ex.
PT (1)
a FC on AU4 (1)

ADM 1 NO Alarm pass- ADM 2 ADM 3

through
Alarm reported for
FC on AU4 (1)

NO VC12
ex.
PT (1-1-
b 1) FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

ADM 1 NO Alarm pass- ADM 2 ADM 3

through
NO Alarm reported for
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

139
Alarm Understanding Rules
4b. Bigger PT XC => No Alarms reported & Alarm pass-through

STM-1
ex. VC4
links
a FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

ADM 1 Alarm pass-through ADM 2 ADM 3

for
NO Alarm reported
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)
for FC on TU12 (1-1-1)

4c. Smaller PT XC => No Alarms reported (always ??) &

Alarm pass-through but on smaller object

STM-1
ex. VC12
links
b (1-1-1) FC on TU3 (1)

ADM 1 Alarm pass-through ADM 2 ADM 3

for
NO Alarm reported
FC on TU12 (1-1-1)
for FC on TU3 (1)
140
SDH Maintenance Interactions
Regenerator Multiplex Higher Order Lower Order
Section Section Path Path
"1"
LOS/LOF AIS
(J0) RS-TIM
(B1) BIP Err.
MS-AIS "1"
(K2) AIS
MS-BIP Err.
(B2)
(M1) MS-REI
MS-RDI
(K2)
AU-AIS "1"
AU-LOP
HP-UNEQ "1"
(C2) AIS
(J1) HP-TIM
HP-BIP Err.
(B3)
HP-REI
(G1)
HP-RDI
(G1)
TU-AIS "1"
TU-LOP
LOM
(H4)
(C2) HP-PLM
LP-UNEQ "1"
(V5) AIS
LP-TIM
(J2)
LP-BIP Err.
(V5)
(V5) LP-REI
(V5) LP-RDI
"1"
(V5) LP-PLM
AIS
144
Maintenance Signal Definitions

LOS Drop of incomming optical power level causes BER of 10-3 or

worse
OOF A1, A2 incorrect for more than 625 us
LOF If OOF persists of 3ms
B1 Error Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-8
MS-AIS K2 (bits 6,7,8) =111 for 3 or more frames
B2 Error Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-24
MS-RDI If MS-AIS or excessive errors are detected, K2(bits 6,7,8)=110
MS-REI M1: Binary coded count of incorrect interleavedbit blocks
AU-AIS All "1" in the entire AU including AU pointer
AU-LOP 8 to 10 NDF enable or 8 to 10 invalid pointers
HP-UNEQ C2="0" for 5 or more frames
HP-TIM J1: Trace identifier mismatch
HP-SLM C2: Signal label mismatch
HP-LOM H4 values (2 to 10 times) unequal to multiframesequence
B3 Error Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-8
HP-RDI G1 (bit 5)=1, if an invalid signal is received in VC-4/VC-3
HP-REI G1 (bits 1,2,3,4) = binary coded B3 errors

145
Maintenance Signal Definitions
TU-AIS All "1" in the entire TU incl. TU pointer
TU-LOP 8 to 10 NDF enable or 8 to 10 invalid pointers
LP-UNEQ VC-3: C2 = all "0" for >=frames;
VC-12: V5 (bits 5,6,7) = 000 for >=5 frames
LP-TIM VC-3: J1 mismatch; VC-12: J2 mismatch
LP-SLM VC-3: C2 mismatch; VC-12: V5 (bits 5,6,7) mismatch
BIP-2 Err Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-2 (V5)
LP-RDI V5 (bit 8) = 1, if TU-2 path AIS or signal failure received
LP-REI V5 (bit 3) = 1, if >=1 errors were detected by BIP-2
LP-RFI V5 (bit 4) = 1, if a failure is declared
Abbreviations:

AU Administration LP Low path TIM Trace

unit OOF Out of frame identifier
HP High path REI Remote error indication (FEBE) TU Tributary unit
LOF Loss of frame RDI Remote defect indication (FERF) UNEQ Unequipped
LOM Loss of RFI Remote failure indication VC Virtual
miltiframe SLM Signal label mismatch C container
LOP Loss of pointer
LOS Loss of signal
146
Examples (1)
Example 1
Assumption: AU-4 Mapping on both ports of A & C
Root Cause: Fiber cut in the link from A to B

MS-AIS
AIS
AU-AIS
LOS TU-AIS

VC-12 VC-12

E1 MS-RDI E1

A HP-RDI B C
(Reg.)
LP-RDI MS-RDI
HP-RDI
LP-RDI
Note: The Reg. can not generate any RDI
Actually at C, AU-AIS & TU-AIS conditions are also received
147
Examples (2)
Example 2
Assumption: AU-4 Mapping on all ports Root Cause: Fiber cut in the link from
A to B
ADM B  VC-12 PT

MS-AIS

LOS TU AIS

VC-12 VC-12 VC-12

E1 MS-RDI LP RDI E1

A HP-RDI B C
LP RDI MS-RDI LP RDI
HP-RDI

Note: Only TU-AIS is reported on Node C (See Rule 4c)

LP-RDI on B is SSA
148
Examples (3)
Example 3 (with SNCP)
Assumption: AU-4 Mapping on all ports Root cause: Fiber-cut in the link
from A to B
MS-AIS
W  A-B-C, P  A-D-C
LOS TU AIS

E1 VC-12 VC-12 VC-12 E1

MS-RDI LP RDI
HP-RDI LP RDI
A B C
LP RDI MS-RDI
HP-RDI

Note: SNCP is always VC-12

uni-directional

D
149
Perfomance Parameter
ITU-T G.821
ES Errored Second Second with > 1 bit error
SES Severely Errored Second Second with BER > 1 x 10E-3

ITU-T G.826
ES Errored Second Second with> 1 errored block
SES Severely Errored Second Second with > 30% errored blocks
or > 1 defect
BBE Background Block Error Errored block, not occuring as
part of SES
UAS Unavailable Seconds:
Time
10 sec 10 sec
Unavailability < 10 Availability
detected sec detected
Unavailable Seconds

150
Synchronization Architecture in
SDH

151
Synchronization Network
Primary Reference Clock
long term: holdover 24h:
PRC
Caesium (Stratum 1) requ : 1 x 10-11
typ : 5 x 10-12
Rubidium (Stratum 2) requ : 1.6 x 10-8 , 1 x 10-10
typ : 4 x 10-11 , 2 x 10-11

SSU SSU
Synchronization Supply Unit

SEC SEC SEC

SDH SDH SDH
SDH Equipment Clock
Equip Equip Equip
. . .

152
Synchronization Reference
Model

G.811 G.812 G.812

PRC TNC SSU TNC SSU

G.813 G.813 G.813

SEC SEC SEC

Limits:

Max. 10 x G.812 TNC

Max. 60 x G.813 SEC,
though no more than
20 between 2 TNCs

153
Synchronization of SDH
Network Elements

SDH Network Element

Internal 2 Mbit/s
155 Mbit/s Oscillator
Data Signal Data Signal
± 4.6 ppm

Osc.

Synchronous
SDH Signal

2 048 kHz
Central Clock

154
Hold-over Mode

Phase error [ ns]

100000

10000

1000

100

10

0.01 1 100 10000 Observation interval [s]

155
Hold-over Measured Values
(TIE)

156
Recommendations define
Synchronization Networks

ITU-T ANSI / Bellcore ETSI

Definitions G.810 T1.101 / GR-253 ETS 300 462-1

Network G.825 T1.105 / GR-253 ETS 300 462-3
Primary Reference Clocks G.811 T1.101 ETS 300 462-6
Synchron. Supply Clocks (ST2) G.812 T1.101 ETS 300 462-4
Equipment Clocks (ST3) G.813 (G.81s) GR-253 ETS 300 462-5

157
Jitter and Wander

158
Jitter and Wander Definitions
 Jitter: Jitter is the short-term phase variations of the significant
instants of a digital signal from their ideal positions in time. It is the
deviation of the significant instants of a digital signal from the ideal,
equidistant values. The significant instant can be any convenient,
easily identifiable point on the signal such as the rising or falling
edge of a pulse. Otherwise stated, the transitions of a digital signal
invariably occur either too early or too late when compared to a
perfect square wave.

 Wander: A second parameter closely related to jitter is wander.

Wander similarly refers to long-term variations in the significant
instants. ITU-T G.810 classifies jitter frequencies below 10 Hz as
wander and frequencies at or above 10 Hz as jitter.

159
Jitter and Wander Definitions

Ideal Signal (NRZ)

Jittered Signal

Jitter

160
Source of Jitter and Wander
 Interference Signal
 Pattern dependent jitter
 Phase noise
 Delay variation
 Stuffing and wait time jitter
 Mapping jitter
 Pointer jitter
l
161
Jitter and Wander Measurement
Method

Clock
Input

Jitter
Signal Pattern HP LP and
Input
N f Wander

1 Result
Clock V
Evaluation

Pattern-Clock Frequency Phase Detector Filters Peak-to-Peak

Converter Divider Detector

Ext. Reference Clock Input

(Wander Measurement) ~ 1 Hz
f
V

Phase Detector Low Pass Filter VCO

Reference Clock Generator (PLL)

162
Jitter Measurement Filters
Amplitude / dB Values according to ITU-T Rec. G.825 and G.813
STM-1: 500 Hz 65 kHz 1.3 MHz
STM-4: 1 kHz 250 kHz 5 MHz
Wander
STM-16: 5 kHz 1 MHz 20 MHz
10 Hz
Frequency / Hz

Total Jitter High

Jitter including Frequency
lower Jitter
Frequency
Components
Max. Jitter Amplitude: 1,5UI 0,15UI

163
Definition of Jitter Peak-to-Peak
Amplitude
Jitter / UIpp

Jitter Time
Amplitude
(PP)

Measurement Period

164
Jitter and Wander
Measurements
 Network output jitter (G.825)

 Network element output jitter (G.783, G.813)

 Jitter transfer function (G.958)

 Jitter and Wander tolerance (G.825, G.813)

165
WANDER Definitions
Wander Long-term timing variation (below 10 Hz)

TIE "Time Interval Error"

MTIE "Max. Time Interval Error"

TDEV "Time Deviation", timing variation as a

function of integration time. Provides
information about the
spectral content.

TVAR"Time Variation", square of TDEV

ADEV "Allen Deviation"

MADEV "Modified Allen Deviation"

Definitions specified in ITU-T Rec. G.810
166
TIE and MTIE Definitions

Wander / UI
Time variation against reference

TIE max

MTI TIE at t End

E
TIE min
Time
Observation Period
Start End

167
Results (MTIE) compared to
Standards

168
TMN in SDH Network

169
Network Management
Basic tasks of network management:

Administrative functions:

Operation: Network supervising (anomalies, defects)

Network linking (reserve links, additional
links)

Maintenance: Identifing and elimination of impairments

Planning and commissioning: Network configuration

Operative functions: Supervision of network functions

Repair
Installation
Self test

170
TMN Overlay
Q Central Q
OS
Q
Q
Local
OS
Q
Q ECC
CC CC

Q ECC
ADM
ADM

ADM

ADM

171
Telecommunication
Management Network

Management of :

Performance
Central X Central X
Faults
OS OS
Configuration
NE
Q3 Accounting
Manager Q3 Security
NE Local
Manager OS
STM-N
Q3
Q3
Q ECC Q ECC
ADM DXC STM-N STM-N DXC
ADM
ADM

ADM Data Communication Network : X.25, ISDN, LAN

172
TMN Reference Configuration
Operating
System
OS F
Workstation
Q3

Data Communication
Network
DCN
Q3
Q3 Mediation
Device
MD F
Q2 or Q1 Workstation

Local Communication Network

LCN F
Qx Workstation

Network
Element
Network MD: Conversion between different interfaces
NE Element (Information Conversion Function ICF:
NE manufacturer-specific information model ->
operator specific information model)

173
Interoperability in TMN
Interoperability problems because of
X TMN X TMN
Operations Operations – multi vendor networks
System System
– heterogenous technology
– different standards for protocols and
management information
Q3

Q3
QMonitor provides
 easy adaptation to the interface
(autoconfiguration)
QMonitor
based on  decoding of protocols and
DominoWAN management information
DominoLAN
DA-30  automatic detection of errors in
Qecc Qecc management information
 SDH/SONET Qecc access with
Qecc transmission analyzers .
174
Next Generation SDH (NG-
SDH)

175
VCAT and LCAS

176
 Concatenation
Payloads that don’t fit into standard VT/VC sizes can be accommodated
by concatenating of several VTs / VCs

For example, 10 Mbps doesn’t fit into any VT or VC

so w/o concatenation we need to put it into an STS-1 (48.384 Mbps)
the remaining 38.384 Mbps can not be used
We would like to be able to divide the 10 Mbps among
7 VT1.5/VC-11 s = 7 * 1.600 = 11.20 Mbps or
5 VT2/VC-12 s = 5 * 2.176 = 10.88 Mbps

177
 Concatenation (cont.)
There are 2 ways to concatenate X VTs or VCs:
 Contiguous Concatenation (G.707 11.1)
 HOP – STS-Nc (SONET) or VC-4-Nc (SDH)
or LOP – 1-7 VC-2-Nc into a VC-3
 since has to fit into SONET/SDH payload
 only STS-Nc : N=3 * 4n or VC-4-Nc : N=4n
 components transported together and in-phase
 requires support at intermediate network elements

 Virtual Concatenation (VCAT G.707 11.2)

 HOP – STS-1-Xv or STS-Nc-Xv (SONET) or VC-3/4-Xv (SDH)
or LOP – VT-1.5/2/3/6-Xv (SONET) or VC-11/12/2-Xv (SDH)
 HOP: X ≤ 256 LOP: X ≤ 64 (limitation due to bits in header)
 payload split over multiple STSs / STMs
 fragments may follow different routes
 requires support only at path terminations
 requires buffering and differential delay alignment 178
Contiguous Concatenation:
STS-3c
270 columns

…
9 rows

258 columns of SPE

9 columns of 3 columns of 258 columns * 0.576 = 148.608 Mbps
STS-3
section and path overhead
line overhead

270 columns

…
9 rows

9 columns of 1 column of
260 columns of SPE
260 columns * 0.576 = 149.760 Mbps
STS-3c
section and path overhead
line overhead 179
 STS-N vs. STS-Nc

Although both have raw rates of 155.520 Mbps

STS-3c has 2 more columns (1.152Mbps) available

More generally, For STS-Nc gains (N-1) columns

e.g. STS-12c gains 11 columns = 6.336Mbps vis a vis STS-12
STS-48c gains 47 columns = 27.072 Mbps
STS-192c gains 191 columns = 110.016 Mbps !

However, an STS-Nc signal is not as easily separable

when we want to add/drop component signals

180
 Virtual Concatenation

H4

VCAT is an inverse multiplexing mechanism (round-robin)

VCAT members may travel along different routes in SONET/SDH network
Intermediate network elements don’t need to know about VCAT
(unlike contiguous concatenation that is handled by all intermediate nodes) 181
SDH virtually concatenated
VCs
VC Capacity (Mbps) if all members in one VC
VC-11-Xv 1.600, 3.200, … 1.600X in VC-3 X ≤ 28 C ≤ 44.800
in VC-4 X ≤ 64 C ≤ 102.400

VC-12-Xv 2.176, 4.352, … 2.176X in VC-3 X ≤ 21 C ≤ 45.696

in VC-4 X ≤ 63 C ≤ 137.088

VC-2-Xv 6.784, 13.568, …, 6.784X in VC-3 X ≤ 7 C ≤ 47.448

in VC-4 X ≤ 21 C ≤ 142.464

So we have many permissible rates

1.600, 2.176, 3.200, 4.352, 4.800, 6.400, 6.528, 6.784, 8.000,
…
182
SONET virtually concatenated
VTs
VT Capacity (Mbps) If all members in one STS
VT1.5-Xv 1.600, 3.200, … 1.600X in STS-1 X ≤ 28 C ≤ 44.800
in STS-3c X ≤ 64 C ≤ 102.400
VT2-Xv 2.176, 4.352, … 2.176X in STS-1 X ≤ 21 C ≤ 45.696
in STS-3c X ≤ 63 C ≤ 137.088
VT3-Xv 3.328, 6.656, … 3.328X in STS-1 X ≤ 14 C ≤ 46.592
in STS-3c X ≤ 42 C ≤ 139.776
VT6-Xv 6.784, 13.568, … 6.784X in STS-1 X ≤ 7 C ≤ 47.448
in STS-3c X ≤ 21 C ≤ 142.464
So we have many permissible rates
1.600, 2.176, 3.200, 3.328, 4.352, 4.800, 6.400, 6.528, 6.656, 6.784, …
183
Efficiency Comparison

rate w/o VCAT efficiency with VCAT efficiency

10 STS-1 21% VT2-5v 92%
VC-12-5v

100 STS-3c 67% STS-1-2v 100%

VC-4 VC-3-2v

1000 STS-48c 42% STS-3c-7v 95%

VC-4-16c VC-4-7v

Using VCAT increases efficiency to close to 100% !

184
 PDH VCAT VCAT
overhead
octet

1st
frame
of
4 E1s
TS0
Recently ITU-T G.7043 expanded VCAT to E1,T1,E3,T3
Enables bonding of up to 16 PDH signals to support higher rates
Only bonding of like PDH signals allowed (e.g. can’t mix E1s and T1s)
Multiframe is always per G.704/G.832 (e.g. T1 – ESF 24 frames, E1 16 frames)
1 byte per multiframe is VCAT overhead (SQ, MFI, MST, CRC)
Supports LCAS (to be discussed next)

each E1 time
185
 PDH VCAT Overhead Octet
VCAT
overhead
octet

frames
of an
E1
…
TS0

There is one VCAT overhead octet per multiframe, so net rate is

T1: (24*24-1=) 575 data bytes per 3 ms. multiframe = 191.666 kB/s
E1: (16*30-1=) 495 data bytes per 2 ms multiframe = 247.5 kB/s
T3 and E3 can also be used
We will show the overhead octet format later
(when using LCAS, the overhead octet is called VLI)
186
 Delay Compensation
802.1ad Ethernet link aggregation cheats
 each identifiable flow is restricted to one link
 doesn’t work if single high-BW flow
VCAT is completely general
 works even with a single flow
VCG members may travel over completely separate paths
so the VCAT mechanism must compensate for differential delay
Requirement for over ½ second compensation
Must compensate to the bit level
but since frames have Frame Alignment Signal
the VCAT mechanism only needs to identify individual frames

187
 VCAT Buffering

Since VCAT components may take different paths

At egress the members
are no longer in the proper temporal relationship
VCAT path termination function buffers members
and outputs in proper order (relying on POH sequencing)
(up to 512 ms of differential delay can be tolerated)

VCAT defines a multiframe to enable delay compensation

 length of multiframe determines delay that can be accommodated
H4 byte in member’s POH contains :
 sequence indicator (identifies component) (number of bits limits X)
 MFI multiframe indicator (multiframe sequencing to find differential delay)
188
 Multiframes and Superframes
Here is how we compensate for 512 ms of differential delay
512 ms corresponds to a superframe is 4096 TDM frames (4096*0.125m=512m)
For HOP SDH VCAT and PDH VCAT (H4 byte or PDH VCAT overhead)
The basic multiframe is 16 frames
So we need 256 multiframes in a superframe (256*16=4096)
The MultiFrame Indicator is divided into two parts:
 MFI1 (4 bits) appears once per frame
 and counts from 0 to 15 to sequence the multiframe

 MFI2 (8bits) appears once per multiframe

 and counts from 0 to 255

For LOP SDH (bit 2 of K4 byte)

 a 32 bit frame is built and a 5-bit MFI is dedicated
 32 multiframes of 16 ms give the needed 512 ms
189
 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme
LCAS is defined in G.7042 (also numbered Y.1305)
LCAS extends VCAT by allowing dynamic BW changes
LCAS is a protocol for dynamic adding/removing of VCAT members
hitless BW modification
 similar to Link Aggregation Control Protocol for Ethernet links

LCAS is not a “control plane” or “management” protocol

it doesn’t allocate the members
 still need control protocols to perform actual allocation

LCAS is a “handshake” protocol

 it enables the path ends to negotiate the additional / deletion
 it guarantees that there will be no loss of data during change
 it can determine that a proposed member is ill suited
 it allows automatic removal of faulty member
190
 LCAS – how does it work?
LCAS is unidirectional (for symmetric BW need to perform twice)
LCAS functions can be initiated by source or sink
J1 LCAS assumes that all VCG members are error-free
B3  LCAS messages are CRC protected

C2 LCAS messages are sent in advance

 sink processes messages after differential compensation
G1
 message describes link state at time of next message
F2  receiver can switch to new configuration in time
H4 LCAS messages are in the upper nibble of
F3  H4 byte for HOS SONET/SDH
 K4 byte for LOS SONET/SDH
K3
 VCAT overhead octet for PDH – VCAT and LCAS Information
N1
LCAS messages employ redundancy
POH  messages from source to sink are member specific
 messages from sink to source are replicated
191
LCAS control messages
LCAS adds fields to the basic VCAT ones
Fields in messages from source to sink:
 MFI MultiFrame Indicator
 SQ SeQuence indicator (member ID inside VCAT group)
 CTRL ConTRoL (IDLE, being ADDed, NORMal, End of Sequence, Do Not Use)
 GID Group Identification (identifies VCAT group)
Fields in messages from sink to source (identical in all members):
 MST Member Status (1 bit for each VCG member)
 RS-Ack ReSequence Acknowledgement

Fields in both directions

 CRC Cyclic Redundancy Code
The precise format depends on the VCAT type (H4, K4, PDH)
Note: for H4 format SQ is 8 bits, so up to 256 VCG members
for PDH SQ is only 4 bits, so up to 16 VCG members
192
H4 format
MFI1
MFI2 bits 1-4 0 0 0 0
MFI2 bits 5-8 0 0 0 1
CTRL 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 GID 0 0 1 1
reserved fields

16 frame multiframe
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
CRC-8 bits 1-4 0 1 1 0
CRC-8 bits 5-8 0 1 1 1
MST bits 1 0 0 0
more MST bits 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 RS-ACK 1 0 1 0
reserved fields

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
SQ bits 1-4 1 1 1 0
SQ bits 5-8 1 1 1 1 193
 H4 Format
CRC-8 (when using K4 it is CRC-3)
 covers the previous 14 frames (not sync’ed on multiframe)
 polynomial x8 + x2 + x + 1

MST
 each VCG member carries the status of all members
 so we need 256 bits of member status
 this is done by muxing MST bits
 there are MST bits per multiframe
 and 32 multiframes in an MST multiframe
 no special sequencing, just MFI2 multiframe mod 32
GID
 single bit indentifier
 all members of VCG share the same bit
 cycles through 215-1 LFSR sequence
 different VCGs use different phase offsets of sequence
194
 LCAS – Adding a Member (1)
When more/less BW is needed, we need to add/remove VCAT members
Adding/removing VCAT members first requires provisioning (management)
LCAS handles member sequence numbers assignment
LCAS ensures service is not disrupted
Example: to add a 4th member to group “1”

Initial state: GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM

GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=NORM
GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=EOS

Step 1: NMS provisions new member

source sends CTRL=IDLE for new member GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM
sink sends MST=FAIL for new member GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=NORM
GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=EOS
GID=g SQ=FF CTRL=IDLE 195
 LCAS – Adding a Member (2)
Step 2: source sends CTRL=ADD and SQ
sink sends MST=OK for new member GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM
 if it has been provisioned
 if receiving new member OK GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=NORM
 if it is able to compensate for delay GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=EOS
otherwise it will send MST=FAIL GID=g SQ=4 CTRL=ADD
and source reports this to NMS

Step 3: source sends CTRL=EOS for new member GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM
new member starts to carry traffic GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=NORM
sink sends RS-ACK GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=NORM

Note 1: several new members may be added at once GID=g SQ=4 CTRL=EOS

Note 2: removing a member is similar

Source puts CTRL=IDLE for member to be removed and stops using it
All member sequence numbers must be adjusted 196
 LCAS – Service Preservation
To preserve service integrity if sink detects a failure of a VCAT member
LCAS can temporarily remove member (if service can tolerate BW reduction)
GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM
GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=NORM
Example: Initial state
GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=NORM
GID=g SQ=4 CTRL=EOS

GID=g SQ=1 CTRL=NORM

Step 1: sink sends MST=FAIL for member 2
GID=g SQ=2 CTRL=DNU
source sends CTRL=DNU (special treatment if EoS)
GID=g SQ=3 CTRL=NORM
and ceases to use member 2
Note: if EoS fails, renumber to ensure EoS is active GID=g SQ=4 CTRL=EOS

Step 2: sink sends MST=OK indicating defect is cleared

source returns CTRL to NORM
and starts using the member again
197
Note: if NMS decides to permanently remove the member, proceed as in previous slide
Handling Packet Data

198
 Packet over SONET
Currently defined in RFC2615 (PPP over SONET)
obsoletes RFC1619
SONET/SDH can provide a point-to-point byte-oriented
full-duplex synchronous link

PPP is ideal for data transport over such a link

PoS uses PPP in HDLC framing to provide a byte-oriented

interface to the SONET/SDH infrastructure

POH signal label (C2)

indicates PoS as C2=16 (C2=CF if no scrambler)

199
 PoS Architecture
IP
PPP
HDLC
SONET/SDH

PoS is based on PPP in HDLC framing

Since SONET/SDH is byte oriented, byte stuffing is employed
A special scrambler is used to protect SONET/SDH timing
PoS operates on IP packets
If IP is delivered over Ethernet
 the Ethernet is terminated (frame removed)
 Ethernet must be reconstituted at the far end
 require routers at edges of SONET/SDH network
200
PoS Details
IP packet is encapsulated in PPP
 default MTU is 1500 bytes
 up to 64,000 bytes allowed if negotiated by PPP

FCS is generated and appended

PPP in HDLC framing with byte stuffing
43 bit scrambler is run over the SPE
byte stream is placed octet-aligned in SPE
 (e.g. 149.760 Mbps of STM-1)
 HDLC frames may cross SPE boundaries

201
POS Problems
PoS is BW efficient
but POS has its disadvantages
 BW must be predetermined
 HDLC BW expansion and nondeterminacy
 BW allocation is tightly constrained by SONET/SDH
capacities
 e.g. GBE requires a full OC-48 pipe
 POS requires removing the Ethernet headers
 so lose RPR, VLAN, 802.1p, multicasting, etc
 POS requires IP routers

202
 LAPS
 In 2001 ITU-T introduced protocols for transporting
packets over SDH
 X.85 IP over SDH using LAPS
 X.86 Ethernet over LAPS
 Built on series of ITU “LAPx” HDLC-based protocols
 Use ISO HDLC format
 Implement connectionless byte-oriented protocols
over SDH
 X.85 is very close to (but not quite) IETF PoS

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GFP Architecture
A new approach, not based on HDLC
Defined in ITU-T G.7041 (also numbered Y.1303)
originally developed in T1X1 to fix ATM limitations
(like ATM) uses HEC protected frames instead of HDLC

Ethernet IP HDLC other

GFP – client specific part
GFP – common part
SDH OTN other

Client may be PDU-oriented (Ethernet MAC, IP)

or block-oriented (GBE, fiber channel)
GFP frames
 are octet aligned
 contain at most 65,535 bytes
 consist of a header + payload area

Any idle time between GFP frames is filled with GFP idle frames
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 GFP Frame Structure
Every GFP frame has a 4-byte core header
 2 byte Payload Length Indicator PLI (2B)
core
PLI = 01,2,3 are for control frames
header cHEC (2B)
 2 byte core Header Error Control
payload header
X16 + X12 + X5 + 1
(4-64B)
 entire core header is XOR’ed with B6AB31E0
Idle GFP frames payload
 have PLI=0 area payload
 have no payload area

Non-idle GFP frames optional payload

FCS (4B)
 have ≥ 4 bytes in payload area
 the payload has its own header
 2 payload modes : GFP-F and GFP-T
 optionally protect payload with CRC-32
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 GFP Payload Header
GFP payload header has
 type (2B)
PTI (3b) PFI EXI (3b)
 type HEC (CRC-16) type (2B)
 extension header (0-60B)
UPI (8b)
tHEC (2B)
either null or linear extension (payload type muxing)
 extension HEC (CRC-16)
extension header
(0-60B)
type consists of eHEC (2B)
 Payload Type Identifier (3b)
 PTI=000 for client data
 PTI=100 for client management (OAM dLOS, dLOF)
 Payload FCS Indicator (1b)
 PFI=1 means there is a payload FCS
 Extension Header ID (3b)
 User Payload Identifier (8b)
 values for Ethernet, IP, PPP, FC, RPR, MPLS, etc.
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 GFP Modes
GFP-F - frame mapped GFP
Good for PDU-based protocols (Ethernet, IP, MPLS)
or HDLC-based ones (PPP)
Client PDU is placed in GFP payload field

GFP-T – transparent GFP

Good for protocols that exploit physical layer capabilities
In particular
8B/10B line code
used in fiber channel, GbE, FICON, ESCON, DVB, etc
Were we to use GFP-F would lose control info, GFP-T is transparent to these codes
Also, GFP-T needn’t wait for entire PDU to be received (adding delay!)

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