Dokumen - Pub Expert Knowledge Based Inspection Systems Inspection Diagnosis and Repair of The Building Envelope 1st Ed 9783030424459 9783030424466

Jorge
de Brito
Clara Pereira
José D. Silvestre
Inês Flores-Colen
Expert
Knowledge-based
Inspection Systems
Inspection, Diagnosis, and Repair
of the Building Envelope
Expert Knowledge-based Inspection Systems
Jorge de Brito Clara Pereira
• •
José D. Silvestre Inês Flores-Colen

•
Expert Knowledge-based
Inspection Systems
Inspection, Diagnosis, and Repair
of the Building Envelope
123
Jorge de Brito Clara Pereira
CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico
University of Lisbon University of Lisbon
Lisbon, Portugal Lisbon, Portugal
José D. Silvestre Inês Flores-Colen

CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico
University of Lisbon University of Lisbon
Lisbon, Portugal Lisbon, Portugal
ISBN 978-3-030-42445-9 ISBN 978-3-030-42446-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6
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Preface
This book constitutes the capstone of a line of research about expert inspection
systems for individual building elements. It builds on that research and presents a
broader approach for the building envelope. That approach is not simply a sum
of the information collected for individual types of non-structural building elements
and materials used in the building envelope. It tries to summarise the complexity of
several building elements and materials in a harmonised system of inspection,
dealing with pathology in a comprehensive manner, trying to balance conciseness
and particular characteristics. That philosophy also extends to diagnosis methods
that may be useful to be performed on-site to help characterise the defect and
confirm its causes, and to repair techniques, which in the course of action a sur-
veyor may recommend to the decision-maker.
Performing building inspections in a systematised manner potentiates obtaining
more reliable results. Those results, as the basis of application of predictive
maintenance strategies, for instance may promote more effective maintenance
operations. The authors intend to encourage a more standardised approach to
building inspection, as opposed to a case-based approach.
Periodically inspecting buildings allows detecting pathological phenomena at an
early stage, hence more likely to be circumscribed and easier to repair. If the
frequency of inspection is adapted to the needs of the building and to the required
levels of performance of building elements, and inspection results reflect on ade-
quate repair techniques, then the durability of building elements and the general
in-use quality level of the building will increase.
Planned maintenance should be seen as the key-approach to keep the physical
performance levels of building elements according to the required standards. Then,
more accurate building inspections may contribute to prolong the service life of the
building stock, avoiding the construction of new buildings, hence decreasing the
consumption of resources and construction and demolition waste.
v
vi Preface
This book is aimed at professionals in the building sector that are looking for a
methodology to inspect buildings. Although a specific inspection system for the
building envelope is proposed, the authors intend to inspire the development of
other building inspection systems whose contents are according to the needs,
knowledge and experience of the readers, using the proposed methodology.
Lisbon, Portugal Jorge de Brito

Clara Pereira
José D. Silvestre
Inês Flores-Colen
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Fundação para a
Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) to the project PTDC/ECM-COM/5772/2014 “Service Life
Prediction for a risk-based Building Management System”. The authors would also like to
acknowledge the support of FCT through the second author’s Ph.D. scholarship SFRH/BD/
131113/2017. Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge the support of FCT to the research
centre Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability (CERIS), based at Instituto
Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon.
Contents
1 Buildings’ Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Building Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Maintenance and Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Overview of Building Inspection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Expert Individual Inspection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 From Individual Elements to the Building Envelope . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Book Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Natural Stone Claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Materials Used in Natural Stone Claddings . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Design of Natural Stone Claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.3 Execution of Natural Stone Claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Adhesive Ceramic Tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Materials Used in Adhesive Ceramic Tiling . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2 Design of Adhesive Ceramic Tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3 Execution of Adhesive Ceramic Tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.4 Quality Control at the Execution Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Wall Renders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Materials Used in Wall Renders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.2 Design of a Wall Render . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.3 Execution of Wall Renders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Painted Façades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.1 Materials Used in Painted Façades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.2 Design of Painted Façades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.3 Execution of Painted Façades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
vii
viii Contents
2.6 Etics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6.1 Components of ETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.2 Design of an ETICS Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6.3 Execution of ETICS Claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.7 Architectural Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.7.1 Materials Used in Architectural Concrete Surfaces . . . . . 84
2.7.2 Design of Architectural Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.7.3 Execution of Architectural Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 95
2.8 Door and Window Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.8.1 Materials Used in Door and Window Frames . . . . . . . . . 97
2.8.2 Design of Door and Window Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.8.3 Execution of Door and Window Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.9 External Claddings of Pitched Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.9.1 Materials Used in External Claddings of Pitched
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.9.2 Design of External Claddings of Pitched Roofs . . . . . . . 135
2.9.3 Execution of External Claddings of Pitched Roofs . . . . . 141
2.10 Flat Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.10.1 Materials Used in Flat Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.10.2 Execution of Flat Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.11 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3 Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.1 Proposed Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.2 Classification of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.2.1 Defects of Physical Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.2.2 Defects of Chemical Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.3 Defects of Mechanical Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.2.4 Other Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.3 Occurrence of Defects in Building Elements and Materials . . . . . 199
3.4 Classification of Probable Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.4.1 Design Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.4.2 Execution Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.4.3 Mechanical Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.4.4 Environmental Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.4.5 Use and Maintenance Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.5 Occurrence of Causes of Defects in Building Elements
and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.6 Defects–Causes Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.6.1 Defects–Probable Causes Correlation Matrix . . . . . . . . . 227
3.6.2 Inter-defects Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Contents ix
4 Diagnosis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

4.2 Classification of Diagnosis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.2.1 Assisted Sensory Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.2.2 Electrical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.2.3 Thermo-Hygrometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.2.4 Sound and Acoustic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.2.5 Nuclear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.2.6 Hydric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.2.7 Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.2.8 Pressure Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.2.9 Colour Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.2.10 Chemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.3 Application of Diagnosis Methods in Building Elements
and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.4 Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.4.1 Correlation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.4.2 Building a Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation
Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5 Repair Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.2 Classification of Repair Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.2.1 Surface of the Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.2.2 Cladding System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.2.3 Change in the Bearing Structure/Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.2.4 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.3 Use of Repair Techniques in Building Elements
and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.4 Defects–Repair Techniques Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.4.1 Correlation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.4.2 Building a Defects–Repair Techniques
Correlation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6 Elements to Support the Inspection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.2 Defect Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.2.1 Structure of a Defect File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.2.2 Example of a Defect File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6.3 Atlas of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
x Contents
6.3.1 Structure of the Atlas of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

6.3.2 Example of a Page of the Atlas of Defects . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.4 Diagnosis Methods Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.4.1 Structure of a Diagnosis Method File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.5 Repair Techniques Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
6.5.1 Structure of a Repair Technique File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
6.5.2 Example of a Repair Technique File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
6.6 Inspection Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
6.6.1 Structure of an Inspection Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
6.6.2 Example of an Inspection Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
7 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.2 Coffee House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.2.1 Characterisation of the Building and Its
Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
7.2.2 Data on Building Elements and Their Degradation
Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.3 Detached House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
7.4 Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
7.5 Analysis of the Inspection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
7.6 Advantages and Limitations of Using an Inspection System . . . . 448
7.7 Examples of How to Convey Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
8 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 457
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 457
8.2 Development of a Software Tool . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 459
8.3 Integration with Service Life Prediction Methodologies . . . . . . . . 460
8.4 Integration with Maintenance Planning . ............. . . . . . . 464
8.5 Objectives-Based Customisation . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 465
8.6 Region-Based Customisation . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 466
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 466
About the Authors
Jorge de Brito is a Full Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico, University of

Lisbon since 2009. He graduated in Civil Engineering in 1982, completed his
Master’s Degree in Structural Engineering (pathology of concrete structures) in
1987 and his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (bridge management systems) in 1993. He
was the head of the research centre Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for
Sustainability (CERIS) from 2017 until 2018. Prof. Jorge de Brito is a member
of the following international commissions: W80 (CIB)—presently co-coordinator;
W86 (CIB)—presently coordinator; W115 (CIB); TC RAC (RILEM); and WC7
(IABSE). He is also a member of the IABSE, FIB, CIB, IABMAS and RILEM
international organisations. Prof. Jorge de Brito has published seven international
books, including “Methodologies for Service Life Prediction of Buildings” and
“Handbook of Concrete Bridge Management”.
Clara Pereira is a Ph.D. Student at Instituto Superior Técnico, University of

Lisbon since 2017. She graduated in Architecture in 2008 and completed her
Master’s Degree in Construction and Rehabilitation (characterisation and pathology
of secondary schools’ buildings) in 2012. Clara Pereira is a member of the CIB
SC-DECivil (at Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon).
José D. Silvestre is an Assistant Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico, University

of Lisbon since 2012. He graduated in Civil Engineering in 2002, completed his
Master’s Degree in Construction (expert inspection system of adhesive ceramic
tiling) in 2005 and his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (life cycle assessment applied to
construction materials and building assemblies) in 2012. Prof. José D. Silvestre is a
member of the W115 (CIB) international commission. He was the President of the
Portuguese Technical Committee CT171 “Sustainability of construction works”
between 2017 and 2019. CT171 is a mirror group of the CT350 of the European
Committee for Standardization (CEN).
xi
xii About the Authors
Inês Flores-Colen is an Associated Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico,

University of Lisbon since 2016. She graduated in Civil Engineering in 1996,
completed her Master’s Degree in Construction (maintenance of building elements)
in 2002 and her Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (in-service performance of rendered
facades for predictive maintenance) in 2009. Prof. Inês Flores-Colen is a member
of the following international commissions: W70 (CIB) and W86 (CIB)—secretary
of W86 (CIB) commission since June 2019. She is a member of the Portuguese
Technical Committee CT192 for “Facility Management”.
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Blocks of limestone rock in a quarry (a) and quarry

for the extraction of limestone in a natural park (b) . . . . . . . . .. 21
Fig. 2.2 Different types of joints in natural stone claddings . . . . . . . . . .. 22
Fig. 2.3 Open joints in a natural stone cladding: a general view;
b close-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
Fig. 2.4 Staining emphasising the perimeter of natural stone plates . . . .. 25
Fig. 2.5 Natural stone cladding with ventilation holes: a general view;
b close-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
Fig. 2.6 Sections of: a a dowel anchorage system; and b a Keil-type
technology undercut anchorage system. 1—natural stone plate;
2—panel bracket; 3—slotted anchor sleeve with internal
thread; 4—screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
Fig. 2.7 Two types of kerf anchor clips’ profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Fig. 2.8 Different types of natural stone finishes: a scratched;
b bush-hammered; c polished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Fig. 2.9 Early staining in a natural stone cladding associated with the
adhesive material: a general view; b close-up; c back face of
removed stone plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
Fig. 2.10 Expansion joint filled with mastic. 1—substrate; 2—bedding
material; 3—tiles; 4—expansion joint filling material;
5—silicone cord; 6—mastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Fig. 2.11 Representation of the application of adhesive ceramic tiling
using a thick or a thin bed. 1—substrate; 2—spatter-dash
(render layer); 3—render; 4—traditional mortar layer;
5—traditional mortar applied on the back face of tiles;
6—elastic joint; 7—adhesive material; 8—movement joint;
9—tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 2.12 Composition of paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 2.13 Water repellence versus permeability to water vapour . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 2.14 Paint pellicle formation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 2.15 Scheme of the components of ETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
xiii
xiv List of Figures
Fig. 2.16 Examples of types of finishes for ETICS: a mixed binder

coating; b stone plates; and c adhesive ceramic tiling . . . . . . . .. 66
Fig. 2.17 Thermal bridge in a system with insulation between two
masonry leaves and prevention of thermal bridges
in ETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Fig. 2.18 Comparison between thermal gradients of walls without
and with ETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
Fig. 2.19 Reinforcement of joints between starting and lateral profiles . .. 75
Fig. 2.20 Bonding of the reinforcement mesh directly on the substrate
before placing the starting profile (a) and reinforcement mesh
folded and bonded over the thermal insulation boards using
mortar (back-wrapping) (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 2.21 Illustration of the execution of the peripheral cord at 45° . . . . . . 76
Fig. 2.22 Simplified effect of wind loads in a building façade . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.23 Mechanical fastening of wall plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.24 Arrangement of insulation boards with unaligned joints
(a) and L-shaped boards around a window (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Fig. 2.25 Pattern of fastening marks in an architectural concrete
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
Fig. 2.26 Architectural concrete surface with: a smooth finish (a);
mid-relief (b); and sunk relief (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 2.27 Location of the different types of shims in different types of
door and window frames (from left to right, top to bottom:
fixed window, casement window, hopper window, awning
window, European tilt and turn window, pivot window, sliding
window, vertical sliding window). C1—bearing shims;
C2—side shims; C3—safety shims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 2.28 Different types of joints between the glazing units
and rails (from left to right: open joint, closed joint, joint with
exterior glass stop fastened with nails or screws and
self-draining joint). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 2.29 Mastics and sealing accessories used in door and window
frames: a acrylic bitumen; b sealing rubbers; and c
sealing tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 2.30 Elements of a wall opening (a) and basic components
of a door or window frame (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 2.31 Different types of windows. a—fixed window; b—casement
windows; c—hopper window; d—awning window;
e—European tilt and turn window; f—vertical pivot window;
g—horizontal pivot window; h—sliding window;
i—double-hung window; j—jalousie window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
List of Figures xv
Fig. 2.32 Different types of doors. a—side-hung door; b—folding door;

c—revolving door; d.1—encased sliding door; d.2—surface
hung sliding door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 2.33 Steps in the execution of wood door and window frames:
a gluing wood profiles; b installing sealants;
and c ironmongery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fig. 2.34 Steps in the execution of aluminium door and window frames:
a sealing profiles; b fastening profiles; and c ironmongery . . . . . 112
Fig. 2.35 Heritage building with the pitched roof cladded with clay-slate
tiles (a) and building with the external cladding of the pitched
roof in clay-slate tiles (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 2.36 Different types of ceramic roof tiles. a—interlocking roof tile;
b—Marseille roof tile; c—interlocking flat roof tile; d—Monk
and Nun roof tiles; e—Roman roof tiles; f—flat roof tile . . . . . . 116
Fig. 2.37 Example of a pitched roof with Monk and Nun tiles . . . . . . . . . 118
Fig. 2.38 Inclusion of polypropylene strips in the corrugated profiles
of fibre-cement sheets for better resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 2.39 Different types of metallic roof claddings: a copper roof
cladding; b zinc roof cladding; c curved metallic roof cladding;
d trapezoidal metallic sheet roof cladding; and e moulded
metallic sheet roof cladding mimicking ceramic roof tiles . . . . . 123
Fig. 2.40 Composition of bitumen and aluminium sheet coated
steel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 2.41 Application of fastening criteria for ceramic roof tiles with
interlock in a roof with a slope higher than 150% (a),
and for flat ceramic roof tiles in a roof with a slope higher than
175% (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 2.42 Application of clay-slate tiles over a wood deck using nails and
clamps (a) and over wood battens using nails (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 2.43 Alignment and beginning of application of interlocking
ceramic tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 2.44 Flat tiles with aligned (a) and misaligned joints (b) . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 2.45 Minimal overlay of micro-concrete tiles according
to the roof slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 2.46 Direction for applying fibre-cement sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 2.47 Applying bituminous strips as a watertightness complement in
the transverse (a) and longitudinal (b) overlays of metallic roof
claddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 2.48 Arrangement of fastening elements of metallic and plastic roof
claddings. a—Fastening to structure elements; b—fastening to
underlaying cladding sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 2.49 Examples of ways of adhering plastic roof claddings elements
together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
xvi List of Figures
Fig. 2.50 Comparison of the temperature profile (warm weather case) in

(a) a traditional flat roof and in (b) an inverted flat roof (data
from DuPont [2019b]). 1—protection layer; 2—waterproofing
layer; 3—thermal insulation layer; 4—bearing structure . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 2.51 Design details of tail-ends of waterproofing in parapet walls
(general cases): a protected tail-end and b unprotected tail-end.
1—wall render; 2—brick masonry; 3—tail-end strip of APP
modified bitumen membrane; 4—heavy protection layer;
5—separation layer; 6—APP modified bitumen waterproofing
membrane; 7—primer (bituminous emulsion) or vapour-barrier
(if necessary); 8—bearing structure; 9—sealant;
10—aluminium flashing profile; 11—tail-end strip of
self-protected APP modified bitumen membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 2.52 Design detail of the adequate tail-end in doorsills (general
case). 1—doorsill with a drip edge, laid on a bed of mortar;
2—metal flashing; 3—waterproofing layer; 4—pavers on
paver pedestals; 5—thermal insulation (thickness in
accordance with thermal regulations); 6—vapour-barrier;
7—shaping layer; 8—bearing structure; 9—thermal break to
avoid a thermal bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 2.53 Design detail of a coping in stone or precast concrete
of a parapet wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 2.54 Design detail of an expansion joint in a flat roof (general case).
1—neoprene cord; 2—tail-end strip of self-protected APP
modified bitumen membrane; 3—tail-end strip of APP
modified bitumen membrane; 4—heavy protection layer;
5—separation layer; 6—APP modified bitumen waterproofing
membrane; 7—primer (bituminous emulsion) or vapour-barrier
(if necessary); 8—shaping layer; 9—bearing structure . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 3.1 Examples of defects of physical nature: a A-A1 leakage damp;
b A-A2 surface damp; c A-A3 dirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 3.2 Examples of defects of physical nature: a A-A4 colour
changes; b A-A5 peeling; c A-A6 disaggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 3.3 Examples of defects of chemical nature: a A-B1 biological
growth; b A-B2 vegetation growth; c A-B3 efflorescence . . . . . . 192
Fig. 3.4 Examples of defects of chemical nature: a A-B4 bulging;
b A-B5 corrosion on the current surface; c A-B6 corrosion
in metallic fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Fig. 3.5 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C1 mapped
cracking; b A-C2 oriented cracking on the current surface;
c A-C3 fracture on the current surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 3.6 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C4 splintering
adjacent to edges; b A-C5 scaling of the finishing coat; c A-C6
deep wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
List of Figures xvii
Fig. 3.7 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C7 flatness

deficiencies; b A-C8 material gap; c A-C9 detachment of the
wall render . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 3.8 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C10 loss of
adhesion; b A-C11 bending of metallic fastening element . . . . . 195
Fig. 3.9 Examples of other defects: a A-D1 flaws in tail-end elements;
b A-D2 misalignment of cladding elements; c A-D3 finishing
defects/discontinuities in architectural concrete surfaces . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 3.10 Examples of other defects: a A-D4 finishing colour flaws in
painted façades; b A-D5 finishing texture flaws in painted
façades; c A-D6 degradation of the filling material
of current joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 3.11 Examples of other defects: a A-D7 loss of filling material in
current joints; b A-D8 inadequate operation of expansion joints
in flat roofs; c A-D9 insufficient overlap of the claddings
elements in roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 3.12 Examples of other defects: a A-D10 gaps in door and window
frames; b A-D11 absent or damaged hinges or locks in door
and window frames; c A-D12 ponding/insufficient slope
in roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 3.13 Examples of other defects: a A-D13 inadequate operation of
elements of the rainwater drainage system; b A-D14 deficient
capping adjacent to flat roofs; c A-D15 incorrect or deficient
interventions in claddings of pitched roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 3.14 Incorrect detailing of a window-sill in an ETICS façade. . . . . . . 208
Fig. 3.15 Defects in an architectural concrete surface that were probably
caused by the application in unfavourable weather
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Fig. 3.16 Deformation of the bearing structure of a pitched roof . . . . . . . . 214
Fig. 3.17 Ceramic roof tiles of a pitched roof affected
by strong wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fig. 3.18 Efflorescence in an architectural concrete surface . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 3.19 Vegetation growth in a façade associated with the lack of
cleaning of debris on horizontal surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Fig. 3.20 Two-dimensional correlation matrix between defects and
causes of defects, as defined by de Brito et al. (1994) . . . . . . . . 234
Fig. 3.21 Schematic three-dimensional defects–causes correlation
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 3.22 Interpreting the three-dimensional correlation matrix . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 3.23 Possible analysis sequences allowed by a three-dimensional
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 3.24 Proportions of the three-dimensional matrix between defects
and probable causes of defects within the building envelope
inspection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 3.25 Associating defects through causes to build an inter-defects

correlation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 3.26 Schematic three-dimensional inter-defects correlation matrix . . . 247
Fig. 4.1 Example of assisted sensory analysis method “D-A3
Assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and
alignments”: a inclinometer; b spirit level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Fig. 4.2 Example of assisted sensory analysis method “D-A4 Tell-tale
gauge and gypsum testimonies”: using a tell-tale gauge . . . . . . . 261
Fig. 4.3 Examples assisted sensory analyses (method “D-A5 Crack
width ruler and crack-measuring microscope”): a use of a
crack width ruler; b illustration of the use of a crack-measuring
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Fig. 4.4 Example of assisted sensory analysis method “D-A6
Mechanical strain gauge”: drawing of a digital mechanical
strain gauge and a steel calibration bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Fig. 4.5 Examples of electrical methods: a diagram of “D-B1 Eddy
currents”; b use of a magnetometer in a reinforced concrete
column (“D-B4 Magnetometry”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fig. 4.6 Examples of thermo-hygrometric methods: a use of a surface
moisture meter (“D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or
surface temperature and humidity”); b moisture meter with
long probes (“D-C2 Measurement of in-depth humidity”) . . . . . 267
Fig. 4.7 Examples of use of the thermo-hygrometric method “D-C3
Infrared thermography”: a thermographic camera;
b thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Fig. 4.8 Examples of sound and acoustic methods: a illustration
of the use of ultrasound probes in a wall cladding
(“D-D1 Ultrasound”); b use of a rubber hammer
(“D-D2 Percussion”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Fig. 4.9 Diagram of “D-E1 Nuclear method” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 4.10 Example of the hydric method “D-F1 Watertightness test”:
schematic view of both the flat roof with a water surface 2.5
cm thick and a top floor room, whose ceiling shows subsequent
signs of leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Fig. 4.11 Examples of hydric methods: a schematic view of performing
“D-F2 Water jet”; b schematic view of performing “D-F3
submersion of the base of window frames” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 4.12 Examples of hydric method “D-F4 Initial surface absorption
test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube”: a scheme of the typical
assembly of the ISAT; b Karsten-tube apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Fig. 4.13 Examples of use of the mechanical method “D-G1 Sphere
impact, grid cutting, scratching and abrasion tests (Martinet
Baronnie)”: a sphere impact test; b grid cutting test . . . . . . . . . . 279
List of Figures xix
Fig. 4.14 Examples of the mechanical method “D-G6 Pull-off test”:

a core drilling machine; b illustration of an hydraulic pull-off
equipment; and c and d two other different types of hydraulic
pull-off equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Fig. 4.15 Example of pressure method “D-H1 Ventilator test”: schematic
view of the assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 4.16 Examples of colour methods: a drawing of a generic colour
meter (“D-I1 Colour meter”); b use of the NCS colour scale
(“D-I2 Munsell system or NCS scale colour specification”) . . . . 283
Fig. 4.17 Examples of use of the chemical method “D-J2 Test strips and
field kit”: a test strip and comparison scale; b field kit . . . . . . . . 284
diagnosis methods as defined by de Brito (1992) and Branco
and de Brito (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 4.19 Schematic three-dimensional defects–diagnosis methods
Fig. 4.20 Interpreting the three-dimensional defects–diagnosis methods
Fig. 4.21 Proportions of the three-dimensional defects–diagnosis
methods correlation matrix within the building envelope
inspection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fig. 5.1 Examples of: a dust caused by repair works in the narrow
streets of a city’s historical centre; and b a building’s
scaffolding covered with protection net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 5.2 Example of use of repair technique “R-A1 Cleaning”:
high-pressure air jet to clean natural stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Fig. 5.3 Example of “R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint,
varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)”: illustration of
application of a hydrophobic product on a cladding surface and
its effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Fig. 5.4 Example of locations where fibreglass mesh should be used
when applying repair technique “R-A11 Replacement or
reapplication of the cladding/glazing
(partially or completely)” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 5.5 Example of using fibreglass mesh in the whole surface of a
rehabilitated render while applying repair technique “R-A11
Replacement or reapplication of the clad-ding/glazing
(partially or completely)” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 5.6 Example of repair technique “R-A12 Application of a new
(adequate) cladding/finishing coat over the
existent/replacement”: application of one of the new coats
of paint in a façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
xx List of Figures
Fig. 5.7 Example of an attempt to repair a cracked stone plate with

repair technique “R-A13 Treatment of cracks or other holes in
the cladding”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Fig. 5.8 Example of “R-B4 Application/repair/replacement of the
vapour barrier”: scheme of a non-ventilated pitched roof . . . . . . 329
Fig. 5.9 Example of “R-B11 Change/replacement/repair of the
fastening system or correction of the holes in the plates or
substrate”: in a riveted metallic roof cladding, introduction
of a self-tapping screw next to a loose rivet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Fig. 5.10 Example of “R-C3 Application/replacement of the shaping or
levelling layer”: diagram of the replacement levelling layer of a
flat roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Fig. 5.11 Example of repair technique “R-C4 Repair of dead cracks in
the substrate and reapplication of the cladding”: diagram of the
different stages (from top to bottom) of the repair process,
beginning with the crack already exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Fig. 5.12 Example of “R-D2 Replacement/repair of current joints’ filling
material and/or joints cleaning”: illustration of removing the
degraded joint filling material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Fig. 5.13 Example of elastic joints in a renewed adhesive ceramic tiling
façade (“R-D4 Joint thickness increase or joint insertion”) . . . . . 335
Fig. 5.14 Example of use of repair technique “R-D6
Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage
systems/plumbing” by redrawing the drainage system and
replacing hoppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Fig. 5.15 Example of misuse of repair technique “R-D7 Removal of
corroded or damaged metallic elements, with hole and notch
filling (if applicable)”: area from where a corroded metallic
element was removed, leaving rust behind and a sloppy hole
filling job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 5.16 Examples of use of profiles in the perimeter (b) and corner
(a) of adhesive ceramic tiling, according to “R-D9 Protecting
or smoothing protruding corners or edges” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig. 5.17 Examples of: a using gutters in rehabilitated eaves as
preconised by repair technique “R-D14 Correction of
geometrical construction details”; and b drip detail in a
window sill but without extending over the side
of the window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
repair techniques as defined by Branco and de Brito (2004) . . . . 343
Fig. 5.19 Schematic three-dimensional defects–repair techniques
Fig. 5.20 Interpreting the three-dimensional defects–repair techniques
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 5.21 Proportions of the three-dimensional defects–repair techniques

correlation matrix within the building envelope inspection
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 6.1 Header, description and field of application of the file of defect
“A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening or tail-end elements” . . . 359
Fig. 6.2 Probable causes and possible consequences of the file of defect
Fig. 6.3 Aspects to inspect and diagnosis methods of the file of defect
Fig. 6.4 Classification parameters, urgency of repair and repair
techniques of the file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic
fastening or tail-end elements” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 6.5 Complete file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening
or tail-end elements” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 6.6 Page of the atlas of defects corresponding to defect “A-C5
Wear or scaling of the finishing coat”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Fig. 6.7 Header, type of method, objectives, materials and equipment
needed, field of application and photographs of the file of
diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit” . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fig. 6.8 Description of the file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips
and field kit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Fig. 6.9 Advantages, limitations and references of the file of diagnosis
method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Fig. 6.10 Complete file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips
and field kit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Fig. 6.11 Header, location, type, equipment and materials needed and
field of application of the file of repair technique “R-A6
Creation of pathways”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fig. 6.12 Description of the file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation
of pathways” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.13 Estimated labour and target time, estimated cost, expected
results, critical areas and references of the file of repair
technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.14 Complete file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation
of pathways” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Fig. 6.15 Sections of the inspection form for a header and for weather
conditions data at inspection time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Fig. 6.16 Section of the inspection form for information
on the building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.17 Section of the inspection form for environmental
exposure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.18 Section of the inspection form for information on each building
element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 6.19 Sections of the inspection form for general maintenance data,
maintenance data on specific building elements and notes . . . . . 379
Fig. 6.20 Sections of the inspection form to identify detected defects,
determine their level of urgency of repair
and characterise them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Fig. 6.21 Section of the inspection form to identify the probable causes
of detected defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Fig. 6.22 Section of the inspection form to identify the adequate
diagnosis methods for each detected defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Fig. 6.23 Sections of the inspection form to propose repair techniques
for each detected defect and to place photographs of the
detected defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Fig. 6.24 Cover page of the inspection form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fig. 6.25 First part of the inspection form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fig. 6.26 Second part of the inspection form, in this case, for the
characterisation of an architectural concrete surface . . . . . . . . . . 385
Fig. 6.27 Third part of the inspection form, in this case, to characterise
the degradation of an architectural concrete surface . . . . . . . . . . 386
Fig. 7.1 Section of the inspection form with general data about the
conditions at inspection time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Fig. 7.2 General view of the coffee house building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Fig. 7.3 Sections of the inspection form with general data about the
building’s environmental exposure characteristics and
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Fig. 7.4 General view of the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces . . . . . . . . . 402
Fig. 7.5 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics
of one of the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Fig. 7.6 View of the degradation of the joint filling material in the
adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 7.7 Sections of the inspection form with data on the defects
detected on the green adhesive ceramic tiling surface,
including: urgency of repair, specific characteristics, and
identification of probable causes, diagnosis methods and repair
techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 7.8 Vegetation growth in the lower area of the façade cladded with
adhesive ceramic tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 7.9 Analysed architectural concrete surfaces in the coffee house:
a partial view of the surface on the main façade;
b surface on the side façade; and c partial view of the surface
on the rear façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
of one of the architectural concrete surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 7.11 Section of the inspection form with data on the detected defects
and their urgency of repair referring to the architectural
concrete surface in the front façade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Fig. 7.12 Defects in architectural concrete surfaces: a wear in the front
façade; and b efflorescence in the rear façade; both
photographs also show signs of biological growth . . . . . . . . . . . 419
of one of the window frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig. 7.14 Appearance of the lower frame profiles of the casement
window in the front façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Fig. 7.15 Aerial view of the coffee house (adapted from Google Images
and Maxar Technologies 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
of the main flat roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Fig. 7.17 Accumulation of pine cones and needles
in the main flat roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 7.18 General view of the inspected house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 7.19 Partial views of the inspected natural stone claddings in the
detached house: a front façade (northwest); b side façade
(northeast); c side façade (southwest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
of the natural stone claddings in the front façade . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 7.21 Diamond-shaped adhesive ceramic tiles showing defects . . . . . . 430
of the wall renders in the southwest façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
of the southwest painted façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 7.24 Oriented cracking in the southwest façade
(highlighted in green) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
of the external cladding of the pitched roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 7.26 Accumulation of debris in the pitched roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Fig. 7.27 Partial views of the inspected natural stone claddings
at the museum: a front façade (southeast); and b side façade
(north) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 7.28 General views of the ETICS surfaces inspected in the museum:
a recessed surface on the front façade (east); b main surface
of the front façade (southeast); and c side façade (north) . . . . . . 439
of one of the ETICS surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fig. 7.30 Surface moisture, dirt, colour changes, oriented cracking
and flaws in a tail-end in the main ETICS surface of the front
façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 7.31 Partial view of the main surface of the front façade with
oriented cracking highlighted in blue and efflorescence stains
circled in red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 7.32 Inspected door frame in the main entrance of the museum:
a general view; and b detail of a loose sealant
of the glazed surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 7.33 Inspected flat roof: a partial view with a railing on the left; and
b the roof drain without a dome strainer, additionally showing
vegetation growth around the drain and biological growth on
the surface of the concrete paving slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 7.34 Set of pictures illustrating an ETICS surface: a general view;
b detail of the lower tail-end with visible cracking; c detail
of the intersection with a parapet wall with visible cracking;
d rectangle-shaped cracked area with efflorescence; and e gap
in the base and finishing coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Fig. 7.35 Absolute frequency of recommendation of each type of
diagnosis method (a) and relative frequency of
recommendation of each type of diagnosis method according
to the number of detected defects (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 7.36 Estimated urgency of repair of each type of defect detected in
the sample. 0—imminent danger, contingency measures
needed; 1—need of immediate intervention; 2—need of
intervention in the short-term; 3—need of intervention in the
long-term; 4—no urgent need, assess in the next inspection . . . . 454
Fig. 7.37 Relative frequency of occurrence of the groups of causes. C-A
—design errors; C-B—execution errors; C-C—mechanical
actions; C-D—environmental actions; C-E—use and
maintenance errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 7.38 Relative contribution of the groups of causes to the occurrence
of each group of defects. A-A—defects of physical nature;
A-B—defects of chemical nature; A-C—defects of mechanical
nature; A-D—other defects; C-A—design errors;
C-B—execution errors; C-C—mechanical actions;
C-D—environmental actions; C-E—use and
maintenance errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 7.39 Relative frequency of recommendation of repair techniques in
the 22 observations of defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of
debris”. R-A1—cleaning; R-A2—application of a protective
coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide);
R-A12—application of a new (adequate) cladding/finishing
coat over the existent/replacement; R-D14—correction of
geometrical construction details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 8.1 Provisional diagram of the building inspection software tool.

(a) digital interface for building inspection processes;
(b) digital interface for the production of reports; (c) execution
of building inspection processes; (d) execution of reports’
production processes; (e) processes to access the building
inspection system; (f) processes to update the building
inspection system; (g) datablocks with the inspection system
information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Fig. 8.2 Translated screenshot (from Portuguese) of the first
developments of the software tool: identification of a new
inspection and weather conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 8.3 Translated screenshot (from Portuguese) of the first
developments of the software tool: characterisation of an
inspected building element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Expert building inspection systems developed at IST-UL . . .. 7

Table 2.1 Classification of rocks (adapted from Tyrrell [1978] and
Siegesmund and Török [2014]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Table 2.2 Important characteristics of natural stone (Siegesmund
and Dürrast 2014; Siegesmund and Török 2014) . . . . . . . . . .. 20
Table 2.3 Functional requirements of natural stone claddings for
façades (Lucas 2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Table 2.4 Description of the most common types of finish for natural
stone (García-del-Cura et al. 2008; Camposinhos 2014;
Marble Institute of America 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
Table 2.5 Minimal height of the notches of trowels used in large size
tiles (Cass 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Table 2.6 Admixtures (Rixom and Mailvaganam 1999; Aggoun et al.
2008; Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Table 2.7 Additions (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Table 2.8 External claddings of the building envelope (adapted from
Lucas [2011]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
Table 2.9 Comparison between a traditional render and a
non-traditional (one-coat) render (Hernández-Olivares and
Mayor-Lobo 2011; Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015) . . . . . . .. 48
Table 2.10 Main characteristics of pigments (adapted from Talbert
[2008] and Eusébio and Rodrigues [2009, 2016]) . . . . . . . . .. 53
Table 2.11 Main types of vehicles in paint (Talbert 2008; Eusébio and
Rodrigues 2009; CEN 2014c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
Table 2.12 Estimated partial costs of painting works (Nogueira 2008) . .. 57
Table 2.13 Examples of accessories for ETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Table 2.14 Summary of the essential requirements defined for ETICS
and respective tests (EOTA 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Table 2.15 Treatment measures for substrates (adapted from Sto
Corp. [2009]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
Table 2.16 Primer examples for substrate preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
xxvii
xxviii List of Tables
Table 2.17 Wood species commonly used in door and window frames
(Sousa 2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
Table 2.18 Initial type test for external windows and pedestrian doors
(adapted from Pinto and Fernandes [2011]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Table 2.19 Types of external claddings of pitched roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 2.20 Main characteristics of clay-slate tiles (Levine 1993) . . . . . . . . 114
Table 2.21 Main characteristics of Marseille roof tiles (CTCV 1998;
LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 2.22 Main characteristics of interlocking roof tiles (CTCV 1998;
LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 2.23 Main characteristics of Monk and Nun roof tiles
(LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Table 2.24 Main characteristics of Roman roof tiles (CTCV 1998;
LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 2.25 Main characteristics of flat roof tiles (CTCV 1998) . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 2.26 Main characteristics of interlocking flat roof tiles
(CS Coelho da Silva SA 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Table 2.27 Main characteristics of micro-concrete roof tiles
(Argibetão 2009; LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Table 2.28 Main characteristics of flat fibre-cement roof tiles
(Cembrit 2018; Eternit 2019a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Table 2.29 Main characteristics of corrugated fibre-cement roof sheets
(Cembrit 2017, 2019; Eternit 2019b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Table 2.30 Metallic materials used in the external cladding of pitched
roofs and their minimal thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Table 2.31 Main characteristics of steel roof claddings
(EDAR 2018; LNEC 2018; Mundiperfil 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Table 2.32 Main characteristics of aluminium roof claddings
(Zappone 2000; EDAR 2018; LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Table 2.33 Main characteristics of copper roof claddings
(Bragança et al. 2003; EDAR 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table 2.34 Main characteristics of zinc roof claddings (VMZINC 2016;
Rheinzink 2017; EDAR 2018; LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 2.35 Distance between bearing points for polymethacrylate sheets’
roofs (INDAC 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Table 2.36 Main characteristics of polymethacrylate roof sheets
(INDAC 2015; LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 2.37 Main characteristics of polycarbonate roof sheets (Sabic
2013; Dagol 2016a, b; Onduline 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 2.38 Main characteristics of glass fibre reinforced polyester roof
sheets (LNEC 2018; Onduline 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Table 2.39 Main characteristics of PVC roof sheets (Palram 2013; H&F
Manufacturing Corporation 2018; LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
List of Tables xxix
Table 2.40 Main characteristics of sandwich panels for roof claddings

(Irmalex 2015; Painel 2000; Alaço 2019a, b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Table 2.41 Main characteristics of asphalt shingles for roof claddings
(GAF 2019; Onduline 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Table 2.42 Main characteristics of metallic tiles and slates coated with
mineral granules for roof claddings (Decra Metal Roofing
2015; Boral Steel 2018, 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Table 2.43 Minimum slope of pitched roofs with ceramic tiles in
Portugal (slope in centimetres per metre of horizontal
projection) (CTCV 1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Table 2.44 Overlay according to exposure of the roof for ceramic
tiles without interlock (CTCV 1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Table 2.45 Fastening of cover and channel tiles according to wind loads
and the slope of the roof (adapted from CTCV [1998]) . . . . . . 140
Table 2.46 Overlay of fibre-cement sheets according to the roof
slope (LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table 2.47 Different fastening systems for metallic roof claddings . . . . . . 146
Table 2.48 Top overlay according to the roof’s slope for plastic
roof claddings (LNEC 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Table 2.49 Basic requirements (The European Parliament
and The Council of the European Union 2011) and
components of a flat roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Table 2.50 Classification of traditional waterproofing materials
(adapted from Lopes [2010]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Table 2.51 Classification of non-traditional waterproofing materials
Table 2.52 Technical specifications of the most commonly used
insulation materials in the building sector (adapted from
Lopes [2010], ImperMachado [2014], DuPont [2019a],
Fibrosom [2019], and Viero [2019]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Table 2.53 Functional and economic requirements of flat roofs
Table 2.54 Available options to consider at the design stage
of a flat roof (adapted from Lopes [2010]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Table 3.1 Classification of defects in a global inspection system
for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Table 3.2 Defects–building elements/materials matrix in a global
inspection system for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 3.3 Classification of probable causes in the category “design
errors” in a global inspection system for the building
envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Table 3.4 Classification of probable causes in the category
“execution errors” in a global inspection system for the
building envelope (part 1 of 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
xxx List of Tables

“execution errors” in a global inspection system
for the building envelope (part 2 of 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
“mechanical actions” in a global inspection system
for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Table 3.7 Classification of probable causes in the category of
“environmental actions” in a global inspection system for the
building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
“use and maintenance errors” in a global inspection
system for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Table 3.9 Probable causes–building elements/materials matrix in a
global inspection system for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . 228
Table 3.10 Excerpt of the defects–probable causes correlation matrix in
a global inspection system for the building envelope
(layer for natural stone claddings) referring only to
environmental actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Table 3.11 Excerpt of the inter-defects correlation matrix in a global
inspection system for the building envelope (layer for natural
stone claddings) referring only to defects of physical and
chemical nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Table 3.12 Excerpt of the inter-defects percentage correlation matrix in a
global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for
natural stone claddings) referring only to defects of physical
and chemical nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 4.1 Classification of diagnosis methods in the category assisted
sensory analysis in a global inspection system for the
Table 4.2 Classification of diagnosis methods in the categories
electrical methods and thermo-hygrometric methods in a
Table 4.3 Classification of diagnosis methods in the categories sound
and acoustic methods, nuclear methods and hydric methods
in a global inspection system for the building envelope . . . . . . 271
Table 4.4 Classification of diagnosis methods in the category
mechanical methods in a global inspection system for the
Table 4.5 Classification of diagnosis methods in the categories
pressurization methods, colour methods and chemical
methods in a global inspection system for the building
envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
List of Tables xxxi
Table 4.6 Diagnosis methods–building elements/materials matrix in a

Table 4.7 Excerpt of the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix
in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer
for wall renders) referring only to thermo-hygrometric, sound
and acoustic, nuclear, hydric and mechanical methods . . . . . . . 292
Table 5.1 Classification of repair techniques in the category “surface
of the cladding” in a global inspection system for the
Table 5.2 Classification of repair techniques in the category
“cladding system” in a global inspection system for the
“change in the bearing structure/substrate” in a global
inspection system for the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
“singularities” in a global inspection system for the building
envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Table 5.5 Repair techniques–building elements/materials matrix
in a global inspection system for the building envelope . . . . . . 340
Table 5.6 Excerpt of the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix in
a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer
for external claddings of pitched roofs), referring only to
defects of physical, chemical and mechanical nature and to
repair techniques in categories “surface of the cladding” and
“change in the bearing structure/substrate” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Table 6.1 Structure of a page of the atlas of defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Table 7.1 Area of inspected façade building elements according
to the orientation of the façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Table 7.2 Area of inspected building elements according to the type
of building element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Chapter 1
Buildings’ Management
Abstract The construction, operation and maintenance, and end of life stages com-
pose the life-cycle of buildings. The operation and maintenance stage, comprising
the service life of buildings, may be associated with more than half of their life-cycle
costs. Given that importance, it is essential to plan maintenance to optimise costs and
keep acceptable performance levels of the buildings, postponing the end of the service
life. Within a building, its envelope is paramount to withstand external aggressions
and guarantee minimum comfort levels for the occupants. But buildings are com-
plex systems composed of several different assemblies/materials, which increases
the uncertainty levels of planning and performing building maintenance. To deal
with that uncertainty, predictive maintenance relies on the planned and systematised
collection and analysis of information on building elements to adapt maintenance
actions accordingly. Inspection systems provide the methodology and tools for that
collection and analysis of information. Various inspection systems have already been
developed, some more focused on divulging information, others trying to provide cus-
tomised diagnosis, and others with a solid and broad information structure. Among
those, a set of identically structured inspection systems for individual elements of
the building envelope was selected as the basis for developing a global inspection
system.
1.1 Background
In general terms, the life of a system comprises the following phases (Wübben-
horst 1986): initiation, planning, realisation, operation, and disposal/salvage. ISO/TR
15686-11:2014 (International Organization for Standardization [ISO] 2014) trans-
poses these phases to the specificity of a building system, defining the life-cycle of a
building as consecutive connected stages, encompassing construction, operation and
maintenance and the end of life, which includes decommissioning, deconstruction
and disposal. According to Islam et al. (2015), based on the outcomes of Australian,
European and North American life-cycle costs studies, the operation and maintenance
stages may represent up to 54% of the costs of a building’s life-cycle, depending on
the assumptions and boundaries of the studied systems. Such economic impact of
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

J. de Brito et al., Expert Knowledge-based Inspection Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_1
2 1 Buildings’ Management
the operation and maintenance stages emphasises their importance and the relevance
of optimising costs and performance through maintenance plans.
The operation and maintenance stages comprise the service life of a building,
which is the period during which the building or its parts meet or exceed the perfor-
mance requirements (ISO 2014). So, the establishment of (more or less demanding)
performance requirements by the stakeholders is critical to determine the end of the
service life. When the minimum performance requirements are not met, the building
may enter the end of life stage, unless changes are made to re-establish its perfor-
mance levels. Performance requirements may refer to several categories of perfor-
mance acting isolated or in combination, such as physical and functional performance
(Shohet et al. 2003; Then et al. 2004; Shohet and Paciuk 2006; Lavy 2011; Lai and
Yuen 2019). Additionally, performance requirements may change throughout the ser-
vice life of a building, determining the end of life due to obsolescence, as the building
cannot meet or no longer be adapted to meet the new requirements (ISO 2011). Func-
tional, technological and economic obsolescence are defined by ISO 15686-1:2011
(ISO 2011) as the main types of obsolescence, which are considered broad enough to
comprise changing social contexts, aesthetics, laws and environmental requirements
(Flanagan et al. 1989; Flores-Colen and de Brito 2010a).
Physical deterioration is one of the ways by which a building may stop fulfilling
minimum performance requirements, hence reaching the end of its service life. Dete-
rioration is a gradual phenomenon associated with physical, chemical and mechan-
ical degradation agents and with the natural ageing process (Silva et al. 2016a).
Design and construction errors and use conditions can potentiate the effects of the
degradation agents, increasing the rate of deterioration.
On the other hand, maintenance may slow down deterioration and prolong the
service life of a building, as it minimises the effects of deterioration agents, thus
enabling the building to perform its required functions (ISO 2014).
In the context of this book, deterioration and degradation are seen as near synony-
mous. While deterioration refers to “the process of becoming progressively worse”
(Lexico 2019a), degradation refers to “the condition or process of degrading or being
degraded” (Lexico 2019b). Going deeper into the meaning of degradation, in the con-
text of building maintenance and inspection, degrade may refer to (Lexico 2019c):
(i) “lower the quality of; cause to deteriorate”; or (ii) “break down or deteriorate
chemically”. Given these definitions by a trustworthy source, the authors consider
that degrade implies becoming worse and deterioration implies lowering the quality
of something, hence considering the definitions interchangeable in the broad context
of maintenance and inspection.
Maintenance operations may be (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2010a): preventive,
executed at regular intervals; predictive, based on the results of planned inspections;
or reactive, correcting unexpected failures, usually, as an emergency. Thus, inspection
procedures are framed within the operation and maintenance stage of the life-cycle of
a building as a way of improving the accuracy of maintenance operations. Building
inspection is a procedure that measures the real degradation condition of building
elements through observation and testing, allowing maintenance operations to be
1.1 Background 3
performed accordingly. Otherwise, maintenance is done following degradation esti-

mates or a standard expected service life (Huffmeijer et al. 1998; Blom et al. 2010;
Straub 2012).
1.2 Building Envelope
The building envelope separates the interior of a building from the outside atmo-
sphere and surroundings (Structural Engineering Institute and American Society of
Civil Engineers 2000). It is composed of several elements working together to sep-
arate and filter the external conditions for interior comfort (Watt 2007; Silva et al.
2016b). As the envelope surrounds and protects building occupants like a skin, it
must be robust, resilient and adaptable to succeed. For instance, in emergencies,
such as windstorms, the performance of the building envelope is crucial, as damage
in the building escalates after the failure of the first envelope component and losses
dramatically increase if the building envelope is breached (Minor 2005).
Minimum building envelope requirements vary according to the context of the
building, including the climate. For instance, in the USA, building codes in southern
climates tend to have less strict thermal insulation requirements than in northern
climates (Horne and Hayles 2008). Additionally, considering that the most substantial
portion of energy requirements in a building’s life-cycle resides in the operation
stage, the behaviour of the building envelope can considerably influence the energy
performance of a building (Yohanis and Norton 2006).
The condition of the building envelope affects the whole building, as defects in
the building envelope directly contribute to the decrease of performance in terms
of functional requirements, such as waterproofing, while also negatively influencing
others, like thermal insulation (Building Research Establishment [BRE] 1988).
The building envelope may be further categorised into roofs, walls, fenestration
(doors and windows) and foundations. Often, the performance of the building enve-
lope is conditioned by the intersection between these categorised systems or by their
endings. This book focuses on external claddings of roofs and façades and door and
window frames.
1.3 Maintenance and Inspection
Effectively managing a building implies implementing a maintenance plan to opti-

mise costs while preserving performance levels (Madureira et al. 2017). Developing a
maintenance plan involves the detailed knowledge of the building elements, including
their behaviour, estimated service life, maintenance needs, degradation mechanisms
and their most frequent defects. Then, the strategies implemented in the plan may be
proactive (preventive or predictive) or reactive (Palmer 2006).
Preventive maintenance strategies act before the occurrence of significant changes

in building elements, thus avoiding unexpected defects and extra-work through regu-
lar actions. It is a strategy based on the theoretical behaviour of the building (Flores-
Colen and de Brito 2010a, b). As for predictive maintenance strategies, they are
based on the assessment of maintenance needs in periodic planned inspections. The
inspection results provide the degradation condition of each building element and
maintenance operations are performed accordingly. Vast knowledge on the in-service
behaviour of building elements is required for an accurate diagnosis (Pitt 1997). The
reactive strategy, based on corrective actions, responds to advanced degradation in
cases of emergency, which occasionally endanger the life of users.
The maintenance of buildings may be particularly complex when compared to fac-
tory produced equipment. The place where a building is made, the construction site,
is always different and influenced by variable conditions (e.g. topography, weather
agents, and plot size), as well as by construction site workers, who mostly differ
along construction phases and from building to building. Furthermore, the design
is specifically developed for each built object and, consequently, the construction
procedures have to adapt to that design specifications, achieving a tailor-made build-
ing composed of several different materials, with different origins, behaviours, and
degradation patterns. Given the complexity of buildings, there is a high uncertainty
degree associated with the adequate moment to perform maintenance actions and
with the load and type of suitable activities. As predictive maintenance strategies
are based on the collection of information on the degradation condition of building
elements, adapting maintenance activities to the deterioration detected in buildings,
they deal with the uncertainty of building maintenance through systematised data
gathering.
Still, a balanced maintenance plan should combine several strategies to fulfil its
objectives (Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 2008). Regardless of
the particulars of the plan, inspection activities are fundamental in various stages. For
instance, when developing a maintenance plan for existing buildings, the first step is
to perform a detailed inspection of the building to identify every building element and
determine their real degradation condition. Additionally, whether in new or existing
buildings, inspections are part of proactive maintenance actions, using inspection
results to adjust the periodicity of interventions according to observed degradation
conditions.
The accuracy of inspection results influences the nature and extent of repair
actions, hence affecting their effectiveness and associated costs. So, inspection proce-
dures should be as unbiased as possible. The systematisation of inspection activities is
expected to improve the objectiveness of procedures and the gathering of information
to strengthen the diagnosis results.
The implementation of an inspection system within a building maintenance
plan should standardise the procedures, organising the collection of information,
homogenise the technical language, improve communication, and make inspec-
tion activities more agile and the whole inspection less dependent on the survey-
ors’ knowledge and experience, reducing the uncertainty of in situ diagnoses. As a
consequence, inspection results are expected to be more reliable.
1.4 Overview of Building Inspection Systems 5
1.4 Overview of Building Inspection Systems
Ferraz et al. (2016) collected a set of relevant building pathology assessment sys-
tems from the literature. That set includes the Defect Action Sheets (BRE 2001),
Anomalies Repair Forms (Paiva et al. 1985), Cases of Failure Information Sheet
(CIB W86 1993), Building Pathology Sheets (Agence Qualité Construction 2015),
Construdoctor (Ribeiro and Cóias e Silva 2003), Learning from Mistakes (de Angelis
and Ferro 2004), Patorreb (Freitas et al. 2007), Web-based Prototype System (Fong
and Wong 2009), Maintainability Website (Chew 2010), and the Building Medical
Record (Chang and Tsai 2013). These systems are similar in terms of data acquisition
about defects as they (i) describe the defect, (ii) determine its probable causes, and
(iii) recommend diagnosis and repair methods.
Some of the systems are based on defect files (Paiva et al. 1985; CIB W86 1993;
BRE 2001), marking the beginning of the systematic analysis of building pathology.
More recent systems using information technology started divulging defect files in
websites (de Angelis and Ferro 2004; Freitas et al. 2007; Agence Qualité Construc-
tion 2015), but still lacked case-specific repair solutions. Also using information
technology, two systems (Ribeiro and Cóias e Silva 2003; Chang and Tsai 2013)
provide online diagnoses based on the information given in a form, which is anal-
ysed by experts. However, without first-hand access to occurrences, the reliability of
the expert’s conclusions may be compromised. Fong and Wong’s (2009) approach,
in turn, chooses to share the knowledge of experts to assist decision-making. Finally,
the Maintainability Website (Chew 2010) offers a defects library, a manual of build-
ing materials and classification system of diagnosis and repair methods highly based
on images. Still, rational connections between defects, materials and diagnosis and
repair methods are absent from this website (Ferraz et al. 2016).
More recently, in the context of an automation trend in construction, Lee et al.
(2016) proposed an inspection methodology that connects data about building defects
to building information model (BIM) environments, offering an information flow
from the detection of a defect to those responsible for its occurrence, expecting to
avoid future errors through the dissemination of information on the pathological
phenomena. This method focuses on the structure of degradation and repair infor-
mation, emphasising the importance of an exact record including repair materials
used, affected building elements and their characteristics, rooms where defects were
detected, costs and time spent, root causes (to direct the flow of information to those
responsible), and a short description of the defect complemented with photographs
and drawings.
Bortolini and Forcada (2018) also proposed a building inspection system, which
is directed at the assessment of the structural, physical and equipment performance of
existing buildings. Such system considers the entire building and the interdependence
of its parts, determining a three-step process: building characterisation; determination
of defects in building elements and systems through an organised visit to the building,
using lists of main expected defects per building element; and assessment of severity,
according to a proposed severity rating, and recommendation of maintenance actions.
For the second stage, Bortolini and Forcada (2018) suggest the use of information
and communication technology tools, like the one developed by Macarulla et al.
(2012), to take pictures tagged with predetermined keywords.
1.4.1 Expert Individual Inspection Systems
Following the path set by the first systems of building pathology assessment, a
research team at Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa (UL), has
developed a series of knowledge- and experience-based inspection, diagnosis and
repair systems for individual non-structural building elements (Table 1.1). These
systems were designed around the purpose of providing objective information so
that more rational maintenance decisions could be made.
The expert inspection, diagnosis and repair systems developed at IST-UL clas-
sify and define the typical defects, probable causes, diagnosis methods and repair
techniques in the considered building element. In correlation matrices, they also
determine how defects are associated with probable causes, diagnosis methods and
repair techniques, additionally establishing an inter-defects correlation matrix. Fur-
thermore, detailed files strengthen the inspection systems with the characterisation
of each type of classified defect, diagnosis method and repair technique. For the
structured collection of data on-site, these inspection systems include an inspection
form. Finally, each expert inspection system was validated in an inspection campaign
of a significant sample of building elements.
Only considering building envelope elements (Table 1.1), the expert inspection
systems developed at IST-UL are the basis of the global inspection system proposed
in this book.
1.5 From Individual Elements to the Building Envelope
With the starting point in a set of nine expert inspection systems with an identical
structure, each referring to a type of building element used in building envelopes
(façades and roofs), the global inspection system was devised.
First, all the elements constituting the expert inspection systems were collected
and organised. Then, a harmonisation process started, beginning with the devel-
opment of homogenised classification lists of defects, probable causes, diagnosis
methods and repair techniques incorporating all the defects, probable causes, diag-
nosis methods and repair techniques considered in the individual systems through
a merging process (Pereira et al. 2018). Based on the new homogenised classifica-
tion lists, three harmonised correlation matrices were developed: defects–probable
causes; defects–diagnosis methods; and defects–repair techniques. The new global
correlation matrices include the dimension of the building element, which considers
1.5 From Individual Elements to the Building Envelope 7
Table 1.1 Expert building inspection systems developed at IST-UL

References Building elements Validation sample In the global
inspection system?
Silvestre and de Brito Adhesive ceramic 155 surfaces in 64 Yes
(2009, 2010, 2011) tiling buildings
Garcia and de Brito Epoxy resin 29 floorings in 23 No
(2008) industrial floor buildings
coatings
Neto and de Brito Natural stone 128 surfaces in 59 Yes
(2011, 2012) claddings buildings
Delgado et al. (2013, Wood floorings 98 floorings in 35 No
2018) buildings
Gaião et al. (2011, Gypsum plasterboard 121 walls in 21 No
2012) walls buildings
Pereira et al. (2011, Gypsum plaster 119 surfaces in 23 No
2014) coatings buildings
Garcez et al. (2012a, External claddings 207 roofs in 164 Yes
b) of pitched roofs buildings
Sá et al. (2014, 2015) Wall renders 150 surfaces in 55 Yes
buildings
Amaro et al. (2013, External thermal 146 surfaces in 14 Yes
2014) insulation composite buildings
systems
Pires et al. (2015a, b) Painted façades 105 surfaces in 41 Yes
buildings
Santos et al. (2017a, Door and window 295 frames in 96 Yes
b) frames buildings
da Silva et al. (2017a, Architectural 110 surfaces in 53 Yes
b) concrete surfaces buildings
Walter et al. (2005), Flat roofs 105 roofs in 105 Yes
Conceição et al. buildings
2017, 2019)
Carvalho et al. (2018, Vinyl and linoleum 101 floorings in 6 No
2019) floorings buildings
the correlation matrices of the individual systems adapted to the new global clas-
sification lists. Based on the new defects–probable causes correlation matrix and
on the methodology defined by Silvestre and de Brito (2009), a global inter-defects
correlation matrix was also developed.
With the skeleton of the global inspection system assembled, it was then possible
to create defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques files containing detailed
information about each component of the classification lists. The structure of the
files results from harmonising the structure of those from the individual inspection
systems, where most of the information was already collected, adapted to the new
global classification lists. A literature survey filled any missing data.
Finally, based on the inspection forms of the expert inspection systems, a global
inspection form was developed. Its initial sections, referring to the building and its
surroundings, integrate the information requested in the individual systems. Then,
the sections specifically referring to the features and degradation of the building
elements were multiplied in parallel sections, each containing the fields suggested
in the individual inspection forms but with a unified form format.
After the completion of the global system, a qualitative validation was performed.
It consisted of an inspection campaign of the building envelope of a small sample of
current buildings, working as a test of the use of the global inspection system and
resulting in a limited number of revisions. This campaign is out of the scope of this
book. Instead, a demonstration of the use of the proposed inspection system in case
studies is made.
1.6 Book Overview
This book is organised in eight chapters, as follows:

• This chapter, Chapter 1, frames building inspection within a building’s life-cycle,
highlighting its relevance for the operation and maintenance stage, emphasises
the importance of the building envelope, provides a concise review of building
inspection systems, and outlines the methodology of development of the proposed
global inspection system for the building envelope;
• Chapter 2 presents the technology associated with each type of building element
included in the scope of the proposed building inspection system. The materials,
design and execution of nine types of building elements are described as a way
to better understand their degradation mechanisms;
• Chapter 3 is dedicated to building pathology, proposing a classification list of
defects and another of probable causes. Defects are grouped into defects of
physical, chemical and mechanical nature and other defects, while design errors,
execution errors, mechanical actions, environmental actions and use and main-
tenance errors groups allow organising the probable causes. The relationship
between each defect and cause is identified in a correlation matrix between defects
and probable causes, which is the basis for an inter-defects correlation matrix.
Examples of application of the concepts and challenges of developing the men-
tioned components of the building inspection system are discussed throughout
the chapter;
• Chapter 4 concerns the diagnosis methods, presenting them in a proposed clas-
sification list. Destructive and non-destructive methods that can be performed
in situ are within the list’s scope, but laboratory tests are excluded. Ten cat-
egories of diagnosis methods are defined: assisted sensory analysis, electrical,
thermo-hygrometric, sound and acoustic, nuclear, hydric, mechanical, pressure,
colour, and chemical methods. A correlation matrix between defects and diagnosis
methods is presented;
1.6 Book Overview 9
• Chapter 5 addresses repair techniques and, considering the advantages of classifi-

cation lists, one is proposed. Repair techniques used on the surface of claddings, in
cladding systems, in bearing structures or substrates and in singular points of the
building envelope are presented. A defects–repair techniques correlation matrix
is put forward, establishing the adequate ways of dealing with the occurrence of
different types of defects in building elements;
• Chapter 6 refers to elements of the inspection system used to support inspection
procedures. Examples of files of defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques
are presented as a means of communication of knowledge. An atlas of defects,
an illustrated version of the criteria to determine the urgency of repair of defects
included in the files of defects, is also presented. The inspection form used for
fieldwork is proposed;
• Chapter 7 is dedicated to demonstrate the use of the proposed inspection system
in three case studies: a coffee house, a detached house and a museum. For that
purpose, summaries of the results of the inspections are presented following the
structure of the information collected using the inspection system. Then, a brief
guide for the use of the inspection system in fieldwork is provided. Taking the
case studies’ experience into account, the advantages and limitations of using
such system are analysed. Additionally, considering the need to communicate
inspection results, examples of pictures, tables and charts to present findings are
shown;
• Chapter 8 presents research paths for future works that may bring the proposed
inspection system to new and more advanced levels of development.
• Each chapter includes a list of references.
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1243/095765006X76009
Chapter 2
Technology
Abstract Considering that the development of a building inspection system should

have a specific scope, and that, within that scope, a broad knowledge of the building
elements is advised, a set of nine building elements and claddings is presented. In this
case, the technology associated with each building element or cladding included in
the proposed building inspection system is approached. For each one, the materials,
the design and the execution are developed from a general perspective, as a means
of better understanding the building pathology associated with each type of building
element or cladding.
2.1 Introduction
Understanding the technology of claddings and building elements is essential to better

perceive pathological processes that may occur. First, the properties of the materi-
als used help to comprehend reactions between materials and aggressive agents, for
instance. Design requirements establish the main concerns that should be consid-
ered at this stage. Finally, knowing the adequate execution procedures supports the
understanding of limitations associated with on-site constraints.
If designers, prescribers and labour have a better knowledge of the technology
associated with each building element, many defects may be avoided. In this chapter,
the technology of natural stone claddings, adhesive ceramic tiling, wall renders,
painted façades, external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS), architec-
tural concrete surfaces, door and window frames, external claddings of pitched roofs
and flat roofs is approached.
The technology associated with each type of building element is presented accord-
ing to the Portuguese approach to such technological challenges, framed within
European and International standards.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_2
16 2 Technology
2.2 Natural Stone Claddings
Natural stone has been used in construction for a long time. Nowadays, natural stone
is still very common in buildings, although now being mainly used as cladding.
Besides the durability that is normally associated with natural stone, it is also a
cladding that associates good technical and visual properties. Natural stone claddings
raise the value of buildings while representing the first layer of protection against
weather-related agents.
Technological progress in the ornamental stone processing industry has been
reflected in thinner plates, as well as in improvements in different types of finishes.
Still, results are not always as good as expected. The design stage is very important,
taking the properties of the materials into account, as well as the location of the
building and the exposure to aggressive agents.
2.2.1 Materials Used in Natural Stone Claddings
The origin of each type of rock is different, influencing the behaviour of stone plates.
The properties of natural stone should be known, but they cannot be manipulated.
According to Campanella and Mateus (2003), natural stones for buildings should
show compact grain, be free from fracture planes, gaps, veins, chips, foreign sub-
stances and any other defects that may influence their homogeneity and resistance.
Additionally, natural stone plates should have dimensions adapted to the application
solution and provide adequate resistance to loads. The use of marly stones should
be avoided, as well as the use of any kind of natural stone whose properties change
under the action of environmental agents and running water. Still, instead of a motive
for rejection, the presence of some heterogeneities in some types of rock may be a
devaluing or valuing factor, according to each situation.
2.2.1.1 Raw Material
Rock is a cohesive aggregate of minerals or solid substances resulting from natural

processes. In the construction industry, natural stone is distinguished from artificial
stones, like concrete.
The value of stone is determined by the quality and amount of stone available
in a rock body and by the distance between quarries and manufacturing plants. The
demand is also a determining factor to estimate the value of natural stone. It is often
determined by subjective and transitory visual criteria, associated with colour and
texture.
2.2 Natural Stone Claddings 17
Classification of Natural Stone
Knowing the process that resulted in some type of natural stone helps to understand
its properties and behaviour. The characteristics of rocks determined by their devel-
opment process are relevant for building application purposes. It should be mentioned
that the natural development conditions that resulted in a specific rock depend on the
geographical location and on the specific conditions on a given period, which will
not occur repeatedly.
According to the origin of rocks, they are classified into three categories: igneous
or magmatic rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock. Igneous or magmatic
rock results directly from the consolidation, cooling and crystallisation of magma,
at a specific depth from the Earth’s crust, or on the surface, due to volcanic action.
Igneous rocks have a generically crystalline appearance, whose structure depends on
the cooling depth. Granite, syenite and basalt are examples of igneous rocks. Granite
and syenite consolidated at a great depth, while basalt consolidated on the surface.
Sedimentary rock results from the (i) deposition of fragments from the disaggre-
gation of pre-existing rocks due to various agents and from the (ii) precipitation of
loose substances in the air or water. Sedimentary rocks may be easily identified by
the frequent presence of fossil remains and by well-defined overlapping layers.
Metamorphic rock results from changes in existing rocks, whether igneous, sedi-
mentary or even metamorphic, that alter their mineralogical composition and struc-
ture due to high temperatures, pressure or water. Marble and gneiss are two types of
metamorphic rocks.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks compose about 95% of the volume of the litho-
sphere. Still, most of the rocks that appear on the Earth’s surface are sedimentary
rocks (Marques et al. 2006).
Table 2.1 shows a detailed classification of natural stone.
Characteristics of Natural Stone
Natural stone refers to every rock that may be obtained in blocks or plates with
adequate dimensions for building purposes, maintaining their properties. The most
common types of stone used in buildings are (Siegesmund and Török 2014):
• Clay-slate: with low thickness planar foliation and waterproof;
• Sandstone: composed of sediments of rocks that are aggregated, showing good
workability;
• Basalt: presents high density, capacity and hardness;
• Limestone: shows high strength, although it is easy to cut;
• Granite: shows good resistance under adverse weather conditions;
• Marble: results from metamorphic changes in limestone;
• Syenite: similar to granite, without quartz, hence showing better workability;
• Shale: highly crystalline structure but with lower strength than clay-slate.
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Table 2.1 Classification of rocks (adapted from Tyrrell [1978] and Siegesmund and Török [2014])
Class Sub-class Development Types of rock Characteristics
process
Igneous Intrusive Cooling inside the Granite Rock of variable
Earth’s crust grain size,
composed of
quartz (20–40%),
feldspar (15–55%)
and mica
(14–56%). The
colour of granite
varies according to
the minerals that
compose it. For
instance, it may be
black or white if
black or white
mica is present,
respectively.
Micaceous
granites may
change with
moisture or the
atmosphere’s
carbon dioxide,
resulting in
disaggregation.
Still, granites have
excellent
mechanical
resistance,
polish-ing
durability and
resistance to
temperatures
around 500 °C
Syenite Different from
granite due to the
lack of quartz.
Syenite has better
workability than
granite
Gabbro Rock with coarse
grain, without
quartz, generally
dark green
(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)

Class Sub-class Development Types of rock Characteristics
process
Nepheline syenite Syenite with
feldspathoids. It
may be used as
granite, but with
the inconvenient of
possible changes
in feldspathoids
Intermediate Cooling at low Porphyry It has a similar
extrusive depth. composition to
granite, but with
changes due to
developing at a
lower depth
Extrusive Cooling at the Basalt Dark colour,
Earth’s surface dense, compact,
with excellent
mechanical
resistance
Sedimentary Clastic Deposition of Sandstone and They may be
debris from other breccia disaggregated,
rocks. compacted due to
pressure or
agglomerated by a
natural cement
Deposition of Shale It typically has a
muds, silts and laminated structure
other sediments and is fissile
(tendency to split
into thin parallel
layers)
Chemical Deposition of salts Limestone Mainly composed
that occur in water of calcite and
aragonite, very
susceptible to
erosion processes
Metamorphic – Changes in other Marble Composed of
classes of rocks crystallised calcite
due to pressure, and other minerals,
temperature or like mica and
water graphite. Good
resistance to
environmental
agents
Clay-slate Foliated rock
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Table 2.2 Important

Type of characteristic Characteristic
characteristics of natural
stone (Siegesmund and Structural Mineralogical composition
Dürrast 2014; Siegesmund Chemical composition
and Török 2014)
Texture
Petrographic composition
Aesthetical General appearance
Colour and colour variations
Micro-fracturing
Veins
Agglomerates
Stains and strips
Technological Compressive strength
Flexural strength
Apparent density
Water absorption
Open porosity
Freeze resistance
Resistance to anchorage
Thermal linear expansion coefficient
Abrasion wear
Resistance to impacts
Each type of natural stone presents structural, aesthetical and technological char-
acteristics that are responsible for its appearance and durability, for instance. Due to
the large variety of natural stone, the characteristics mentioned in Table 2.2 should
be known ahead to help the selection process.
Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing process is decisive for the final properties of natural stone prod-
ucts. These products should be measured, assessed and analysed according to a
predefined sample plan applied at each manufacturing stage.
In quarries, the extraction process is complex, as the best extraction direction
should be defined for better results. Blocks of rock from quarries (Fig. 2.1, part
a) are transformed by specialised companies, which saw the block, manufacturing
plates cut and finished with adequate equipment. Blocks are sawn considering the
structure of the rock. This stage is very important to avoid subsequent flatness defects,
cracks or mechanical resistance issues.
a b
Fig. 2.1 Blocks of limestone rock in a quarry (a) and quarry for the extraction of limestone in a
natural park (b)
Environmental Impact of Extracting the Raw Material
Extraction activities have a negative effect associated with (i) the tasks that need to
be performed, (ii) rejected and unused materials and (iii) abandoned quarries. The
location of quarries often lacks planning (Fig. 2.1, part b) and even explored areas
are frequently underused.
Extraction activities need to find balanced solutions that include rational and
planned mining, considering the actual demand needs, and the preservation of the
environment. Rock deposits should be known in detail, as well as economic benefits
and environmental impact costs.
2.2.1.2 Natural Stone Joints
The design of natural stone claddings should consider the execution of joints
(Fig. 2.2). Joints between stone plates absorb deformations associated with loads,
thermal actions or water absorption. In general terms, stone joints should be at least
5 mm.
The type of joint and filling material should be selected according to the expansion
coefficient of stone, thickness, and exposure and required waterproofing levels.
Joints may be open or filled. Open joints represent a discontinuity/void in the
cladding surface. Filled joints are sealed with mortar or mastic to make them water-
tight. If natural stone claddings are mechanically fastened and have an air gap (cavity
walls), joints need to be open (Fig. 2.3). If the cladding does not have an air gap,
joints should be waterproof and filled, generally with resin-modified mortar. Joints
filled with rigid mortar or mineral products are prone to crack, resulting in leakages.
Sealants for the joints of natural stone claddings may be elastomers or porous mas-
tics. Elastomer sealants include acrylic, polysulphides, silicones and polyurethane.
Porous mastics may be resinous oils or butyl.
22 2 Technology
Fig. 2.2 Different types of joints in natural stone claddings
a b
Fig. 2.3 Open joints in a natural stone cladding: a general view; b close-up
Elastic vertical and horizontal joints (wider and deeper) should be designed,
approximately, every three or four rows. They should be executed with mastic and
go up to the substrate layer. Additionally, this type of elastic joints is also considered
in the surface’s perimeter and in transition areas between different materials. The
building’s expansion joints should be visible at the cladding level and have adequate
treatment.
2.2.2 Design of Natural Stone Claddings
The design stage is decisive to obtain durable and safe solutions. An adequate raw
material should be selected, as well as adequate stone finish, substrate and joints.
Natural stone cladding solutions should be detailed and complemented with com-
prehensive technical specifications, including clear specifications of the stone plates’
size, stone properties and fastening system.
2.2.2.1 Functional Requirements of Natural Stone Claddings
Besides the appearance of façades, façade claddings assume an important role in

the watertightness of the building envelope, protecting masonry and structures, for
instance.
The main functional requirements of natural stone claddings are shown in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Functional requirements of natural stone claddings for façades (Lucas 2008)
Type of requirement Functional requirements
Safety Stability
In service safety
Compatibility with the substrate Geometrical compatibility
Mechanical compatibility
Tightness Watertightness
Hygrothermal Thermal insulation
Visual comfort Flatness
Verticality
Straight edges
Regularity of the surface
Homogeneous colour and glow
Tactile comfort Non-harsh facings
Dry facings
Hygiene No deposition of dust or microorganisms
Cleaning resistance
Adaptation to regular use Resistance to impact and abrasion
Resistance to water actions
Adhesion to the substrate
Resistance to staining
Durability Resistance to weather agents
Resistance to chemical products in the air
Resistance to erosion caused by solid particles in the air
Resistance to the development of biological growth
Easy cleaning –
Economy –
24 2 Technology
2.2.2.2 Classification of Façade Claddings
Granite, basalt, limestone, marble and clay-slate plates may be considered watertight
claddings, as they may ensure the watertightness of the façade towards rainwater.
These are discontinuous claddings with direct or indirect fastening to the substrate.
On the other hand, natural stone claddings may also be considered a decorative
cladding.
Generally, the thickness of natural stone claddings is lower than 80 mm. Stone
plates may have customised dimensions, still considering that each plate should be
less than 1 m2 and, at least, 30 mm thick. Alternatively, stone plates may have standard
dimensions, with length or width up to 800 mm and thickness up to 20 mm.
These products may be applied on-site using mortars or mastics or indirect
fastening, like clamps and an intermediate metallic structure.
Direct Fastening of Natural Stone Claddings
Natural stone claddings may be adhesive or sealed to the substrate through the
continuous superficial contact with the substrate’s surface.
Adhesive fastening may be done using an adhesive mortar, with or without spe-
cial resins, cementitious adhesive or an adhesive material without cement (normally
mastic). Epoxy adhesives may also be used. Sealed fastening uses a hydraulic lime or
cement-based mortar. Mortars should be able to resist sulphates and saponification.
The binder should be stable and free from lumps and the sand should be washed.
Direct fastening of natural stone claddings may be complemented with mechanical
fastening to minimise the occurrence of defects.
Direct fastening is limited by the weight and size of natural stone elements, the
type of substrate, the presence of moisture in the substrate and the location of the
cladding within the façade. Additionally, adhesive materials may cause staining in
the stone plates, including specific types of stains due to the lack of ventilation,
emphasising the perimeter of plates (Fig. 2.4).
Moreover, incompatibilities between the stone and the substrate, caused by
hygrothermal variations, result in detachment defects when direct fastening is used,
as the adhesive material may not be able to absorb differential movements between
the stone and the substrate.
Fig. 2.4 Staining emphasising the perimeter of natural stone plates
Indirect Fastening of Natural Stone Claddings
Indirect fastening for natural stone claddings may be done: (i) with local fasten-
ing points or (ii) using an intermediate structure, typically using metallic profiles,
ensuring an air gap between the plates and the substrate.
Although indirectly fastened natural stone claddings may be built using the best
practices, the occurrence of leakages during their service life should be considered
at the design stage. Hence, a second protection barrier should be created to avoid
the entrance of water in the building envelope, using a ventilation and drainage
system, simultaneously avoiding the occurrence of condensations (Camposinhos
2014). Those systems consist of executing ventilation and drainage pipes or flashings
in the joints (fastened with adhesive material, not interfering with the fastening
system) in every two floors.
Using indirect fastening may be advantageous, as it allows differential movements
between the cladding and the substrate and the air gap allows draining and ventilating
the back face of stone plates, if adequately detailed (e.g. creation of ventilation holes)
(Fig. 2.5).
In this type of fastening systems, the durability of the natural stone cladding
depends on the nature of the stone and on the type of fastening elements. The selection
of the fastening system is done according to loads, type of stone and substrate and
the possibility of including thermal insulation in the air gap.
Three main types of indirect fastening systems are available: dowel anchorage
(local fastening points), undercut anchorage (using an intermediate structure) and
kerf anchorage (using an intermediate structure). Dowel anchorage (Camposinhos
2014) uses the insertion of dowel pins in holes. It is adequate for stone plates with
a length up to 1 m. Fastening is provided by four dowel pins for each plate (two
on top and two at the bottom, or two on each side) that are inserted in holes drilled
26 2 Technology
a b
Fig. 2.5 Natural stone cladding with ventilation holes: a general view; b close-up
a b
Fig. 2.6 Sections of: a a dowel anchorage system; and b a Keil-type technology undercut anchorage
system. 1—natural stone plate; 2—panel bracket; 3—slotted anchor sleeve with internal thread;
4—screw
in the thickness of the plate. The depth of the holes is about 2/3 of the thickness
of the plate, also depending on the diameter of the dowel pin. Dowels are part of
a system using perpendicular rods to connect the fastening system to the substrate
(Fig. 2.6, part a).
The undercut anchorage system provides a keying-type anchorage in the stone
plate thickness. Essentially, two types of undercut anchorage are available (Campos-
inhos 2014): Fischer-type undercut anchors and crosswise slotted anchor sleeves with
internal thread. Fischer-type anchors have a cone bolt, an expansion ring, a sleeve
and an optional nut. These anchors are applied placing the anchor sleeve against
the expansion ring, forcing it to expand in the undercut hole, hence locking inside
Fig. 2.7 Two types of kerf anchor clips’ profiles
the stone plate. Undercut anchorage using crosswise slotted anchor sleeves with an
internal thread consists of fitting the anchor in an undercut hole and then inserting
the sleeve, which is deformed. The anchor sleeve expands when a screw is inserted
in it, fitting the anchor in the undercut hole in the stone plate. This system is also
known as Keil-type technology (Fig. 2.6, part b).
The kerf anchorage system consists of using saw-cut grooves in the edge of stone
plates, where kerf clips fit (Camposinhos 2014). Kerf clips are fastened to a bearing
frame or directly to the substrate. Kerf clips may be continuous or discontinuous and,
usually, they fit the bottom and top edges of the stone plates (Fig. 2.7). Kerf clips, as
Fischer-type anchors, are usually made with stainless steel or aluminium.
2.2.2.3 Types of Finishes
Selecting a specific type of natural stone for a cladding often depends on the appear-
ance of the finished product. In turn, the appearance depends on the colour of the
stone, homogeneity and heterogeneity of its texture and on the finish.
a b c
Fig. 2.8 Different types of natural stone finishes: a scratched; b bush-hammered; c polished
28 2 Technology
Finishes that may be applied on natural stones depend on the type of material
and on its geological structure. Thus, some types of finish are better suited for spe-
cific types of natural stone. For instance, marble and granite, with high levels of
crystallisation, are better suited for polished and honed finishes.
The finish should not only be applied considering the final appearance of the
stone product but also taking the resistance to aggressive agents into account. For
instance, low porosity plates subject to flamed or polished finishes are waterproof.
Coarse finishes, such as bush-hammering, significantly increase the exposed area of
the natural stone plate, interfering with the effect environmental agents may have.
Table 2.4 highlights some natural stone finishes. Usually, suppliers provide samples
with the most adequate finishes for their range of natural stones.
Rougher finishes are advised for applications outdoors, as the texture of the surface
creates random paths for water, which, in smoother surfaces, causes staining.
Table 2.4 Description of the most common types of finish for natural stone (García-del-Cura et al.
2008; Camposinhos 2014; Marble Institute of America 2016)
Type of finish Description
Diamond sawn It is a finish obtained through sawing the stone using
circular saws. The stone’s surface shows curved grooves
Polished (Fig. 2.8, part c) The treated surface becomes smooth, glowing and
reflecting light. A polished finish is obtained using rotary
heads that rub the stone surface with abrasive materials
with a progressively lower grain size. The last stage
consists of rubbing with felt heads
Honed The honed finish process is similar to that of a polished
finish, but small grain size abrasives are not used. The
surface is also smooth, but not glossy
Scratched (Fig. 2.8, part a) This type of finish is obtained by making a set of parallel
grooves in the stone surface. Grooves are generally
concave or trapezoidal
Rubbed Slightly smooth finish, similar to a honed finish
Sandblasted It is obtained through the abrasive impact on the surface of
a high-pressure water jet with silica sand. The surface has a
fine homogeneous appearance
Flamed This finish creates an irregular surface, relatively smooth,
in granite stones. It is obtained using a blowtorch pointed at
the surface at about 45°. Generally, the colour also changes
Cleft This finish takes advantage of the natural layers of the
stone structure, hence being more adequate for clay-slate
and sandstone, for instance. When the stone is cut, the
finish is naturally obtained
Bush-hammered (Fig. 2.8, part b) The stone surface is struck with a bush-hammer, which is a
type of hammer whose head consists of a set of pyramidal
teeth. The bush-hammered finish may be finer or coarser,
according to the size of the bush-hammer teeth
It should also be mentioned that common known changes in the stone may be used
to intentionally obtain natural effects in the stone cladding when combined with a
given finish.
2.2.2.4 Design Limitations
The use of natural stone as a façade cladding requires adequate design detailing. The
choice of size, shape and finish should consider functional requirements, location,
type of fastening system and the physical and mechanical properties of stone.
Rainwater drainage systems, including the drainage of the façade, should be taken
into account. The location of drainage plumbing inside the walls should be considered
at the design stage and the elements should be installed before the stone cladding.
The selection of a specific type of stone should be based on visual and technical
criteria, and testing and calculations should be provided. Design specifications should
include the material’s requirements and the expected loads, so that the material,
complying with those specifications, fulfils its purpose safely.
The height of a stone cladding on the façade may influence the type of fastening
system used. The different types of anchorage should be designed considering the
loads on the cladding, including its weight, impact and wind loads, and loads resulting
from differential deformation.
As for the size of the joints, the different expansion coefficients of the stone and
of the substrate should be taken into account. The building’s expansion joints should
be visible and treated also at the cladding level, and elastic joints should also be
considered along the façade, besides adequate peripheral joints between different
materials applied on the same surface.
2.2.2.5 Standards
Standardisation results in more homogeneous products, potentially with higher

quality levels. In Europe, a large set of standards establishes different types of
requirements for natural stone products, namely:
• Terminology and denomination standards:
– EN 12440:2017 Natural stone—Denomination criteria (European Committee
for Standardization [CEN] 2017a);
– EN 12670:2019 Natural stone—Terminology (CEN 2019a);
• Test methods standards:
– EN 1925:1999 Natural stone test methods—Determination of water absorption
coefficient by capillarity (CEN 1999a);
– EN 1926:2006 Natural stone test methods—Determination of uniaxial com-
pressive strength (CEN 2006a);
30 2 Technology
– EN 1936:2006 Natural stone test methods—Determination of real density and

apparent density, and of total and open porosity (CEN 2006b);
– EN 12370:1999 Natural stone test methods—Determination of resistance to salt
crystallisation (CEN 1999b);
– EN 12371:2010 Natural stone test methods—Determination of frost resistance
(CEN 2010a);
– EN 12407:2019 Natural stone test methods—Petrographic examination (CEN
2019b);
– EN 13161:2008 Natural stone test methods—Determination of flexural strength
under constant moment CEN 2008a);
– EN 13501-1:2018 Fire classification of construction products and building
elements—Part 1: Classification using data from reaction to fire tests (CEN
2018a);
– EN 13364:2001 Natural stone test methods—Determination of the breaking
load at dowel hole (CEN 2001);
– EN 13373:2019 Natural stone test methods—Determination of geometric
characteristics on units (CEN 2019c);
– EN 13755:2008 Natural stone test methods—Determination of water absorption
at atmospheric pressure (CEN 2008b);
– EN 14066:2013 Natural stone test methods—Determination of resistance to
ageing by thermal shock (CEN 2013a);
– EN 14146:2004 Natural stone test methods—Determination of the dynamic
modulus of elasticity (by measuring the fundamental resonance frequency)
(CEN 2004a);
– EN 14157:2017 Natural stone test methods—Determination of the abrasion
resistance (CEN 2017b);
– EN 14158:2004 Natural stone test methods—Determination of rupture energy
(CEN 2004b);
– EN 14579:2004 Natural stone test methods—Determination of sound speed
propagation (CEN 2004c);
– EN 14580:2005 Natural stone test methods—Determination of static elastic
modulus (CEN 2005a);
– EN 14581:2004 Natural stone test methods—Determination of linear thermal
expansion coefficient (CEN 2004d);
– EN 12326-2:2011 Slate and stone for discontinuous roofing and external
cladding—Part 2: Methods of test for slate and carbonate slate (CEN 2011a);
• Product standards:
– EN 1467:2012 Natural stone—Rough blocks—Requirements (CEN 2012a);
– EN 1468:2012 Natural stone—Rough slabs—Requirements (CEN 2012b);
– EN 1469:2015 Natural stone products—Slabs for cladding—Requirements
(CEN 2015a);
– EN 12057:2015 Natural stone products—Modular tiles—Requirements (CEN
2015b);
– EN 12059:2008+A1:2011 Natural stone products—Dimensional stone work—

Requirements (CEN 2011b);
– EN 12326-1:2014 Slate and stone for discontinuous roofing and external
cladding—Part 1: Specifications for slate and carbonate slate (CEN 2014a).
2.2.3 Execution of Natural Stone Claddings
The execution of natural stone claddings should be especially careful, as many defects
result from execution errors. So, the adequate use of materials, the correct fastening of
elements, the use of specialised labour and complying with the project and technical
specifications may be decisive factors for the success of a natural stone cladding
throughout its service life. Additionally, coordination between the different actors at
the construction site should be promoted.
2.2.3.1 Execution of Claddings Directly Fastened to the Substrate
As mentioned, direct fastening systems are not the best solution for natural stone
façade claddings, mainly above 6 m high. Early degradation (Fig. 2.9) may be
caused by the behaviour of the adhesive material, application conditions, moisture
and preparation of the substrate and stone plates.
When direct fastening is the chosen solution, the substrate should be prepared
ahead. It should be cleaned, flattened and waterproofed with a traditional render,
which should be kept damp for two weeks, avoiding quick drying. The render may
have to be reinforced with adequate fibreglass mesh if stresses or differential move-
ments are expected. Then, the stone plates are adhered or sealed, applying the adhe-
sive or mortar, respectively. Mortar should be applied simultaneously on the back face
of the stone plates (back-buttering) and on the substrate, while adhesives only require
application on the substrate (Amaral et al. 2015). Application on the substrate is done
by spreading the adhesive material (cementitious or not) on the substrate using an
adequate notched trowel, creating a continuous and homogeneous bed of adhesive
a b c
Fig. 2.9 Early staining in a natural stone cladding associated with the adhesive material: a general
view; b close-up; c back face of removed stone plates
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material. Then, the stone plates are applied on the substrate, pressing the plate so that
the adhesive cords are crushed, ensuring that no voids remain between the substrate
and the stone plate. All manufacturers’ recommendations should be followed.
Movement joints should be executed between every plate, as well as elastic joints
and expansion joints. Peripheral joints should also be executed in the transition
between coplanar claddings and next to protrusions. In stone claddings directly fas-
tened to the substrate, joints between stone plates should be at least 4 mm wide,
depending on the size of the plates.
As for hydrophobic treatments, in these cases, they should only be applied 30 days
after applying the cladding. Additionally, waterproofing treatments should only be
applied 48 h after raining, to avoid moisture in the plates.
2.2.3.2 Execution of Claddings Indirectly Fastened to the Substrate
As for the indirect fastening of natural stone claddings, the following sequence of
tasks is executed:
• Marking the location of fastening elements on the substrate;
• Drilling any required holes and installing the fastening elements on the substrate;
• Installing the plates, considering that fastening elements (e.g. dowels) are already
installed in the stone plates;
• Straightening and aligning the stone plates;
• Removing any wedges;
• Optionally filling joints.
In indirectly fastened stone claddings, if the cladding elements are small (e.g.
slates), joints may be overlaid.
2.2.3.3 Maintenance
Regular maintenance is advised in natural stone claddings, as it is a relevant factor

for the performance and durability of the cladding. Simple planned works, such
as cleaning, washing and inspecting the façade are useful to avoid expensive late
repairs (Snethlage 2014; Amaral et al. 2015). These procedures help to identify pre-
pathological signs that indicate possible degradation mechanisms, while an accurate
diagnosis determines the best course of action to stop them.
In most cases, washing the natural stone cladding with pressurised water is
advised, followed by the application of a hydrophobic treatment to delay ageing
signs (Amaral et al. 2015). Adequate means of access to the façade make maintenance
works easier.
2.3 Adhesive Ceramic Tiling 33
2.3 Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
Adhesive ceramic tiling is a commonly used cladding, especially in flooring solutions,

bathrooms and kitchens, as it is easy to maintain, durable and relatively cheap (Stock
2004). Indoors, adhesive ceramic tiling is more advantageous than natural stone
claddings in terms of water absorption, and staining and slip resistance.
On the other hand, the performance of ceramic tiling in façades does not seem to
be so competitive. For instance, in Singapore, the use of adhesive ceramic has been
prohibited above the 4th floor, due to the high level of detected defects (Wong 2004).
Still, the materials’ quality, as well as labour and execution may have influenced
such results. To avoid problems, the technology of adhesive ceramic tiling should be
divulged, including the properties of materials, for more conscious applications.
2.3.1 Materials Used in Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
2.3.1.1 Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tiles for façade claddings are manufactured with a mixture of clay materials,
such as clay and kaolin, and melting materials, such as sand and feldspar. Tiles may
be manufactured using press forming or extrusion forming (Centro Tecnológi-co da
Cerâmica e do Vidro [CTCV] 2003).
Classification of Ceramic Tiles
The classification of ceramic tiles is determined by standard EN 14411:2016 (CEN

2016a), considering the level of water absorption and the manufacturing process.
Group A tiles are extruded, and group B tiles are dry-pressed. Extruded tiles
include extruded sandstone tiles, clinker tiles, terracotta tiles and rustic tiles. Dry-
pressed tiles include porcelain tiles, porcelain sandstone tiles and azulejo.
The different types of tiles may have essentially two types of finish: glazed or
unglazed. Glazed tiles have a superficial vitrified coat, which is waterproof. Unglazed
tiles do not have any kind of superficial coat. Both types of finish may be polished
(CEN 2016a). Additionally, the glazing level of the ceramic paste directly influences
the porosity and mechanical resistance of tiles. Porosity decreases as the glazing level
increases and mechanical strength increases with glazing. A higher level of glazing
may be obtained using finer clay grains while manufacturing the tiles.
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Quality Control of Manufacturing
Quality control during the manufacturing process of ceramic tiles is done in sequen-
tial stages, following the process from raw materials supply up to testing the final
product. When the production process ends, before ceramic tiles are ready to leave
the factory, the final product is tested to control the compliance with standards. In
Europe, standard test methods of ceramic tiles are included in EN ISO 10545 series
(CEN 1996, 1997a, b, c, 1998a, 2012c, d, 2013b, 2014, 2015c, 2016b, 2018b, c,
2019d). These standards define the procedures do determine: dimensions and sur-
face quality; water absorption, apparent porosity, apparent relative density and bulk
density; modulus of rupture and breaking strength; impact resistance; resistance to
deep abrasion (unglazed tiles); resistance to surface abrasion (glazed tiles); linear
thermal expansion; resistance to thermal shock; moisture expansion; crazing resis-
tance (glazed tiles); frost resistance; chemical resistance; resistance to stains; and
small colour differences.
Environmental Impact
The main environmental impacts resulting from the production of ceramic tiles refer
to:
• The consumption of natural resources;
• Emissions to the atmosphere;
• Water consumption and liquid effluents;
• Production of waste;
• Noise emissions.
Each of these types of impacts may be minimised with specific measures, namely:
• Exploring natural resources in a smart way, systematically benefiting affected
areas;
• Minimising the consumption of energy and exploring alternative renewable
sources;
• Minimising gaseous emissions and liquid effluents, and treating them;
• Limiting the production of solid waste, including reusing or recycling in the
productive cycle and using waste as an aggregate in the construction industry.
2.3.1.2 Adhesive Material for Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tiles may be directly fastened to the substrate. For this purpose, two main
solutions are available (Lucas 2003): traditional mortar and different types of adhe-
sive material. Traditional mortar is applied as a thick bed, 5–20 mm, simultaneously
smoothing the substrate. Still, the use of this solution represents a lower adhesion
tension with the tile (i.e. adhesion occurs only physically) and is only adequate for
highly porous substrates and tiles. In façades, traditional mortar should include a
water repellent admixtures, to improve the resistance do water.
Cementitious adhesive (hydraulic binders), dispersion adhesives (organic binders)
and reaction resin adhesives (synthetic resins) are industrial materials that are applied
as a thin bed, 2–5 mm. These adhesives may be applied directly on the substrate or
over a screed layer (spatter-dash and base layer). The fundamental property that
separates these industrial materials from traditional mortars is the ability to retain
water. That ability allows thin bed applications to have the required amount of water
to hydrate Portland cement (Medeiros and Sabbatini 1998).
Adhesive materials should comply with EN 120004-1:2017 (CEN 2017c) and,
for quality control purposes, with EN 120004-2:2017 (CEN 2017d), referring to test
methods. Adhesive materials may have different compositions, each one more ade-
quate for specific situations. In façades, bi-component cementitious adhesive, mixed
binders’ cementitious adhesive, aluminous cementitious adhesive and dispersion
adhesives are recommended.
2.3.1.3 Joints for Ceramic Tiles
The stereotomy of ceramic tiling requires including joints between elements, taking
the width of joints into special account. Joint filling materials should be water-
proof, resilient and compressible, and show good resistance to water, cleaning prod-
ucts, chemical attack and biological growth. Still, as ceramic tiles are waterproof,
exchanges of moisture between the substrate and the surrounding environment must
occur through the joints, which must be permeable to water vapour.
Adhesive ceramic tiling should include movement joints between every tile, as
well as elastic, expansion and peripheral joints. Movement joints should be dimen-
sioned to absorb the expansion of tiles. Generally, in façades, extruded tiles should
have, at least, 6 mm wide joints, while pressed tiles should have, at least, 4 mm
wide joints. As extruded tiles may have larger expansion associated with moisture,
they need to be laid with larger joints. The width of joints should also increase with
the exposure aggressiveness of the cladding’s surrounding environment and with the
tiles’ darker colours.
Movement joints may be filled with two main groups of materials: cement grout
and resin grout, as defined in EN 13888:2009 (CEN 2009a). Resin grout materials
are manufactured with reaction resins. In façades, the use of cement grout with high
resin content is advised and, in aggressive exposure conditions, bi-component epoxy
grout is recommended.
Elastic joints are meant to avoid cracking and the detachment of tiles due to
stresses resulting from differential deformations of hygrometric nature in the sub-
strate, bedding material and tiles. Elastic joints are more important the thicker the
bedding material and the more aggressive the exposure environment (Lucas and
Abreu 2011). Elastic joints are as deep as the bedding material, even including the
screed layer. This type of joints divides the cladding into smaller areas, avoiding the
cumulative action of the mentioned differential movements. Elastic joints should be,
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 2.10 Expansion joint filled with mastic. 1—substrate; 2—bedding material; 3—tiles; 4—
expansion joint filling material; 5—silicone cord; 6—mastic
at least, 5 mm (usually 12 mm) thick and filled with a compressible material and a
metallic or plastic profile. The surface of the joint should be filled with the material
used for movement joints or with mastic, depending on the width.
Expansion joints must be included in the cladding system. It is common to use
mastics (Fig. 2.10) or prefabricated expansion joints reinforced with metallic or
plastic profiles to fill this type of joints. The Young’ modulus of materials used to
fill expansion joints should be in the products’ specifications sheet, so that designers
are able to recommend a product that fits the expected expansion of the building’s
bearing structure. Otherwise, the chosen product may degrade faster than expected
(e.g. break, if a fragile material is chosen).
In the perimeter of adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces, peripheral joints should be
executed. Peripheral joints should be treated as elastic joints, but, in some cases, like
corners, a metallic or plastic profile may be enough.
2.3.2 Design of Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
The quality of the design of adhesive ceramic tiling is paramount for the durability
of the cladding. The design should take structural factors into account, such as the
deformability of the substrate, construction limitations associated with maintenance
conditions, as well as service factors, such as the protection the cladding provides to
the building envelope. The cladding’s exposure conditions, such as thermal shock,
wind and pollution, should also be considered during the design process.
The designer should accurately determine the stereotomy of the adhesive ceramic
tiling, including the location and size of every type of joints, and specify the properties
of materials and application techniques.
2.3.2.1 Design Limitations
In façades, the application of adhesive ceramic tiling should prevent any kind of
human and material damages caused by the detachment of tiles. In buildings with
three or more floors, at the ground level, some kind of architectural protection should
be implemented to minimise possible damages resulting from the fall of tiles.
As for the dimension of tiles, ceramic tiles should only be applied using adhesive
materials if (CTCV 2003):
• Tiles have a water absorption level lower than 0.5% and a surface up to 2000 cm2 ;
• Tiles have a water absorption level higher than 0.5% and a surface up to 3600 cm2 ;
• Terracotta tiles are used and their surface is up to 300 cm2 ;
• Terracotta slates are used and their surface is up to 231 cm2 .
The design of adhesive ceramic tiling should also take the properties of the sub-
strate into account. First, the dimensional tolerances of the substrate should be con-
sidered. For instance, ceramic tiles should not be applied in a substrate composed of
a metallic structure using adhesive materials, due to excessive deformations associ-
ated with this structural solution. Generally, adhesive ceramic tiling may be applied
on walls and prefabricated panels of concrete and rendered masonry walls (with or
without external thermal insulation).
In façades with a linear reinforced concrete structure, the ideal stage for applying
the cladding occurs after the building has been subjected to all service loads (Lucas
and Abreu 2011). However, this is not usually possible. Hence, the deformation
of the structure due to dead loads should be taken into account in the adhesive
ceramic tiling design. So, horizontal elastic joints, normally located at the height of
floor slabs, should be dimensioned considering such loads, which may correspond
to vertical displacements of 12.5 mm per floor. As the surfaces defined by elastic
joints should be approximately square, the distance between vertical elastic joints
should take the floor height into account (Goldberg 2011), considering the position
of façade openings and the colour of the tiles as well (darker colours may cause
higher expansion of tiles).
2.3.2.2 Selection of Materials and Stereotomy
For each type of application of adhesive ceramic tiling, the selection of tiles should
take their properties into account. In façades, the most important properties are frost
resistance, moisture expansion and linear thermal expansion (CTCV 2003). Addi-
tionally, the ease of cleaning and low absorption of impurities may also be important
properties for ceramic tiles applied in façades.
As for the selection of bedding material, the type of connections that are estab-
lished between the substrate, the adhesive material and the tile should be considered.
When cement-based materials are used, connections are merely physical, consisting
in the crystallisation of the cement hydration reaction products in the tile’s pores.
This crystallisation allows the creation of anchorage points between the layers that
compose the cladding. When the bedding material is mainly composed of resins,
the connection between layers is done by electrostatic interactions, which ensure the
stability of the cladding. In the case of adhesive materials composed of cement and
resin, the connection is partially physical and chemical.
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In some application conditions, tiles may be back-buttered. That procedure is

advised, for instance, for the application of tiles with a surface larger than 500 cm2
or with a water absorption level lower than 3%. Back-buttering consists in applying
adhesive on the substrate and on the back face of tiles. Back-buttering makes it easier
to crush the adhesive cords, maximises the contact area between the adhesive and
the back face of tiles and absorbs some flatness defects of the substrate (Lucas and
Abreu 2011). However, excessive thickness of the bedding layer should be avoided,
and the higher cost of back-buttering, when compared with simple buttering, should
be considered.
During the service life of adhesive ceramic tiling, there is a transition point that
corresponds to joints starting to actively work, due to loads on the cladding. The role
of joints may avoid the occurrence of cracking, whether in the joint or in the tiles,
and the detachment of tiles. Additionally, joints stop air and water leakage in the
cladding, while constituting the privileged area for the release of water vapour. With
these functions in mind, generally, the area of joints should correspond, at least,
to 10% of the surface of the cladding (Goldberg 2011). Additionally, joint filling
materials should have good workability, low drying shrinkage and good adhesion.
Grout for adhesive ceramic tiling with the mentioned properties should successfully
fulfil its requirements, allowing also the local adjustment of tiles and limiting the
deformation of the cladding.
Many defects in adhesive ceramic tiling are associated with an incorrect or absent
definition of the type, size and materials of joints at the design stage. Some authors
(Shohet and Paciuk 2004, 2006) refer that the service life of an adhesive ceramic
tiling outdoors may be three to four times lower than expected when joints are not
adequately designed. Analysing that type of data leads to the conclusion that the
durability of adhesive ceramic tiling may only be ensured if joints are adequately
designed and if the design specifications are followed during the execution stage.
While designing an adhesive ceramic tiling cladding, areas subject to higher
stresses should be anticipated and treated. The substrate’s screed may be reinforced,
using, for instance, a fibreglass mesh, joints may be larger or elastic joints may be
designed with smaller spacing between them.
Additionally, thermal bridges should be treated, trying to ensure that, throughout
the façade, the substrate has the same properties in terms of thermal conductivity,
hence avoiding preferential areas of heat and water vapour transmission, which would
result in the occurrence of condensations on the cladding’s surface or inside the wall,
according to the environmental conditions.
The top of façades is also a sensitive area for the occurrence of water leakages.
This area may be associated with a parapet wall or with the eaves of the roof. As
water leakage may lead to the occurrence of efflorescence and to the degradation of
the bedding material, the top area of the façade should be studied and detailed at the
design stage to ensure better durability of the cladding. The detail should determine
the end of the adhesive ceramic tiling, the size and filling of the peripheral joint and
the waterproofing solution. If metallic profiles are used, the adhesive material should
provide good adhesion properties to metallic materials (Goldberg 2011).
If the top of the façade is constituted by a capped parapet wall, the coping should
have a drip detail to avoid water runoff and subsequent dirt stains on the cladding,
as well as possible detachment of tiles, due to changes in the bedding material. Drip
details should be considered in every protrusion of the façade, like windowsills.
Façades may also have curved areas cladded with ceramic tiles. In those cases,
rectangular tiles should be applied with the shortest edge parallel to the curve’s
perimeter. Small square tiles, with edges of about 2.5 cm, may also be used to
efficiently clad the façade’s curve.
In façades with more than two storeys, means of access to the façade should be
defined for future maintenance of the cladding. Hence, anchorage points or sup-
port equipment should be provided. If good access is provided, cleaning operations,
inspections and local repairs are easier to take place at lower costs (no scaffolding
required).
2.3.3 Execution of Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
The execution of adhesive ceramic tiling, whether with a thin or thick bed, is com-
posed of five main stages: preparation of the substrate, application of the bedding
material, application of tiles, filling the joints and final cleaning.
Between each stage, setting periods should be complied with, so that the first, and
most significant, deformations of the materials take place. Setting periods depend on
the properties of the materials, curing conditions, type, size and exposure conditions
of the surface, as well on the flatness and cleanliness level of the substrate. If adhesive
ceramic tiling is applied over a rendered substrate, the application of the cladding
should only occur after four to six weeks (CTCV 2003; Lucas and Abreu 2011).
2.3.3.1 Preparation of the Substrate
In this stage, the dimensions and orthogonality of the substrate should be checked,
so that the width and location of all joints are determined, trying to obtain a low
number of cut tiles. Tile spacers should be used to precisely locate and dimension
the joints. Vertical and horizontal alignments of the first rows should be marked with
a nylon wire.
Flatness defects on the substrate may require executing a screed layer or using a
traditional mortar bed (thick bed method) (Lucas and Abreu 2011). If the substrate’s
texture is too rough, the thick bed method may also be advised, even if the roughness
increases adhesion. To apply adhesive ceramic tiling, the flatness assessment of the
substrate with a 2 m batten should not result in differences larger than 5 mm. As for
the assessment of verticality, with a 3 m plumb line, it should not reveal differences
larger than 10 mm per floor.
40 2 Technology
A very porous substrate requires previous treatment with a primer. On the other
hand, a substrate with low water absorption only allows the chemical adhesion of the
bedding material, limiting the range of products that may be used. The cleanliness of
the substrate also influences the quality of adhesion. Hence, if necessary, the substrate
should be previously cleaned with a pressurised water jet.
2.3.3.2 Application of the Bedding Material
This application stage should begin with the preparation and mechanical mixture of
the adhesive material according to manufacturers’ recommendations. If a thick bed
is used (Fig. 2.11), a 10–15 mm thick single layer of traditional mortar is applied,
finished with a wooden batten and let to harden to bear the weight of the tiles. When
it is hard enough, the back face of the tiles is covered with mortar. The thickness of
this layer depends on the texture of the back face of tiles. Then, applying a slight
pressure, the tiles are placed in the adequate position.
If a thin bed is used (Fig. 2.11), after levelling the substrate, the adhesive material
is applied on the substrate, considering the adequate thickness for each case. First, the
Fig. 2.11 Representation of the application of adhesive ceramic tiling using a thick or a thin bed.
1—substrate; 2—spatter-dash (render layer); 3—render; 4—traditional mortar layer; 5—traditional
mortar applied on the back face of tiles; 6—elastic joint; 7—adhesive material; 8—movement joint;
9—tile
Table 2.5 Minimal height of

Size of the tiles Minimal height of the trowel’s notches
the notches of trowels used in
large size tiles (Cass 2004) 20 cm × 20 cm 8 mm
25 cm × 25 cm 10 mm (back-buttering advised)
30 cm × 30 cm 12 mm (back-buttering advised)
≥40 cm × 40 cm ≥12 mm (back-buttering advised)
flat edge of a trowel is used, at 45°, so that the adhesive material forms a homogeneous
layer. Then, the notched side of the trowel is used on the adhesive material, to form
adhesive cords. Table 2.5 shows the advised size of the trowel’s notches for tiles larger
than 20 cm × 20 cm. If back-buttering is advised, the adhesive material should also
be applied on the back face of the tiles.
2.3.3.3 Application of Tiles
The application of tiles using a thick bed has already been described in Sect. 2.3.3.2.
If a thin bed is used, the application of tiles should be done applying high pressure,
crushing the adhesive cords so that a homogenous layer, without voids, is formed,
ensuring the complete contact between the back face of the tile and the adhesive
material. A rubber hammer may be used at this stage.
The Tarver method (Cass 2004) is a procedure that helps to ensure complete
contact between the back face of tiles and the adhesive material. It is a three-stage
method. First, the tile is placed exactly in its position applying slight pressure. Then,
the tile is moved and pressed in the perpendicular direction of the adhesive material
cords, considering a distance of about 1 cord. Finally, the tile is moved back to its
original (and final) position applying constant pressure.
The application of tiles should comply with the adhesive open-time. Typically,
when the adhesive material is no longer adequate for the application of tiles, a whitish
pellicle is formed on the adhesive cords. From that moment on, the application of
tiles should stop, and the adhesive material should be removed.
In cases with highly porous tiles or very low relative humidity, the use of primers
to improve the adhesion quality is advised (Lucas and Abreu 2011).
2.3.3.4 Filling the Joints
Tiles should be applied with straight and uniform joints, whose width depends on
the type and shape of the tiles, as well as on loads. Movement joints are usually done
using tile spacers, which ensure a homogeneous width. Tile spacers are usually in
plastic and should be removed from the cladding before grouting.
However, the use of tile spacers may result in the low-quality application of tiles,
as the tile is only placed in its position, becoming harder to crush the adhesive cords,
even if a rubber hammer is used.
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The joints should be filled at least 24 h after applying the tiles to ensure that
the bedding material has dried. The grout should be applied with a rubber trowel,
ensuring that all joints are filled equally. After the grout starts to dry, it should be
inspected to ensure a perfect finish.
2.3.3.5 Final Cleaning
The residue of grouting materials should be cleaned with a damp sponge, using a
diagonal movement. This operation should only occur after the cure of the grout, as
recommended by the manufacturer.
2.3.4 Quality Control at the Execution Stage
The quality control of the tiles’ adhesion should be done removing a recently applied
tile, while the bedding material is still fresh, and observing the back face of the tile
and the substrate. The contact area between the tile and the bedding material is, thus,
checked. If a thin bed was used, the adhesive material cords should not be visible,
and the adhesive material on the substrate should be a continuous and homogenous
layer, completely covering the back face of the tiles. After the bedding material
dries, a percussion test, using a rubber hammer, may be performed, checking the
homogeneity of the bedding (Lucas and Abreu 2011).
2.4 Wall Renders
Three types of wall render may be considered: traditional, current and non-traditional.
However, this classification is not unanimous, as several different types of classifi-
cation are used. In this context, two main groups may be considered: traditional and
non-traditional renders, as the difference between traditional and current renders is
the use of lime only in traditional renders, better for conservation and rehabilitation
works.
2.4.1 Materials Used in Wall Renders
A wall render mortar is generally composed of aggregates, water, binders, admixtures,

additions and, in wall areas more susceptible to cracking, reinforcement meshes
(Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015).
2.4 Wall Renders 43
Sand is the most common aggregate in wall renders and works as the skeleton of
the mortar. The type of sand and its size grading influence the behaviour of mortars,
having an important role in the quality of the render. Sand will decrease shrinkage,
create volume, absorb water vapour and improve mechanical strength. The sand
should not contain any organic matter or salts and should be washed as needed.
Water is also essential while manufacturing mortars as it promotes the hydration
of aggregates and the activation of binders, and provides workability for application
purposes. The water used for manufacturing render mortars should be free from
impurities, dissolved salts (that contribute to the appearance of efflorescence), organic
matter and soil matter (which decreases mechanical strength). Water excessively pure
should also be avoided as it may lead to the dissolution of lime (Day 2006).
Binders are adhesive elements composed of fine powders that, kneaded with water,
form a paste with binding properties whose hardening occurs through chemical reac-
tions between the particles of powder, water and air. These elements are classified
according to hardening and setting, namely: hydraulic binders, which, after harden-
ing, keep their mechanical resistance and stability, even under water, like hydraulic
lime and cement; and air binders, which, after hardening and setting, only keep their
mechanical resistance and stability if not in direct contact with water, like gypsum
and air lime (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015). The most common binders are cement
and hydraulic and air lime, as gypsum is a binder with more restricted use and that
normally appears associated with indoor claddings.
Admixtures and additions are products that can be incorporated in mortars with
the objective of improving renders’ properties. Conceptually, an admixture and an
addition are different as admixtures provide changes at a chemical level and additions
at a physical level. The most common admixtures and additions are highlighted in
Table 2.6 and Table 2.7, respectively.
In wall areas more susceptible to cracking, reinforcement is embedded in the
render, such as in wall openings, protrusions, corners and transition areas between
different materials.
The reinforcement is made with fibreglass, nervometal sheet, distended metal
or welded steel wire meshes, which are generally embedded in the base layer of
the render with the objective of: improving the tensile strength, avoiding crack-
ing; ensuring the adhesion of the render to the substrate, avoiding cracking and
detachment processes; and increasing the impact resistance. Fibreglass mesh should
have anti-alkaline protection, while metal or wire meshes should have anti-corrosion
protection.
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Table 2.6 Admixtures (Rixom and Mailvaganam 1999; Aggoun et al. 2008; Flores-Colen and de
Brito 2015)
Admixtures Description
Plasticisers Improve the workability of mortars increasing
their viscosity and decreasing the needed
amount of kneading water
Adhesion promoters Improve adhesion without increasing the
cement content, decreasing shrinkage and
susceptibility to cracking (e.g. synthetic resins
and polymers)
Water repellents or capillary reducers Promote the capillary sealing, decreasing
capillary water permeability
Water reducers Decrease attraction forces between binder
particles, making the paste more fluid and
decreasing the needed amount of kneading
water
Water retainers Stop the premature desiccation of the paste,
contributing to more complete hydration
Air-entrainers Promote the homogeneous distribution of air
in small bubbles, making the mortar more
permeable, homogenous and workable,
improving the resistance to freeze-thaw and to
the action of salts, while contributing to
decreasing exudation and cracking
Hardening accelerators Accelerate the development of initial
resistance
Setting accelerators Make initial reactions faster, decreasing the
setting time
Setting retarders Make initial reactions slower, increasing the
setting time
Antifreeze Decrease the freezing point, avoiding the
formation of ice crystals
Flocculants or thickeners Decrease exudation
Fungicides, insecticides, bactericides and Stop the fixation of microorganisms in the
germicides mortar
Table 2.7 Additions (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015)

Additions Description
Pigments Allow obtaining coloured mortars
Fibres Generally made of glass, resistant to alkali, of fibrillated or of
cellulose polypropylene, which are meant to increase the
tensile strength and the render’s ductility
Lightweight fillers Decrease the render’s Young’s Modulus, resulting in very
deformable renders
Natural and artificial pozzolans Improve the resistance to sulphates and the silica-aggregates
reaction
2.4 Wall Renders 45
2.4.2 Design of a Wall Render
External claddings of the building envelope may be classified according to the role
of the cladding (Lucas 2011). That classification is presented in Table 2.8 and allows
showing the context where wall renders fit.
Watertight claddings are different from waterproofing claddings, as watertight
claddings should ensure a tight facing, even when cracking occurs. Waterproofing
claddings significantly contribute to waterproof the wall, but alone they do not ensure
the watertightness of the facing.
2.4.2.1 Functional Requirements
A wall render should comply with a set of functional requirements to ensure quality.
The most important requirements are (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015):
• Appearance: the cladding should give the facing a pleasant appearance that conveys
its quality and good condition; the visual appearance is associated with the colour
and texture of the outermost layer of the cladding, which is visible; the appearance
of the render is very important whether from a well-being and visual comfort point
of view or from an economic point of view, as it influences the value of buildings;
Table 2.8 External claddings of the building envelope (adapted from Lucas [2011])
Functional classification Examples of external claddings of the building envelope
Watertight claddings Natural stone plates mechanically fastened to the substrate,
with an air gap
Plates of other materials (e.g. plastic) mechanically fastened to
the substrate, with an air gap
Scale-like claddings (e.g. clay-slate tiles, clay tiles)
Reinforced synthetic binder claddings
Waterproofing claddings Traditional renders
Premixed renders (one-coat or others)
Mixed binders (hydraulic or synthetic) claddings
Synthetic binder claddings
Thermal insulation claddings Tiles/plates claddings with insulation in the air gap
Claddings with insulating components (e.g. thermal renders)
Claddings applied over insulation (e.g. ETICS)
Finish or decorative coats Tiles/plates claddings mechanically fastened or bonded without
an air gap (e.g. ceramic tiles, stone plates)
Thick plastic coats
Thin coats of mixed binders
Painted coats
46 2 Technology
• Workability and consistency: the mortar’s workability and consistency influence

directly the quality of application of the render, the adhesion to the substrate, the
efficiency of activities on-site and the final performance of the render;
• Water retention: this functional requirement is about kneading water and translates
the capacity of the mortar to retain it; this characteristic allows avoiding the evap-
oration and absorption of kneading water in the substrate, thus ensuring adequate
hydration and curing conditions;
• Permeability to water vapour: the permeability to water vapour ensures the evap-
oration of water from leakages, absorption or excessive kneading water, as soon
as weather conditions permit the process, and allows adequate control of conden-
sations and inner hygrometry through releasing water vapour generated inside the
buildings;
• Mechanical, impact and cracking resistance: a wall render should have acceptable
levels of mechanical strength (capacity of the render to resist to internal and exter-
nal stresses resulting from the effects of environmental conditions or from static or
dynamic loads on the building; in other words, the capacity of the render to resist
to stresses without rupture), impact resistance (capacity of the render to resist to
the impact of a hard body, sharp or not, without any marks or without losses of
material or performance damages) and cracking resistance (capacity of the render
to resist tensile stresses due to shrinkage restrictions without opening cracks);
• Durability: it is a functional requirement of any building element; the render should
have a durability adequate to its location and function; the durability of a render
is directly associated with the susceptibility to different pathological phenomena,
location of the facing, climatic region, quality of the material, labour, execution
techniques and care, type of finish, nature and condition of the substrate and
planned maintenance executed throughout the render’s service life;
• Adhesion and compatibility with the substrate: the adhesion of the cladding to
the substrate is a fundamental requirement for a cladding, as, otherwise, it will
not be able to perform adequately; the adhesion to the substrate has implications
in waterproofing, cracking resistance and durability of the adopted construction
solution; adhesion is processed by capillary penetration of kneading water in the
substrate’s pores, dragging the finer elements of the mortar that, as they crystallise
inside the pores, ensure bonding; in the case of non-traditional renders, resin-
based admixtures may also be used to provide chemical adhesion; adhesion does
not depend exclusively on the mortar, as it is highly influenced by the character-
istics and type of substrate (e.g. roughness, absorption coefficient), as well as by
preparation measures; the mortar should have mechanical, geometrical, physical
and chemical compatibility with the substrate.
2.4.2.2 Standards
In Europe, a broad set of standards stipulate requirements and execution rules

for renders. Standard EN 13914-1:2016 (CEN 2016c) specifies requirements and
recommendations for the design, preparation and application of external renders.
2.4 Wall Renders 47
Regarding test methods, the family of standards EN 1015 (CEN 1998b, c, 2002a,
b, 2004e, f, 2006c, d, e, f, g, h, 2016d, 2019e) specifies methods of test for mortars or
masonry, including rendering mortars. Test methods are specified for: particle size
distribution; sampling and preparation of test mortars; consistence, bulk density, air
content, workable life and correction time, and water-soluble chloride content of fresh
mortar, dry bulk density, flexural and compressive strength, and water absorption
coefficient due to capillary action of hardened mortar; water vapour permeability and
adhesive strength of hardened rendering and plastering mortars; and determining the
compatibility of one-coat rendering mortars with substrates.
As for the materials used in render mortars, a set of standards determines specifica-
tions for: factory-made renders based on organic and inorganic binders (CEN 2016e,
2017e); pigments (CEN 2014f); aggregates and lightweight aggregates (CEN 2013c,
2016g); cement (CEN 2011c); lime (CEN 2015d); and admixtures (CEN 2012e).
2.4.2.3 Comparison Between Traditional Renders and Non-traditional

(One-Coat) Renders
Among practitioners, using a one-coat render is generally considered a more expen-

sive solution, although that idea has been proved wrong. Even though one-coat sys-
tems have slightly higher initial costs than those of traditional renders, the costs have
been converging. But the analysis should not be strictly economic. Thus, technical
aspects presented by both solutions should be assessed, as well as specific limita-
tions of the construction site/building. In Table 2.9, a comparison shows the main
characteristics of each type of render.
2.4.3 Execution of Wall Renders
2.4.3.1 Traditional Renders
Traditional renders are prepared and dosed on-site with traditional techniques and
technologies (manual preparation, with a concrete mixer or with a mechanical mixer
and manual application), using components such as cement, lime, sand and some
admixtures or additions. This type of cladding is made with three layers of different
thickness, composition and content. From bottom to top: spatter-dash, base layer and
finish layer. Each layer has specific characteristics considering the role it plays.
Spatter-dash is the first layer of a traditional render and it is meant to promote
the adhesion between the substrate and the cladding and homogenise (and decrease)
the substrate’s water absorption. This layer should be 3–5 mm thick, rough and non-
uniform, to maximise the mechanical connection and adhesion to the next layer. The
mortar used for the spatter-dash should have a high content of binder (cement), a
very fluid consistency, to prevent the substrate’s absorption from compromising the
hydration of cement reactions, and high content of coarse sand.
48
Table 2.9 Comparison between a traditional render and a non-traditional (one-coat) render (Hernández-Olivares and Mayor-Lobo 2011; Flores-Colen and de
Brito 2015)
Parameter Façade render and paint coat One-coat render
Composition Dry mortar, formulated with hydraulic binders, silica aggregates and Coloured cladding mortar composed of hydraulic binders, aggregates and
admixtures, using a satin, textured paint as a finishing coat, based in disperse admixtures/additions (fibres, setting regulators, water retainers, light fillers
polymers in aqueous phase, flexible and waterproof but permeable to water and pigments)
vapour
Efficiency 19 kg/m2 /1 cm thick 16–15 kg/m2 /1 cm thick
Resistance High mechanical strength (flexural, compressive, capillary and soluble salts It ensures every façade requirement: waterproofing, resistance, colour and
actions) and high chemical resistance towards sulphates texture
Pathology The paint coat works as a way of filling any possible cracking There should be more care in application to avoid the appearance of cracking,
as it is a single layer finish/cladding
Both types of cladding are subject to the same types of failure and mechanical faults, such as cracking, blistering and detachments, or efflorescence,
thermophoresis, stains and mould. To avoid mechanical action defects, it is advised, in both solutions, to use a fibreglass mesh with anti-alkaline treatment,
which also provides better adhesion to the substrate
Types of finish Trowelling: to be finished with textured paint or polished finishes Projected stone
Battened: for ceramic tiling or natural stone finishes Scratched, rustic, smooth or trowelling
Sanded: for smooth paint finishes
Advantages Higher homogeneity; better adhesion to the substrate; better content control Quick to apply, as both cladding and coating are done in the same procedure;
when mixing the raw materials; easier to handle as it does not dry as fast as less labour needed; it does not require setting scaffolding twice; it does not
one-coat renders; it does not require specialised labour; easier to apply in have high maintenance needs; it clads, protects and decorates in a single
rehabilitation works; good chromatic homogeneity, even if painted with application; not being a sealant, it gives the substrate enough waterproofing
bright colours; good resistance to ageing due to environmental aggressions towards rainwater entrance, absorbing it during rainy periods and eliminating
it as water vapour during dry periods
Disadvantages It requires a higher renting period of scaffolding; it implies a longer Due to the low quality of brickwork, one-coat systems should be light; it
application process, as the render itself is not a finish, needing painting; need needs specialised labour in repair or maintenance; to comply with chromatic
of compatibility tests between layers homogeneity, its application is more demanding; weather conditions are more
relevant for the final appearance of the render; it is more porous, hence having
higher probability of biological growth in façades with poor insulation
2 Technology
2.4 Wall Renders 49
The base layer is the second one of a traditional render and it is meant to ensure
flatness, verticality, smoothness and waterproofing. This layer should be 10–15 mm
thick and show a regular surface. It has a low content of binder (cement) and water
(to minimise cracking and to be more homogeneous and compact), and incorporates
sand with a high content of coarse sand, ensuring waterproofing. It is important to
control the content of lime as it will ensure the workability of the mortar and delay
setting, allowing smoothing the surface. This layer should be stroked to improve
its compactness, but not smoothened in such a way that the risk of cracking would
increase due to rising of the binder to the surface.
The finish layer is the third and last one of a traditional render and is meant to:
protect preceding layers against impacts and wear; fill any cracking of the base layer;
to ensure waterproofing of the facing, and give a pleasant appearance to the render.
This layer is generally 5–10 mm thick, except in projection cases, which can be up
to 3 mm thick. The mortar should be made with fine aggregates and low content of
binder (cement), allowing the application of a thinner layer and less susceptible to
cracking. In external renders, it is common to increase the content of lime to decrease
cracking and avoid stains in the facing.
Five steps are established for the application of the layers of a traditional render:
preparation, application, battening, flattening and smoothing. The preparation stage
includes cleaning the substrate, correcting imperfections, filling any voids in the
substrate and correcting flatness defects incompatible with the cladding (Pinho 2008).
Application refers to the three mentioned layers, with the following highlights:
• Spatter-dash should be done over a damp substrate to avoid excessive absorption
of kneading water;
• Spatter-dash should not be followed by smoothing and, when weather condi-
tions are dry, it should be periodically sprinkled with water to avoid premature
desiccation;
• The base layer should be applied over a damp spatter-dash but only after it has
dried, hardened and gone through most of its initial shrinkage (at least 48–72 h,
according to weather conditions and the nature of the binder);
• The base layer is applied vigorously throwing mortar over the previous layer
or, alternatively, vigorously pressing uniformly with a trowel to ensure better
compactness conditions;
• The finish layer is applied after the base layer has dried, hardened and gone through
most of its initial shrinkage (at least 7–12 days, according to weather conditions
and the nature of the binder);
• The finish layer should be executed over a uniformly damp base layer, and the
method of application varies according to the decorative finish.
Battening, flattening and smoothing are the three last steps and are meant to give
the finished facing a regular, flat surface with the desired texture. These steps should
only be executed after the mortar dries and sets so that it resists each process. A period
that allows the evaporation of the kneading water should be predicted, avoiding the
occurrence of cracking and shrinkage afterwards.
50 2 Technology
2.4.3.2 Non-traditional/One-Coat Renders
Non-traditional/one-coat renders are claddings made of premixed factory-made mor-

tars based on hydraulic binders and applied in a single layer. This layer is projected
over the wall in one or two coats and should have a final thickness of 20 mm. Despite
one-coat renders being prepared to be applied using a single coat, if considered nec-
essary (e.g. if flatness deficiencies are detected on the substrate), the render may be
applied using a two steps process (i.e. two coats). If that methodology is selected,
both coats have the same composition. The composition of one-coat renders is sim-
ilar to that of traditional renders, based on binders like cement and lime mixed with
mineral fillers, adequately selected and adjusted with admixtures and additions. This
type of wall cladding is prepared on-site kneading water with a powder mix, pre-
mixed at the factory, which can be adjusted using admixtures and additions. Due to
quality control, it is possible to obtain regular characteristics and better performance
than traditional renders (workability, adhesion to the substrate, resistance to cracking
and waterproofing). As this render is composed of a single layer, it should simulta-
neously perform as protection and decoration (these renders are usually pigmented,
not needing a finishing coat of paint).
As for application, it can be done manually or through projection. Mechanical
application is used more often as it makes the application process quicker and simpler.
The mechanical application process should be done from bottom to top in regular
strips of mortar. If the application is done in two coats, the first should be exe-
cuted using the technique of points and masters, so that a homogeneous thickness is
obtained, of about 15 mm. After the first coat, the facing should be battened using
a wooden batten to ensure a smooth and levelled surface. Within the next 24 h, and
according to a set time of 2–5 h, the second coat should be applied. If the application
is not done within this period, the facing should be humidified before applying the
second coat (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015).
The finish should be executed after smoothing the surface and as soon as the
second coat starts to harden. The finish varies according to the desired visual effect
and refers to texture, as most of these claddings are already pigmented.
If elastic joints are to be implemented, the negatives should be placed before
setting begins.
Non-traditional/one-coat renders that are not pigmented require the application
of a finishing coat, like traditional renders, according to the intended visual effect.
2.4.3.3 Good Practice Rules
When good practice rules are put in place, they allow obtaining a cladding that
complies with functional requirements, minimising the occurrence of defects. These
are the most relevant:
• The consecutive layers of a traditional render should comply with the rule of
decreasing the cement content from the lower to the top layer, with the intent
2.4 Wall Renders 51
of improving cracking behaviour and facilitating the evaporation of absorbed

rainwater;
• Complying with pauses between the application of different layers allows lay-
ers/coats to have independent behaviours, minimising the effects of shrinkage and
stopping it from spreading from one layer to another; this measure has aesthetical
and waterproofing advantages;
• Materials of render mortar should be stored on-site in a dry location, protected
from damp and inclement weather;
• The choice of an aggregate with uniform size distribution and adequate shape
allows obtaining a more compact and resistant mortar, with lower needs of binder
and water, and economically more attractive.
2.5 Painted Façades
The research about paints may be approached considering: the complexity of this
building material and its physical-chemical characteristics, components and rheol-
ogy; painting schemes, taking the selection of products, different combinations and
application into account; and the role paint plays in the behaviour of substrates.
Additionally, the paint industry has evolved in such a way that, nowadays, the mar-
ket is composed of thousands of products, with different formulae and functions,
answering the diverse and growing demands building coatings must comply with.
2.5.1 Materials Used in Painted Façades
Paint may be defined as a pigmented liquid, viscous or solid composition that is

convertible after some time into a solid, coloured and opaque pellicle, when applied
as a thin layer over an adequate surface, in the supplied state or after fusion, dilution
or dispersion in volatile products (CEN 2014c). Alternatively, paint may be defined
as a mixture essentially composed of pigments, extenders, vehicles and additives,
which is applied as a thin layer, forming solid pellicles after drying (Eusébio and
Rodrigues 2009).
The composition of paint depends on the application for which it was designed,
considering the type of substrate, the means and conditions of application, as well as
the exposure conditions of the dry pellicle. The ratio between components depends
on their nature, the desired properties for the pellicle, specific ends meant for the
paint and economic factors.
In this case, only paints applicable in wall renders are considered, but some may
also be applied over concrete surfaces.
Figure 2.12 summarises the components of paint. Concisely, each component may
be described as follows (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2016): pigments provide colour and
52 2 Technology
Fig. 2.12 Composition of paint
opacity to the pellicle; extenders help giving body to the paint; the binder (vehicle)
connects the pigments particles and extenders and gives the pellicle its integrity and
adhesion capacity; solvents and diluents provide the adequate consistency for the
application; and additives provide specific properties.
2.5.1.1 Pigments
Pigments are solid substances, generally very fine and basically insoluble in the vehi-
cle. They are used to prepare the paint, attributing opacity and colour or even other
special characteristics. Additionally, pigments provide paint with good appearance,
surface protection and special properties, such as anti-corrosive and mechanical resis-
tance, gloss and resistance to chemical products and ageing. Pigments should bear
the influences of where they are used, through manufacturing or weather exposure.
They should also be compatible with the environment and be harmless for health,
as well as having an adequate cost, considering pricing demands of materials where
they will be used (Talbert 2008).
Natural pigments were used for centuries, including coloured soil, oxides, sul-
phates, metallic sulphides and some vegetal and animal products. Now, most pig-
ments are synthetic, i.e. they are industrially produced using the chemical reaction
of specific compounds. Pigments may be categorised into organic and inorganic.
The former are sensitive to temperature and combustible, and the latter (oxides or
metallic salts) are incombustible and resistant to heat (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009).
The main characteristics of pigments are registered in Table 2.10.
The amount of pigment in a paint may vary according to type and colours, within a
range of 2–8%. It is not the higher or lower percentage of pigment or vehicle used that
determines the quality of the product, but the balance between the function and the
in-service conditions for which the product is formulated (Talbert 2008). However,
considering that pigments have a heavy weight on the paint’s total cost, to obtain
a specific opacity degree, it is preferable to optimise the spacing between particles,
whether through a judicious size grading selection or through the incorporation of
other paint components, like extenders.
2.5 Painted Façades 53
Table 2.10 Main characteristics of pigments (adapted from Talbert [2008] and Eusébio and
Rodrigues [2009, 2016])
Characteristics of pigments Description
Colour and colouring capacity It depends on the chemical composition and on the
selective absorption and reflexive capacities within a
specific wavelength in the visible light spectrum. The
colouring capacity is a measure of the pigment’s
ability to attribute colour
Opacity and covering power Opacity allows the paint to completely cover the
substrate and is a function of the difference between
the pigment’s and the dispersion medium’s refraction
indexes. The higher that difference, the more covering
power of the paint and the greater ability to eliminate
colour or colour differences in the substrate
Size grading The control of the particles of the pigment may
influence gloss, opacity, consistency or the pigment’s
suspension power
Ease of dispersion Dispersion is great when each particle of pigment is
separated from the remaining particles and completely
wet by the vehicle. The presence of adsorbed water or
gases on the pigment’s surface and the tendency to
form agglomerates make dispersion more difficult. It
also depends on the polarity of the surface of the
particles, affinity with molecular groups of the binder
and on the nature and concentration of solvents
Resistance to migration and separation Lack of resistance to migration and separation may
result in chalking, which may be due to crystalline
content and shape of the pigment, as well as to the
destruction of the binder
Chemical resistance Some pigments are completely inert, but others may
react with acid binders, which may lead to unwanted
thickening. Some organic compounds may stay
soluble, being dissolved in vehicles or solvents of
subsequent coats, originating bleeding
Light stability Light stability depends on the composition, purity,
crystalline structure and exposure conditions of the
pigment. Ultraviolet radiation is the main cause of
photochemical changes in pigments and may cause
colour changes
Various resistances Pigments may have an active role in the cladding’s
behaviour, like on absorption of ultraviolet radiation,
fungicide action and anti-vegetation
2.5.1.2 Extenders
An extender is an inorganic substance in the form of particles, soluble or not, with low
covering power, insoluble in the vehicle, and used as a paint component to provide
specific properties.
54 2 Technology
Like pigments, extenders may be of natural origin (such as natural barium sul-
phate, calcium carbonate, talc and sand) or synthetic (such as bentonite, precipitated
calcium carbonate and artificial silica). Not providing great opacity or colouring
capacity, extenders are used to give body to the paint, for economic (low cost when
compared to pigments) and technical reasons. In fact, the size grading, specific sur-
face and specific properties of some extenders may ease the manufacturing and
application of paint, improving quality and durability of the paint finish by increas-
ing waterproofing and elasticity, enabling the conservation of paint, besides provid-
ing thermal and acoustic insulation and fire resistance characteristics, for instance
(Talbert 2008; Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009, 2016).
2.5.1.3 Vehicle
In the literature, the terms vehicle, vehicle system, binder and resin often appear as
equivalents. The vehicle is the paint’s component responsible for forming a solid
pellicle. It may be composed of one or more products.
Besides forming the pellicle, the vehicle is also responsible for the adhesion to the
substrate and for other related properties, such as resistance to blistering, cracking
and peeling, hardness, chemical and mechanical resistance, resistance to washing and
to chalking, as well as to environmental conditions, and permeability to water vapour
and to liquid water. The vehicle is also responsible for fluidity, paint consistency, and
level of gloss (Daniotti 2002; Talbert 2008; Eusébio and Rodrigues 2016). The main
types of vehicle are concisely described in Table 2.11.
2.5.1.4 Additives
An additive is a substance, usually added in a small percentage to paint, with the intent
of improving specific characteristics. It may be a liquid, viscous or solid powdery
product, soluble in the vehicle and meant to improve the application conditions of the
paint and the properties of the dry pellicle. When additives are powdery solids and
insoluble in the vehicle, they are distinguished from extenders due to their content
being below 5% of the paint mass (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009).
Additives are generally named according to their function, instead of according
to their chemical composition, hence being classified as construction (bactericide,
fungicide, algaecide, dryer, wetting, dispersant, thickener and stabiliser) or corrective
(anti-skin, anti-foam and antiseptic) additives (Talbert 2008).
2.5.1.5 Solvents and Diluents
Solvents and diluents, also known as volatile vehicle, are the paint’s component
that evaporates during the drying process. Solvents are liquids, which, in normal
drying conditions of the applied paint, can dissolve the vehicle. Diluents are volatile
Table 2.11 Main types of vehicles in paint (Talbert 2008; Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009; CEN
2014c)
Vehicle Description
Symbolic oils Fat oil of vegetable or animal origin, which has the capacity of forming, in
contact with air, a continuous, adhesive and elastic pellicle, when applied
as a thin layer over a surface. Generally, symbolic oils are modified with
resins through boiling, refining or dehydration processes, so that
polymerisation and cross-linking are improved, as they are essential to
forming the pellicle. Examples: linseed oil, tung oil, dehydrated castor oil
and soy oil
Natural resins Thermoplastic product of vegetable or animal origin, polymerised,
water-insoluble and soluble in organic solvents, of varied chemical origin.
Natural resins fuse and decompose by heating, but their composition
generally varies according to the origin, needing treatment. Examples:
copal, colophony, Chinese lacquer and Dammar resin
Artificial resins Product of high molecular mass, coming from the chemical modification
of fat oils, symbolic or not, natural resins or of a mix of these products, or
even of synthetic resins, when the modifier agent has natural resins.
Examples: alkyd resins modified with long-chain fat oils, ester, cellulosic
and oleoresin gum and chlorinated rubber
Synthetic resins Polymers of high molecular mass, resulting from the controlled chemical
reaction between one or various substances of low molecular mass
(monomers) with two or more reactive groups or double connections. From
these substances, those soluble in water, in comparison, dry faster, do not
have an odour, are applied easily, have good appearance and resistance to
washing. Examples: acrylic, vinyl, styrene-butadiene, polystyrene, alkyd
(without oil), polyurethane, epoxide, phenolic and polyester resins
Inorganic binders Products usually combined with organic binders, in such a way to ensure
stability, decrease permeability, increase resistance to chalking and
adhesion, with the content below 5%. Examples: lime and silicates
Siloxane resins Product with low binding capacity on its own, being usually combined
with acrylic or styrene-acrylic dispersions and organic binders, such as
lime, which improve some of its properties
New technologies The increasing search for economical products, environmentally conscious
and with improved durability reflects on the development of materials that
show high resistance and improved characteristics, such as self-cleaning
properties. Examples: nanocomposites and hydro-pliolite
liquids, partially or totally miscible with the vehicle, which are added to the paint
during manufacturing or at the application stage to obtain the required application
characteristics.
The most common solvents and diluents are water (water-based paints), turpen-
tine, hydrocarbons (solvent-based paints), oxygenated solvents (alcohols, ketones,
ethers and esters) and chlorinated solvents (Talbert 2008; Eusébio and Rodrigues
2009). When the volatile vehicle evaporates, the pigments and the binder remain on
the painted surface, constituting the solid part of a paint. In volume, the proportion
of solids and liquids composing a painting product applied with a specific humid
56 2 Technology
thickness determines the dry thickness after drying. Higher content of solids in the
paint may lead to a thicker dry pellicle, with better opacity and durability (Eusébio
and Rodrigues 2016).
Solvents and diluents influence the properties of the painting product, such as its
viscosity and dissolving ability, which also depend on the binder’s solubility. The
volatility, determining the drying speed of paint, the odour of the liquid product,
toxicity, flash point and cost of the painting product are also influenced by solvents
and diluents (Talbert 2008).
The paint industry is actively searching for innovation, focusing research and
development efforts on decreasing the use of volatile organic compounds. This
includes progressively abandoning solvent-based systems, such as paint formulated
with acrylic and vinyl resins. Even though these types of paint show better chem-
ical resistance, lower permeability to liquid water and atmospheric gases, water-
based paints present a good general performance, being competitive for cases not
susceptible to chemical attack (Talbert 2008).
2.5.2 Design of Painted Façades
In a commercial environment, the names of paints are confusing, at times, due to

the various attributes that these may be characterising, from the type of vehicle to
their function. For instance, it is current to wrongly use the name “plastic paint” or
“emulsion paint” in water-based paints or with a synthetic binder. It is also common
to find anti-mould or fungi paints that do not disclose their detailed composition.
There is also some generalised terminology in the construction industry, such as
“enamel paint”, referring to the type of finish, glossy and smooth, and “textured
paint”, which have extenders with larger size grading, allowing obtaining a rough
surface (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2016).
Technically, in Europe, standard EN 1062-1:2004 (CEN 2004g) defines various
available classifications for paint. According to the type of use, paints may be divided
into preventive, decorative or protective. Paints may also be classified according to
the nature of the binder, including, for instance, lime, cement and silicates paint, or
acrylic, vinyl, alkyd and polyester resins paint. As for the dissolution or dispersion
state of the binder in the paint, paints may be classified as soluble in water, soluble
in solvent or solvent-free. Other classifications are available, like those referring to
gloss, thickness of the dry pellicle, size of the largest grain and permeability to water
vapour and liquid water.
Besides those more common names, the standard indicates that coatings meant
for masonry that have a special protective function may be assessed according to the
following properties(CEN 2004g):
• Capacity to resist static cracking;
• Resistance to mould, fungi and algae;
• Permeability to carbon dioxide;
• Alkali resistance;
• Thermal shock resistance.
The choice of products, their composition and the way they interact with the
substrate is a role that, nowadays, is frequently given to paint products’ retailers.
Although designers know the requirements of the cladding (the type of substrate and
cure, exposure, special performance needs), the great range of products in the market
and the different combinations make the selection more and more difficult.
2.5.2.1 Design Criteria
The selection of a painting system implies analysing and taking into account various
factors, including qualitative factors, in view of answering specific requirements.
Additionally, different products may be applied for similar needs. However, not only
the performance of each coating may be different, but the initial low cost may result
in higher costs in the long term, namely due to maintenance and repair works.
Nevertheless, some fundamental factors should be considered (Eusébio and
Rodrigues 2009):
• Use of the coating: decorative, protective and hygiene purposes, for instance;
• Type of substrate: the physical-chemical nature of the substrate may influence the
choice of the type of paint;
• Type of environment: indoors or outdoors, rural, urban, maritime, industrial and
special exposure conditions;
• Special selection restrictions: toxicology, application conditions (for instance, dry-
ing time) and substrate conditions (for instance, a substrate with high moisture
content);
• Economy: global costs including materials’, preparation of the surface, application,
accessibility, equipment’s and utilities’ costs, and the cost due to production losses;
the weight of each stage of the execution process may be estimated, considering
the initial cost of the painted façade (Table 2.12);
• Durability demands: the service life of the coating and warranty periods of
products.
Table 2.12 Estimated partial

Item Cost (%)
costs of painting works
(Nogueira 2008) Application of the paint 25–60
Preparation of the surface 15–40
Cleaning 5–10
Auxiliary products 3–6
Paint 10–12
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Besides the mentioned factors, the chosen products should comply with specific
demands, according to their purpose. In façade’s painting, these are the requirements
(Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009):
• Durable protection of the substrate;
• Easy application;
• Low toxicity;
• Fast drying;
• Good resistance to washing;
• Pleasant decorative aspect;
• Good resistance to inclement weather;
• Good adhesion to the base coat;
• Colour stability;
• Chemical neutrality between the painted coat and the base coat;
• Good resistance to fungi, mould and algae.
There is also the need to separate painting schemes adequate for old buildings
from those used in recent buildings, namely after the 1950s, when concrete largely
replaced traditional building materials, in most countries. In old buildings, materials
usually show very similar hygrothermal behaviour, due to similar coefficients of
thermal expansion, high thermal inertia, absence of thermal bridges and structures
highly permeable to water vapour. On the other side, waterproofing is minimal,
whether in façades, roofs or foundations. Thus, water percolates freely through walls
due to capillary phenomena. In these cases, selection criteria should also include
ensuring the compatibility between new and pre-existing materials, whether in terms
of behaviour or aesthetically.
In more recent buildings, one should be aware that, to reach the level of current
requirements, in terms of construction time, cost, comfort and accessibility, some
other features may should be considered, such as: (i) the resistance to thermal expan-
sion; (ii) thin-wall systems with low thermal inertia; (iii) the origin of thermal bridges
between different materials; (iv) existence of high amount of water in the construc-
tion materials, mostly concrete and mortars, which, due to execution deadlines, does
not get to evaporate totally, hindering the execution and compromising the durability
of coatings.
Still, no matter the age of the building, two functions need to be performed by
coatings: water repellence and permeability to water vapour. Crossing these criteria,
a matrix (Fig. 2.13) may be obtained, including the most advised binders consider-
ing the various permeability to water vapour and water repellence relationships for
painted walls.
It is found that products that show low permeability to water vapour and low
water repellence are not advised for any type of wall coating. Indoor walls, not
subject to weather effects, accept products with low water repellence but require high
permeability so that the water vapour from indoors may be diffused by the materials
and transported outdoors. When walls are well dried and there is no possibility
of moisture appearing inside them, products with high water repellence and low
permeability to water vapour offer good value for money. However, in the cases where
Fig. 2.13 Water repellence versus permeability to water vapour
moisture is expected inside the walls and, mostly, in façades subject to environmental
actions, products with high permeability to water vapour and high water repellence
are the most adequate (Simões 2015).
2.5.2.2 Painting Schemes
The name “painting system” is tightly linked with the chemical nature of paints
composing it and is independent of the number of coats. For instance, if all applied
products are formulated with alkyd resins, it is said that the system is alkyd. When a
combination of paints is considered, establishing all the thicknesses and the number
of consecutive coats, the notion of painting system is restricted to painting scheme.
Schemes may be monolayer, if constituted of a single layer of a paint product,
or multilayer, if constituted of various layers. In this case, the layers should be
chemically compatible and, in both cases, the system needs to be compatible with
the substrate and vice versa (Simões 2015).Generally, schemes are composed of
different types of products (Talbert 2008; Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009):
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• Stabilising solutions and sealants: to control the behaviour of the substrate, for
instance, when it is particularly friable or has high moisture content;
• Primers: contribute to the adhesion of the painting scheme and promote the bilateral
chemical protection between the substrate and the paint;
• Sublayers: smooth and disguise imperfections through increasing the thickness
of the coating, which may also be their only function, besides ensuring a barrier
effect of the painting scheme;
• Finishing coat: gives the scheme its final colour, gloss, good characteristics of adap-
tion to the surrounding environment and other special characteristics, depending
on its formulation.
In a painting scheme, the primer is frequently substituted by a highly diluted paint
coat.
As for façade painting, schemes are generally composed of a coat of primer, and
two or three coats of finishing paint, if the finish is smooth. When a textured finish is
desired, it is common to use a “smear” coat and one or two coats of textured paint.
2.5.3 Execution of Painted Façades
2.5.3.1 Preparation of Surfaces
All painting works should start with a careful assessment of the substrate, with special
attention to the characteristics of the base material, namely soundness and superficial
hardness of the material, superficial texture, cracks or warpage, dirt or exudations,
degree of acidity or alkalinity and high moisture content.
The preparation of the surface includes a set of operations that aim at obtaining
a homogeneous surface, with adequate and known roughness, able to receive the
painting work. The durability of the paining systems is strongly influenced by the care
taken in this task. So, it is equally important recommending an adequate treatment
of the surface and making sure that it is followed.
So that paint adheres to the substrate correctly, it is indispensable to remove parti-
cles with low adhesion, namely dust and sand, scraps of paint and other contaminants.
For that purpose, brooms, dusters, clean cloths and air jets may be used, although,
sometimes, it is necessary to use abrasive equipment or rigid brushes. The render
may also be cleaned through washing with clean water. However, this operation post-
pones remaining works, as it is fundamental that the surface is dried before applying
paint. The drying period should not be less than 2 or 3 days, in this case. If damp
cloths are used, the drying period may be about 1 or 2 days.
In cases with dirt or grease highly ingrained in the substrate, they should be
removed using clean water and adequate detergents, or even solvents (Eusébio and
Rodrigues 2002).
2.5.3.2 Application Processes
Paint application processes vary mostly according to the dimension and shape of
the surface, desired finish, application speed needed, designed thickness required
and economic aspects. The application may be done manually or automatically,
respectively if mainly labour is used in execution or equipment decreases that
necessity.
From the many manual paint application processes in façades, the following are
highlighted (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2009):
• Regular paint rollers, with long hair for elastomeric and textured paints and with
short hair for the remaining water-based paints;
• Sponge paint rollers, highly used in façades, due to the aesthetic effect that they
provide and to execution swiftness;
• Non-drip paint rollers, which avoid drips of very fluid paints, such as most water-
based paints;
• Brushes, for small areas or detailing.
From automated application methods, conventional pneumatic and airless guns are
highlighted. They decrease the amount of air inside the paint, avoiding the occurrence
of blisters and craters in the damp pellicle.
After protecting all decorative elements, doors, windows, handrails and other
details, the application should start from the top of the façade and the painting process
should not be interrupted until the panel is complete.
2.5.3.3 Application Conditions
Environmental application conditions during the paint application process are, many
times, responsible for the good or bad performance of the paint coating. Hence,
the manufacturers’ recommendations should be judiciously followed, considering
drying periods, and admitting that the painting application process is done in the
following environmental conditions (Eusébio and Rodrigues 2002, 2009):
• The environmental temperature should not be below 5 °C nor above 35 °C;
• Exposure of the paint to strong sunlight should be avoided;
• The relative humidity should not be above 85% and the wall render moisture
content should be below 5%;
• There should be no dust in the air, nor strong wind that deforms the pellicle during
the drying period.
2.5.3.4 Drying Processes
The curing process may occur: by physical drying, i.e. the film is formed after the
evaporation of the solvent, as in water dispersions, in which water evaporates; or by
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Fig. 2.14 Paint pellicle formation process
a polymerisation chemical reaction, in which there is a first stage of physical drying

(Talbert 2008).
The maladjustment of evaporation speed of the solvent may cause an inadequate
physical drying that, in turn, causes application problems or subsequent defects. If
drying is too fast, the levelling of the pellicle is faulty and may not penetrate the
substrate’s pores, leading to a lack of adhesion between the paint system and the
substrate. If drying is too slow, the painting may runoff in vertical surfaces and not
cover the substrate adequately (Talbert 2008).
When the pellicle is formed, the liquid stage of paint ends, and the paint coating
is said to be in-service (Fig. 2.14).
2.6 Etics
After the Second World War, with the partial loss of economic viability for using oil
products for heating purposes, a system that would allow keeping thermal comfort
conditions indoors was needed. In Sweden, in the 1940s, the first external thermal
insulation system was developed, consisting of a layer of mineral wool over the
building envelope, cladded with lime and cement render. After some experiments,
the use of expanded polystyrene (EPS) was proposed, cladded with a reinforced
render, which is the system used nowadays (Amaro et al. 2013). The first great
expansion of ETICS’ use occurred in the 1950s, with its industrial development in
Germany.
In 1988, the European Union for technical approval in construction (UEAtc)
created the first directives about the external thermal insulation system of walls
using EPS. That was the first standardisation document referring to the application,
use and assessment of ETICS. In 1992, a technical guide was created referring to the
use of rock wool. Afterwards, the European Organization for Technical Approvals
(EOTA) created a specific technical guide for ETICS—“ETAG 004 Guideline for
European Technical Approval of External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems
with Rendering” (EOTA 2013).
2.6 Etics 63
2.6.1 Components of ETICS
A cladding system like ETICS is composed of a set of layers overlaying the exter-
nal walls of buildings. These layers follow a specific order, but materials may vary.
Generally, the system is composed of a thermal insulation layer bonded to the sub-
strate, that can also be mechanically fastened, over which a base coat incorporating
a reinforcement mesh is applied. Finally, on the surface, a finishing coat is applied
with or without the application of a primer, also known as key coat (Fig. 2.15).
2.6.1.1 Substrate
The substrate is the vertical or horizontal (or tilted) surface not exposed to rainwater
on which the system is applied. It may be made with any material used to build
façades. Still, existing painted façades or façades cladded with mineral or organic
materials can only bear the application of bonded ETICS after adequate preparation
of the substrate.
2.6.1.2 Adhesive Mortar
ETICS are bonded to the substrate, but can also be complemented with mechanical
fastening. The adhesive mortar corresponds to the layer that connects the thermal
insulation to the substrate. Its composition may vary between purely organic or purely
mineral, but a mixed solution is more frequently used.
The adhesive mortar may be a premixed powder to which water is added at the
construction site according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. In other cases,
substrate
adhesive mortar
thermal insulation
reinforcement mesh
base coat
key coat (primer)
finishing coat
Fig. 2.15 Scheme of the components of ETICS

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a paste may be supplied, to which a percentage of Portland cement needs to be

added. According to the EOTA (2013), powder adhesive mortars that require adding
a specific binder and ready to use pre-prepared pastes are also admitted.
2.6.1.3 Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulation is a prefabricated material that is applied as boards with a flat or

notched contour. It is meant to increase the thermal resistance of the wall. Accord-
ing to The Minnesota Lath & Plaster Bureau (2001), the most common insulation
material used in ETICS is EPS. However, there are other thermal insulation materials
commonly used, namely extruded polystyrene (XPS), mineral wool and insulation
cork board (ICB). A group of characteristics are common to every type of thermal
insulation: low thermal conductivity, low water absorption and low elastic modulus
(EOTA 2013; Mandilaras et al. 2014). This type of properties partially derives from
the density of the insulation material—the denser the insulation material, the lower
its permeability. The system’s thermal conductivity may also be decreased by adding
graphite to the composition of EPS. Additionally, EPS may be altered to increase
acoustic resistance by using elasticised EPS.
Mineral wool assumes the role of thermal and acoustic insulation material. How-
ever, the acoustic insulation role loses efficiency if the remaining façade elements
(namely doors and windows) are not adequately insulated. For this reason, as the
adoption of mineral wool is more expensive, it should only be chosen when all sys-
tems are acoustically insulated. On the other hand, mineral wool shows advantages in
terms of fire safety, avoiding the propagation of flames, thus protecting the building.
The thickness of the insulation material is calculated according to the thermal
efficiency that is desired and according to the material’s heat transfer coefficient.
Additionally, the type of connection with the substrate should be determined. Gen-
erally, in a new building, bonding may be enough up to 20 m high. From that height
onwards, mechanical fastening must be considered, as so if mineral wool, XPS and
ICB are used. If the finishing coat is ceramic tiling, for instance, as the weight
increases drastically, compared with rendered coats, mechanical fastening is needed
throughout the whole façade.
2.6.1.4 Base Coat
The base coat is applied over the insulation material and has a small thickness (4–
6 mm) (Novotný 2016; Uygunoğlu et al. 2016). Its composition is usually a mix of
resin and cement, identical to the adhesive mortar used between the substrate and the
insulation material (The Minnesota Lath & Plaster Bureau 2001). A reinforcement
mesh is embedded in the base coat, thus requiring its application through consecutive
coats. Generally, the reinforcement is in the middle of the thickness of the base coat.
According to the EOTA (2013), the base coat provides mechanical strength to
the system and protects it from the entrance of water. Its properties should include
2.6 Etics 65
good adhesion to the insulation material, high cracking resistance, low capillary and
resistance to perforation and impacts.
2.6.1.5 Reinforcement Mesh
As mentioned, the reinforcement of the system is embedded in the base coat. The
reinforcement may be a squared mesh with 3–5 mm openings, generally in fibre-
glass (woven or thermally bonded) and with an anti-alkaline protection treatment.
Although traditionally the reinforcement material is fibreglass, other materials are
mentioned by the EOTA (2013), namely galvanised steel (with adequate thickness
of a zinc coat) and plastic meshes. Carbon fibre is also currently used.
The reinforcement mesh must: increase the mechanical resistance of the system to
impacts; limit dimensional variations of the base coat; and ensure cracking resistance
in the joints between thermal insulation boards. Moreover, a regular reinforcement
mesh may be used, or it may be reinforced with another mesh to improve impact
resistance.
2.6.1.6 Key Coat (Primer)
The key coat is composed of a primer, which is a product usually applied as a thin layer
(similar to an opaque paint coat) over the base coat with the objective of preparing
the system for the application of the finishing coat, by regulating absorption and
improving adhesion between layers. The primer’s composition is based on resins in
a water solution. The primer needs to be compatible with the alkalinity of the base
coat.
A key coat is not always used, as some manufacturers advocate that the compati-
bility between the finishing coat and the base coat is enough not to require any other
product.
2.6.1.7 Finishing Coat
The most common finishing coat in ETICS consists of a paste applied with a trowel
with thicknesses between 1 and 2.5 mm. The finish contributes to the protection of
the system against inclement weather and has a decorative role. If the finishing coat
complies with necessary functional requirements, it may be done with several mate-
rials. For instance, it may be a mineral or mixed binder coating, paints specifically
formulated to this end (acrylic resins, siloxanes or silicates), stone plates, ceramic
tiling or other adhesive claddings, or wood, metallic or glass plates (Fig. 2.16). Fin-
ishes should be previously tested and specified in the system’s technical approval
document.
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a b c
Fig. 2.16 Examples of types of finishes for ETICS: a mixed binder coating; b stone plates; and
c adhesive ceramic tiling
2.6.1.8 Accessories
ETICS are continuous systems applied on the façade. Still, in discontinuous areas,
the thermal insulation function should not be compromised. Hence, accessories and
products that allow keeping the system’s continuity were developed to be used in,
for instance (Table 2.13):
• Outside and inside corners;
• Connections with building elements, such as windows;
• Areas of discontinuity, such as joints between insulation boards, profiles or
expansion joints.
In the edges, resistant corners (in aluminium, stainless steel, fibreglass or polyvinyl
chloride [PVC]) should be applied over the insulation board and then coated with the
base coat to provide a homogeneous system surface. The inclusion of detail mesh in
these profiles is recommended, providing extra resistance with the use of the double
layer of reinforcement mesh.
For connections with building elements, aluminium or stainless steel corner pro-
files (at the bottom and laterally, to bear the system), sills, flashings and copings
should be used. The surface of these profiles, over which mortar is applied, should
have a minimum width of 30 mm and present at least two rows of holes of about
6 mm diameter, corresponding to 15% of the surface. The use of galvanised steel
Table 2.13 Examples of

Type of singularity Accessory
accessories for ETICS
Outside and inside corners PVC corner profile with
detail mesh
Mesh with drip profile
Coping profile
Connections with building PVC corner profile
elements Mesh with window profile
Flashing
Discontinuities Expansion joint profile
2.6 Etics 67
is not advised for flashings, copings or visible profiles, as zinc (for flashing and
copings) and anodised aluminium (for visible profiles) are recommended.
Accessories for discontinuities have the objective of providing watertightness in
these areas. The choice of material to fill joints depends on its chemical compatibility
with the insulation material, but it is common to use elastomeric or plastic mastics,
such as silicon, polyurethane or acrylic, and pre-compressed impregnated foam cords.
For the building’s expansion joints, expansion joint profiles are available, admitting
the substrate’s movement, and ensuring the continuity and watertightness of the
system.
Some other accessories are also necessary in some cases, such as wall plugs for
mechanical fasteners, high-density EPS fastening blocks and PVC discs.
2.6.2 Design of an ETICS Cladding
2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements of an ETICS Cladding
Like any other building product, ETICS must comply with six essential requirements:
mechanical strength and stability; fire safety; hygiene, health and environmental
requirements; in-service safety; noise protection; and energy economy and heat reten-
tion. Each of these parameters has specific directives for ETICS (Table 2.14), defined
by (EOTA 2013), but, as ETICS is a cladding system, requirements of mechanical
strength and stability do not apply.
In terms of fire safety, each commercial ETICS must be identified in terms of
class of reaction to fire (from A1 to F), as defined by EN 13501-1 (CEN 2018a).
As for hygiene, health and environmental requirements, the system should be able
to stop water leakages inside the wall (condensation, air humidity or soil dampness,
rainwater or snow). It should also bear current maintenance equipment on the façade
without causing damages in the system (by rupture or perforation) and it should be
able to withstand impacts. Additionally, the system should ensure that polluting and
dangerous substances are not emitted for the exterior environment, respecting limit
ratios defined by law.
During the system’s service life, lack of adhesion problems should not occur
between the layers nor between the system and the substrate. The ETICS should
remain stable and resistant to normal loads, such as its own weight, wind loads,
structural movements of the building, deformations due to shrinkage and temperature
variation, among others.
As for noise protection, the wall as a whole should fulfil this requirement, not
the ETICS cladding. But in terms of energy economy and heat retention, the system
should contribute to saving energy by decreasing needs of heating (during winter)
and cooling (during the summer). Thermal resistance should be assessed case wise.
All requirements should be fulfilled during an economically reasonable service
life period and all components should preserve their properties during that period,
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Table 2.14 Summary of the essential requirements defined for ETICS and respective tests (EOTA
2013)
Essential requirement Assessment parameters Tests
Mechanical strength and – –
stability
Fire safety Reaction to fire Reaction to fire
Hygiene, health and the Tightness Hygrothermal behaviour
environment Freeze-thaw behaviour
Impact resistance Hard body shock test
Resistance to perforation
Permeability to water vapour Resistance to the diffusion of
water vapour
Capillary test
Surrounding environment Release of dangerous
substances
In-service safety Adhesion between layers Adhesion between the base
coat and the thermal
insulation material
Adhesion between the
adhesive mortar and the
substrate
Adhesion between the
adhesive mortar and the
thermal insulation material
Resistance to wind load Tensile tearing-off of
mechanical fasteners
Static foam block test
Dynamic suction load
Noise protection – –
Energy economy and heat Thermal resistance Thermal resistance
retention
considering normal maintenance conditions. The EOTA (2013) also defines dura-
bility and in-service ability aspects for the system and its components in terms of
thermal, humidity and shrinkage resistance. Preventive measures should be taken at
the design stage to protect the system, such as applying reinforcement accessories
in singularities.
2.6.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of an ETICS Cladding
ETICS fit within a large range of types of thermal insulation. Available thermal insula-
tion solutions may vary from indoors insulation, insulation inside two masonry leaves
2.6 Etics 69
and insulation applied on the outer surface of the building envelope, the group ETICS
belong to. Considering other types of thermal insulation, the use of ETICS may be
advantageous from different perspectives, but it may also be decisively inconvenient.
Commercial catalogues of ETICS present long lists of the system’s advantages.
However, it is necessary to distinguish the real advantages of the system from
marketing strategies.
As for functionality, ETICS show good results in terms of thermal inertia of the
building. In fact, it contributes to less heat indoors during the summer and less cold
during the winter, simultaneously contributing to the decrease of energy consumption
for heating and cooling purposes (Fernandes et al. 2016).
According to Bendouma et al. (2018), comparing with other thermal insulation
systems applied on the outer surface of the building envelope, namely the bardage
type or ventilated rain screen façade (external insulation façade cladding with an air
gap partially filled with thermal insulation), ETICS show the advantage of a lower
weight increase on the substrate and a lower thickness increase of the façade.
Comparing with insulation inside two masonry leaves, or indoors insulation,
ETICS have the advantage of uniform heat losses on the façade surface, due to
its external continuity, avoiding thermal bridges and maintaining thermal inertia
(Fig. 2.17).
As mentioned, ETICS have a thin layer of reinforced render (reinforced base coat)
that contributes to the tightness of the system due to its waterproofing properties,
independent from the finishing coat used. Simultaneously, the reinforcement mesh
contributes to lower cracking probability, preventing water leakage through cracks
(Sulakatko et al. 2006).
As the system is applied on the outer surface of the building envelope, it will lead
to decreasing the temperature gradient that other layers of the wall are subjected to
(Fig. 2.18) and, while increasing indoors temperature, internal values of saturation
pressure increase, decreasing the probability of water vapour reaching those values
and condensing. In other words, interstitial condensation decreases. Additionally,
the application of ETICS from the outside also increases the range of possibilities
for rehabilitation purposes.
Fig. 2.17 Thermal bridge in a system with insulation between two masonry leaves and prevention
of thermal bridges in ETICS
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outdoors
outdoors
indoors
indoors
summer winter
temperatures temperatures
Fig. 2.18 Comparison between thermal gradients of walls without and with ETICS
Still, as ETICS increase the thickness of the wall, in rehabilitation, some architec-
tural incompatibilities may arise in areas between protruding and recessed elements
(difficult accessibility).
Additionally, the application of ETICS may be limited by weather conditions,
flatness defects of the substrate and high sensitivity to wind loads in elevated areas,
which may lead to tearing the system.
According to Künzel et al. (2006), well designed and applied ETICS with an
adequate maintenance plan have a service life similar to traditional masonry walls, i.e.
about 60 years. For that to happen, the design detailing needs to be quite meticulous
and application procedures adequate, as the system is very sensitive to errors at these
stages.
The tendency to develop microbiological growth and the mechanical vulnerability
to impacts are two types of disadvantages in ETICS. According to Barreira and
Freitas (2008), as the thermal insulation is applied on the outer surface of the building
envelope, heat exchanges between building elements drastically decrease and the thin
cover layer over the insulation has a very small thermal inertia. Thus, during the night,
the superficial temperature of external facings is lower than the dew point, propitiating
the occurrence of superficial condensation and increasing relative humidity. As 70 and
80% values of relative humidity are reached, the ideal conditions for the development
of algae and mould are gathered, respectively.
As for reaction to fire, the thermal insulation material traditionally used (EPS)
has poor fire reaction properties. In fact, according to Mack (2014), EPS and XPS
are combustible materials, whose softening point is around 100 °C and fusion point
around 180 °C. Hence, these materials limit the class of resistance to fire of ETICS.
The thermal insulation material must belong, at least, to class E-d2, as the general
minimal classification of the system, for medium-height buildings, is B-s3,d0 (CEN
2.6 Etics 71
2018a). Higher buildings have even more restrictive requirements in terms of class of
resistance to fire (B-s2,d0 above 28 m in Portugal), generally restricting the insulation
material to the use of mineral wool, whose class of resistance to fire is normally A1
or A2.
Moreover, although solutions that improve the performance of ETICS towards
impacts have been developed, one of their main disadvantages is still the ease of
perforation of the system. As it is exposed to passers-by, the system may need main-
tenance actions more frequently than other types of wall, as perforations may limit
its thermal capabilities.
Simultaneously, the system has higher initial costs than other types of thermal
insulation (up to twice the cost of a system with indoors thermal insulation) (Direcção
Geral de Geologia e Energia 2004; Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2018).
2.6.2.3 Types of ETICS
At first, the conventional system that was applied included reinforcement meshes of
mineral origin and acrylic finishes. That set of materials showed moisture problems,
which resulted in the presence of microorganisms and defects associated with the
unwanted presence of water in the system.
From 2004 onwards, 100% organic systems started to be used (without cement
in mortars) and silicone appeared in the finishing coat, increasing its permeability
and decreasing damp issues. Simultaneously, higher ductility and flexibility of the
material decreased the system’s colour limitation issues and improved the impact
resistance.
In 2007, the development of carbon systems with silicone and carbon finish and
carbon fibre reinforcement revolutionised ETICS, increasing the superficial resis-
tance. This solution has some variants that exponentially improve the system’s resis-
tance, namely adding carbon to the base coat and strengthening the reinforcement
(Caparol 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018a, b, c; Alsecco 2018). Increasing the amount of car-
bon implies higher costs but does not imply increasing the system’s weight, thickness
or labour cost.
In 2009, by including incombustible reinforcement mesh in the system, it became
more resistant to fire.
For the consumer, the most limiting system’s property is the colour. In fact, as
dark colours imply higher heat absorption, if the finish material is not adequately
ductile and flexible, it may result in cracking and a set of associated defects (like
water leakage).
The use of ceramic tiling as finishing coat has been explored. According to
Malanho and Veiga (2011), ceramic tiling contributes to creating more resistant
systems but implies higher costs and a heavier solution.
In general terms, traditional ETICS are those with EPS insulation, fibreglass rein-
forcement mesh and a simple and rough finish. Reinforced ETICS are those with
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double reinforcement. Resistant ETICS use carbon material to obtain better resis-
tance (Caparol 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018a, b, c; Alsecco 2018), and ceramic ETICS
(or stone) use adhesive tiling as the finishing coat.
2.6.3 Execution of ETICS Claddings
When an external thermal insulation system is applied, some precaution should be

taken in design details. In renovation or rehabilitation projects, additional measures
should be taken analysing the substrate considering its bearing capacity and needed
treatment.
Any substrate meant for these types of systems should be flat; otherwise, additional
fastening should be used according to any detected warpage. Still, warpage of the
substrate affects the decision on the type of façade system to be used and on using a
smoothing treatment coating; thus, the analysis of the substrate is paramount.
Watertightness is also an essential requirement that should be thought of previ-
ously, considering the durability and good behaviour of the building in the long-term.
To ensure better watertightness, façade elements should be considered at the design
stage, before executing the system. Downpipes, air conditioning systems, joints, wall
openings, window and doorsills, ventilation grids, balconies and terraces should be
studied ahead to ensure that all connections are adequately watertight. Besides these,
it is also important to be previously aware of the characteristics and shape of the roof’s
tail-end, as well as any other singularity in the façade.
On the other hand, to ensure higher work efficiency, scaffolding should be planed
and set in advance, to ensure setting according to safety standards. All façade elements
that have to be replaced or altered should be removed (cables, HVAC or electrical
equipment, among others). Any existing downpipes should be removed, ensuring that
rainwater drainage during the construction period is done away from the façade plane
(Lucas 2011). The surrounding area should also be protected, as handling adhesive
materials may damage other surfaces. Adhesive tape may be used to protect isolated
accessories, like window frames and other singularities. Materials should be stored
in a shelter if they are transported to the site before their application day. Materials
should be stored at temperatures higher than 4 °C, preferably away from sunlight
and in a dry place. Insulation boards should be stored on a flat surface.
2.6.3.1 Substrate Preparation
Before applying ETICS, it is essential to check the substrate’s conditions and, if

necessary, take a set of cleaning and preparation measures.
In new buildings, masonry or concrete substrates should be flat, free of flatness
defects above 0.5 cm when controlled with a 2 m batten. Substrates should be nor-
mally absorbing, consistent and should not have dust or demoulding oil residue. In
the case of degraded concrete substrates, they should be treated. Any open crack
2.6 Etics 73
Table 2.15 Treatment measures for substrates (adapted from Sto Corp. [2009])
Substrate condition Treatment
Dirty Cleaning with a brush or pressurised water
With efflorescence Eliminating the causes. Cleaning with a brush or pressurised
water
With algae and fungi Removal and cleaning
With rigid adhesive claddings Removal
Loose wall render Mechanical removal and application of a screed.
Cracked wall render Repair of cracks
Synthetic resins wall render Cleaning
Porous painted façade Cleaning and primer application
Non-permeable painted façade Removal
Absorbing Cleaning and primer application.
Irregular Cleaning and primer application. Use lime and cement-based
filling plasters with a minimum curing period of 14 days
Bituminous membrane Removal
With fat or demoulding oil Jet cleaning, using detergents
Peeled paint Stripping and jet removal
Damp Eliminate the origin of damp and let dry
larger than 0.5 mm should also be repaired, as cracking may limit the performance
of the system in the future (Fernandes et al. 2016).
In rehabilitation, substrates should be assessed in terms of consistency, degrada-
tion and cracking, removing any areas without adequate conditions and repairing
damaged areas. The existing cladding should be assessed to decide whether it should
be kept or not.
Adhesion tests should be performed to determine the substrate’s adequacy to
receive the system. ETICS may be used in substrates with cracking up to 0.5 mm
wide, stable, with watertightness loss, that require light adhesive corrective claddings
or requiring the improvement of hygrothermal properties. Table 2.15 suggests some
treatment measures in various cases of anomalous substrates.
Various types of primer may be used taking each case into account (Table 2.16).
The use of primer should consider the substrate’s condition.
After preparing the substrate, a month should pass before the application of the
system, as a drying period is required to avoid transferring construction moisture to
the insulation material (Lucas 2011).
2.6.3.2 Installation of Starting Profiles
To be protected from any kind of water entrance, the system should be adequately
topped off, namely at plinth level, tail-ends with the ground and connections with
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Table 2.16 Primer examples for substrate preparation

Primer type Specifications
Adhesion and colour uniformity Regularises colour and adhesion to the
substrate. Applied with paint brush or roller
Hardening the surface Primer for hardening the surface of friable and
absorbing substrates
Adhesion for smooth concrete Regularises the concrete’s porosity. Applied
with paint brush or roller
Adhesion for old and non-absorbing substrates Applied over ceramic tiling, substrates in
cement with epoxy or bituminous adhesive
residue, wood boards and acrylic paint.
Applied with paint brush or roller
Adhesion and porosity regulation For new substrates’ preparation before
applying adhesive mortar. Regularises the
substrate’s porosity and improves adhesion
other buildings, the roof or wall openings. The starting profile helps to begin the exe-
cution of the system (ensuring horizontality and bearing the boards before bonding)
and protect the bottom of the system against dampness and external aggressions.
When starting profiles are applied, the dimension and type of profile should be
determined according to the thickness of the thermal insulation material and type of
system. Preferably, the substrate area that bears the starting profile should be flat, so
that it fits the substrate perfectly, without voids. If the substrate is not perfectly flat,
spacers between the profile and the wall may be used, using different thicknesses to
adjust to the substrate’s irregularities.
Joints with 2–3 mm between each starting profile should be created, using PVC
connectors so that any future material deformations are absorbed. These joints should
then be sealed with a polyurethane mastic cord. Applying reinforcement mesh over
the profiles’ joints is also suggested (Fig. 2.19).
Profiles are mechanically fastened with fasteners placed every 30–50 cm, with a
fastener less than 5 cm from each end. Corners should be executed with adequate
corner profiles. Starting profiles should be placed at least 10 cm above the higher
elevation point of the surrounding ground, to avoid the system’s degradation due to
direct contact with the ground.
If the bottom face of the profile is coated with reinforced render, the reinforcement
mesh should be directly bonded over the substrate, before applying the profile, and
then folded over the insulation material (back-wrapping) (The Minnesota Lath &
Plaster Bureau 2001) (Fig. 2.20).
In below ground systems, the buried bearing surface should be waterproofed up to
a level above the starting profile location (using a bitumen-based product), stopping
groundwater from entering the wall by capillary action, behind insulation boards.
In the case of below-ground walls’ insulation, and continuing that insulation, the
above-ground EPS board should be placed over the substrate as a continuation of
the below-ground insulation from a level of at least 20 cm above the final ground
2.6 Etics 75
detail A detail A
reinforcement
with regular mesh
0.3 m x 0.3 m
t 0.1 m
t 2 mm d 3 mm
detail A
Fig. 2.19 Reinforcement of joints between starting and lateral profiles
a b
Fig. 2.20 Bonding of the reinforcement mesh directly on the substrate before placing the starting
profile (a) and reinforcement mesh folded and bonded over the thermal insulation boards using
mortar (back-wrapping) (b)
level. If the above-ground EPS board is thicker, a starting profile should be applied,
creating a separation joint with at least 5 mm that should be sealed with mastic.
2.6.3.3 Application of the Adhesive Material
Bonded systems are easier to apply than those mechanically fastened, but they require
a more careful preparation of the substrate, mainly in cases of rehabilitation, where
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peripheral cord
40
thermal insulation board
°-
50
°
Fig. 2.21 Illustration of the execution of the peripheral cord at 45°
stripping of the paint and other organic products is necessary and, if needed, the
friable or poorly adhesive renders must be removed. The specified minimal adhesion
tension should be checked, and the adequate bonding of the board edges should be
ensured to prevent excessive deformations.
The preparation of the adhesive material must comply with contents defined by the
manufacturer, mixing components with mechanical equipment for a homogeneous
mixture. The application of adhesive may be done 5–10 min after preparation, over
the insulation boards. Adhesive material should not be used to fill joints between
thermal insulation boards.
Points and Peripheral Cord Method
This application method consists of applying a peripheral cord and points of adhesive
material on the back face of the board (European Associaton for External thermal
insulation composite systems 2011; Fassa Bartolo 2013; Sulakatko et al. 2017).
The execution of the peripheral cord should be done with a metallic trowel at 45°
(Fig. 2.21) so that, during the installation of the board, no adhesive material residue
is visible in the joints. This method is the most common as it allows bonding on less
flat substrates, considering the minimal area of product that should be applied on the
board’s surface, which should not be below 60% of the board’s total area, varying
according to the manufacturers’ specifications.
Total Bonding Method
Using this method requires a smooth and flat substrate. The adhesive material is
applied over the whole back face of the insulation board with a metallic trowel,
using a notched trowel with 6–10 mm notches (European Associaton for External
thermal insulation composite systems 2011; Fassa Bartolo 2013; Sulakatko et al.
2.6 Etics 77
2017). A strip of about 2 cm should be left in the board’s contour to avoid adhesive
material from filling the joints between boards.
Mechanical Application of Adhesive Material
This method refers to the use of mechanical means to apply the adhesive material
(Fassa Bartolo 2013). A continuous cord should be applied over the periphery and
in some internal areas of the board’s back face. Once again, precautions should be
taken to stop adhesive material residue from spreading to the lateral faces of the
board, ensuring a minimal percentage of adhesive material on the board’s surface,
established by the supplier, but always guaranteeing a minimal bonding area of 60%.
Mechanical Projection of Adhesive Material
In this case, the adhesive material is mechanically projected on the whole area of
the substrate, if it is completely flat. The adhesive material should be pressed with a
notched trowel (notches of 10 mm × 10 mm, minimum).
2.6.3.4 Installation of the Mechanical Fastening
As mentioned, the use of mechanical fastening should be limited to cases of absolute

necessity, as the fastener is a thermal bridge point.
Mechanical fasteners should be specified by the system’s supplier, according to
the requirements of the European Organisation for Technical Assessment (2017),
carefully assessing each situation to define the type and number of fasteners, as well
as their placement pattern. The volume of the building, the type of system, the finish,
the substrate and the dominant weather conditions should be taken into account to
choose the type of fasteners. When the substrate is unstable, mechanical fastening is
conditioned and should go deeper into the wall. Figure 2.22 represents wind loads in
a building façade, which increase from the centre to the periphery and from bottom
to top of the façade.
Wall plugs are installed by drilling holes of adequate diameter and depth in the
substrate. After placing the plug in the hole, it should be tightened using an expansion
nail (Fig. 2.23).
If the finishing coat is composed of ceramic tiles or stone plates, mechanical fas-
tening is always needed. If necessary, some tests may be performed at the construction
site to determine the type of fasteners to be used.
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Most affected area by wind loads
Least affected area by wind loads
Fig. 2.22 Simplified effect of wind loads in a building façade
Fig. 2.23 Mechanical fastening of wall plugs

2.6 Etics 79
2.6.3.5 Installing the Insulation Material
After choosing the type of fastening, the thermal insulation boards are applied. The
insulation material should be set from bottom to top, bearing each row of boards
over the previous one. The boards may be bonded using only adhesive material,
if the substrate allows it, or using additional mechanical fastening. Alternatively,
additional metallic rails may be used (Malanho and Veiga 2011). Boards are placed
in its final position, pressed against the substrate, squashing the adhesive mortar.
Boards should be placed with unaligned joints, both in the current surface and in
the corners (Fig. 2.24, part a), and they should not coincide with discontinuities in
the substrate, except for expansion joints (Fernandes et al. 2016). Around doors and
windows, the boards should be cut in an L-shape, avoiding aligned joints (Fig. 2.24,
part b).
On the other hand, the joints between thermal insulation boards should not
coincide with the expansion joints of starting profiles, differing at least 10 cm.
After fixing the boards to the substrate, necessary adjustments are made. Boards
should be aligned and adjusted so that a levelled surface is formed, eliminating gaps,
joints and misalignments. This implies pressuring the boards against the substrate
using a spirit level and a wooden or metallic batten, trying to simultaneously level
as many boards as possible. Constant diagonal movements should be made for this
purpose.
If any gap between boards is detected (over 2 mm), it should be filled with small
chips of EPS or with polyurethane injections. This type of gap should never be filled
with base coat or adhesive materials. In connections of the system with door or
window frames, sills or other singularities in the façade, there should be a gap of
about 5 mm for further placement of mastic.
If any imperfection is detected, it should be sanded using an abrasive trowel in
circular movements. The sanding process should only occur 20 h after placing the
incorrect
correct
a b
Fig. 2.24 Arrangement of insulation boards with unaligned joints (a) and L-shaped boards around
a window (b)
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boards to ensure that the adhesive material has dried. No finishing mortar should be
used to correct flatness defects, as the finishing coat should not be thick; otherwise,
it may result in further defects, such as cracking or other flatness defects.
After fastening to the substrate, EPS boards should not stay exposed for a long
period.
2.6.3.6 Fire Safety Protection
If systems with EPS, XPS or ICB are used, it is recommended that a strip of mineral
wool is used over lintels of wall openings (e.g. horizontal strips at each floor level),
ensuring better fire resistance in those areas.
2.6.3.7 Treatment of Edges and Singularities in the System
Singularities are those areas needing special care and treatment, as they may condition
the system’s performance. Windowsills, copings, joints between the system and other
building elements are some examples of the system’s singularities.
Treatment of Windowsills
An adequate design of windowsills is important to stop water from running off

directly over the finishing coat, dragging residue. On the other hand, in rehabili-
tation works, the need to increase the width of the windowsill is common, as the
wall thickness increases with the installation of ETICS. In these cases, there are
several solutions for windowsills, such as replacement, extending the existing stone
windowsill, applying a thin layer of material on the top, or applying a new metallic
windowsill over the existing sill, with a proper tail-end with the window frame. Con-
sidering the larger thickness of the wall after applying ETICS, it is also necessary to
assess the need for revising tail-ends and top protection of façade panes. In the case
of eaves and cornices, the need to revise their design should be assessed.
Corner Profile with Mesh
The edges of the system, whether wall edges or edges of wall openings, should be
reinforced with a metallic or PVC corner profile with mesh. Before executing the
reinforced base coat, reinforced profiles should be placed directly over the insulation
boards, so that they are completely embedded in the base coat thickness. The bond-
ing of profiles should be made with the same mortar used for bonding the boards.
The reinforcement mesh of profiles should be overlaid at least 10 cm over the sys-
tem’s reinforcement mesh. Joints between corner profiles should not match the joints
between boards, and they should be sealed as starting profiles were.
2.6 Etics 81
Reinforcement of Angles
This type of reinforcement aims at substantially increasing the mechanical resistance

of edges. These corner profiles without mesh are applied over the corner profiles with
mesh, at the level of the reinforced base coat, placed after executing that layer, before
finishes. They are advised for areas with high impact risk but should only be applied
if the finish has enough thickness to embed them.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are fundamental in the execution of ETICS and they should be
respected, as they absorb structural movements, thus preventing defects (e.g. crack-
ing). The positioning of joints should be studied considering the position of the façade
surfaces, as the type of joint to be used in coplanar façades is not identical to that
used in non-coplanar façades.
Expansion joints are created through the application of joint profiles with mesh.
The mortar used in the reinforcement layer may be used to bond these profiles. As
the profile’s flaps should be executed simultaneously, both façade panes, on each
side of the joint, should also be executed simultaneously.
Joints should be placed before executing the reinforced base coat, ensuring at
least 10 cm of reinforcement mesh overlay. So that both faces of the joint profile are
centred along the joint, it is recommended to use an EPS cord with the thickness of
the joint, which is removed after executing the finishing coat. The inner space of the
joint profile should be sealed with polyurethane mastic over a cord of polyethylene
foam.
Where the system meets rigid surfaces (door or window frames, protruding sur-
faces and balconies, for instance), an open joint of about 5 mm should be executed
and filled with elastic and waterproof material, like polyurethane mastic. The treat-
ment of lintels of wall openings should be done applying a drip profile with mesh,
wrapping the edge. This type of profile allows reinforcing the edge and avoiding
recessing water running off the façade.
Aesthetical Joint
An aesthetical joint creates a visual break in the system’s surface. It should not be
placed over expansion joints, as it may result in cracking. This type of joint does not
have any role on the structural movement of the building. Overlaying reinforcement
meshes should be avoided where aesthetical joints are defined by the design of the
façade, as the execution of the joints would be hindered and a homogeneous surface
would be harder to create. Areas where the aesthetical joints intercept singularities
of the system should be adequately treated, as the joint may become the preferable
path for water runoff and accumulation of dirt. The supplier should be consulted to
determine the minimal insulation thickness below the joints (around 20 mm) (Sto
Corp. 2009).
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2.6.3.8 Execution of the Reinforced Base Coat/Reinforcement
The reinforced base coat is a component of the system that reinforces and mechan-
ically protects it. It is a layer that not only includes reinforcement mesh but also
any other reinforcement and joint accessories, as it is essential to overlay meshes (of
the system and of accessories). According to the exposure of the facing to external
agents, one or two meshes may be applied or, in more sensitive cases, a regular mesh
and a reinforced mesh.
Before executing this layer, façade elements should be protected, such as alu-
minium window frames, to prevent any possible contamination or damage. Addi-
tionally, the reinforced base coat should not be considered a filling layer but rather a
reinforcement.
Application with Regular Reinforcement
The reinforced base coat should never be executed before the adhesive material has
dried, i.e. never before 24 h after its application. The mortar may be applied using a
metallic notched trowel or mechanical equipment, ensuring a uniform thickness.
After applying the base coat mortar, and before starting to dry, the reinforcement
mesh should be placed using the flat edge of the trowel. The mesh should be com-
pletely embedded after the application of the last layer of mortar, always ensuring
10 cm overlays between meshes.
For a higher reinforcement level, two layers may be used. The first reinforced coat
is applied and, after drying, a new layer of mortar is applied followed by the second
reinforcement mesh, preferably with unaligned joints. After a drying period, the last
mortar layer is applied, completely embedding the second reinforcement mesh.
Applying Diagonal Reinforcement Mesh in Wall Openings
Next to corners of façade openings, reinforcement mesh in a diagonal direction

should be applied as these areas are very sensitive to cracking. The reinforcement
mesh should be embedded in the base coat. This reinforcement should be done with
pieces of mesh around 50 cm long and 35 cm wide, positioned at 45° in the corners
of façade openings.
2.6.3.9 Finishing Coat
Applying the finish should take weather conditions and drying of the base and key
coats into account. Additional precautions should be taken in case of high tempera-
tures and intense sunlight exposure, as they can cause shrinkage and mortars to dry
too fast.
2.6 Etics 83
The choice of colour of the finish is fundamental as it compromises the specificity

of the whole system. To avoid unexpected joints in the finishing coat, application
teams should correctly dimension the materials needed, as complete façade panes
should be executed, considering singularities and edges of the façade.
Before executing the finish, adhesive tape should be applied in areas not meant to
be coated to avoid contamination.
Executing the Key Coat
The key coat should only be applied one to seven days after applying the base coat
so that it is completely dry. The execution is made using a paint brush or roller,
with a coat of primer product diluted in water according with the instructions of
the manufacturer. The whole surface should be previously brushed, and it should be
sound, dry, and free from dust, fat, oils or any other substances.
Applying the Finishing Coat
The finishing coat may be applied mechanically or with a metallic or plastic trowel.
To choose the trowel, the intended texture of the finish should be taken into account.
Finishes may have different appearances according to the tools used and movements
during application.
The coat should be as thick as the particles of the finishing product. The flat edge
of the trowel should be used to spread any excessive material. After a small pause,
the trowel should be used again to make the coating more compact and uniform.
A more textured finishing coat will tend to accumulate more dirt and debris than
a smooth finish. For a smoother finish, a wet sponge may be used.
For a scratched texture, a metallic brush may be used, but the base coat should
not be damaged. This type of finish is only possible with pigmented rigid renders
that may be executed in a thicker layer.
Acrylic paint may be applied with a paint brush or roller in consecutive coats.
The dilution of this type of paint should follow the suppliers’ recommendations.
If the system is correctly applied, no irregularities or significant deformations
should be detected at 30° lighting. Hence, the maximum admissible deformation is
7 mm using a 2 m batten.
Applying Stone Plates or Ceramic Tiling Finishing Coat
Ceramic tiling may give the system greater strength. Either stone plates or ceramic
tiles may be applied in ETICS, considering the following limitations and important
details:
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• In new buildings, the substrate of the system should be completely flat (render or
concrete);
• The adhesive mortar of the insulation boards should be applied using the complete
buttering method;
• Bright colours’ plates/tiles should be preferred, as they absorb less heat than darker
ones;
• Insulation boards should be bonded and mechanically fastened, considering the
number of fasteners and their pattern according to the type of tiles/plates;
• The adhesive ceramic tiles should only be applied over the base coat after 7 days;
• The joints between tiles should be 5 mm wide and filled with adequate material
(Fernandes et al. 2016), corresponding to a joint area above 6% of the surface;
• Elastic joints should be done to help absorb deformations; these joints should be
placed horizontally at each floor level and vertically every 4 m; such joints should
be filled with mastic;
• All good practice rules referring to the adhesion of ceramic tiles in façades should
be followed;
• If the ceramic tiling is coplanar with another type of finish, the tail-end should be
detailed so that it is waterproof, and no defects arise from different deformation
behaviours of different materials.
2.7 Architectural Concrete Surfaces
The technological knowledge associated with architectural concrete surfaces con-

tributes to better understanding the pathological phenomena that may occur in this
type of cladding. In this section, an outline of the materials used in architectural
concrete surfaces is presented, as well as design concerns associated with their aes-
thetical possibilities in terms of shape, texture and colour, and with their functional
requirements. Then, the construction process is summarised.
The use of concrete exposing all its surfaces requires the detailed knowledge of its
composition and understanding the manufacturing and placement techniques to avoid
pathological problems and to enable adequate structural integrity and durability,
while highlighting architectural concrete strong aesthetical attributes.
2.7.1 Materials Used in Architectural Concrete Surfaces
Concrete has highly variable properties and is composed of constituents that are
not inert after the building element is constructed, changing properties through time
influenced by environmental factors. Being a mixture of aggregates, binder and water,
concrete also has the possibility of including pigments, admixtures and additions. It
2.7 Architectural Concrete Surfaces 85
is necessary to conveniently choose these constituents at the design stage to allow

obtaining a surface with the required characteristics.
Additionally, the choice of the formwork’s material is an important decision that
depends on the dimensional constraints of the building element and on the desired
surface finish. In any way, the intended finish for an architectural concrete surface
may itself condition the remaining choices associated with the construction process.
In this case, even the reinforcement position is affected, due to exposure to aggressive
environmental agents. The minimisation of cracking and crazing should be a concern
at design and execution stages in order to increase the protection of concrete, as no
cladding is applied, and to improve the final appearance of the surface.
2.7.1.1 Mix Materials
Binder
The binder is used to agglutinate aggregates together and influences the resistance
of the final material. In Europe, the binder must comply with EN 197 series (CEN
2011c, 2014d) and in the USA, for instance, ASTM International defines four separate
standards according to the nature of the binder—natural cement, Portland cement,
blended hydraulic cement and hydraulic cement (ASTM International 2014, 2017a,
2019a, b). In a given building, the binder’s provenance should not vary, so that
colour variations are minimised. So, manufacturers must provide origin control bul-
letins indicating the binder’s extraction/production location, as well as associated
properties.
For colour control purposes, white cement is preferred in architectural concrete
surfaces, but, for darker colours, grey cement is more adequate. This choice also
depends on the required strength for the building element.
Colour variations in a grey cement matrix are higher than those of white cement.
Grey cement may result from using a mineral that results in a grey binder, or grey
cement may result from using minerals intended for white cement and black pigments
(Kenney et al. 2008). The latter allows more homogeneity. When compared with
grey cement, white cement shows lower workability, higher shrinkage, and better
compressive strength results of the final product.
In architectural concrete surfaces, Portland cement types CEM I 42.5R, CEM II/B-
L 32.5, CEM II/B-L 32.5 (Br) and CEM II/A-L 52.5 N (Br) are the most frequently
used. If higher strength is needed, lime fillers may be used in the binder composition,
decreasing the water needed in the mix (Schlumpf et al. 2013).
Moreover, cement storage should be protected from humidity.
Aggregates
According to the EN 206:2016 (CEN 2016f) standard, which refers to the specifi-
cation, performance, production and conformity of concrete, aggregates are mineral
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granular materials to be used in concrete. They need to have adequate dimensions,

mechanical strength, and chemical properties according to the binder and environ-
mental aggressive actions. Aggregates need to have satisfactory thermal properties
and be free from harmful substances.
In Europe, aggregates for concrete must comply with EN 12620:2008 (CEN
2008c), including storage requirements, while in the USA, for instance, the standard
of ASTM International C33/C33M-18 (ASTM International 2018) is to be followed.
Aggregates may represent about 70% of the volume of concrete (Schlumpf et al.
2013). Specifically in architectural concrete, the size grading of the aggregates
depends on the surface finish, while contributing for porosity and strength properties.
The surface colour may also be influenced by the choice of aggregates, mainly in
bright surfaces. The selection of coarse aggregates and of their colour is important
when the surface is intended to have exposed aggregates. In turn, the choice of fine
aggregates is more relevant when a smooth finish is wanted.
In a building construction site, all aggregates of the same type should have the same
provenance, as mentioned for binders. Additionally, aggregates should not react with
the cement alkalis and they should be free from clay particles, contaminant agents
and impurities able to change the concrete’s colour (Kenney et al. 2008).
In exposed aggregates surfaces, some intermediate sizes in the admitted range of
aggregates for the mix should be rejected in view of a more uniform final appearance.
Water
In a concrete mix, water should be clean, free from oils and other impurities that
may cause stains, as well as free from salts likely to contaminate the mix. Potable
water at room temperature should be used, since very cold or hot water risks affecting
workability (Kosmatka 2008).
The water-cement ratio is important to prevent exudation phenomena (Sawaide
and Iketani 1992), hence the water content should not be excessively high, but prefer-
ably constant throughout the mixing process and remaining steps of construction to
avoid colour variations in architectural concrete surfaces.
Additions and Admixtures
Additions (also known as mineral admixtures) and admixtures enable significant

improvements in fresh and hardened concrete properties. While the content of addi-
tions may be above 5% of the cement’s weight, admixtures are added to the mix in
amounts below 5% the weight of cement.
Fly ash and silica fume are examples of additions. In architectural concrete sur-
faces, the amount of fine aggregates and binder is frequently higher, especially when
self-compacting concrete is used. To avoid the effect of an excessive amount of binder,
additions are used, like lime fillers, which give the mix a higher water absorption
capacity (Schlumpf et al. 2013).
The mix used in the trial wall that is mandatory in architectural concrete construc-
tion should include the additions used in the remaining building to test and assess
colour results, as additions may also influence the expected colour.
Superplasticisers and set retarders are examples of admixtures. In concrete, admix-
tures are used to improve its properties, such as workability, strength, water-cement
ratio and setting time. They may also result in different surface colour, especially in
bright concrete, due to their mineral or organic nature. Hence, admixtures should be
of bright colours and resistant to UV radiation. Admixtures need to be tested in a
trial wall (ACI Committee 303 2012). Superplasticisers are particularly important to
decrease vibration needs, avoiding bug holes and other defects associated with the
execution.
Pigments
Pigments are the cheapest and most effective means to colour architectural concrete.
The most common pigments are based on metallic oxides, simultaneously being
the most stable under UV radiation. They are available in powder, grains or liquid
format, and are added at a later manufacturing stage of the mix (CCAA T57 2006).
ASTM International (2016) uses standard ASTM C979/C979M-16 as reference for
pigments used in integrally coloured concrete.
The manufacturing process influences the cost of some pigments. Samples should
be used to choose pigments according to the final result, and the chosen pigments
should be included in the mix used in the trial. Still, an amount of pigment above
10% of the cement’s weight may damage the concrete’s quality (ACI Committee 303
2012).
2.7.1.2 Reinforcement
Although not visible, reinforcement has a direct contribution to the aesthetical qual-
ity of architectural concrete surfaces. That is the case when metallic oxides occur in
fresh concrete, as they quickly migrate to the surface and cause nasty visual defects.
Therefore, storage and cleaning procedures are paramount to ensure that reinforce-
ment steel is free from oils, clays, oxidation and substances that hinder the adhesion
of concrete. Moreover, the quality of the final surface is better when reinforcement
follows design and execution rules, specifically treatment and adequate placement.
Due to the possibility of oxidation run-offs while a building is under construction,
reinforcement already placed on-site should be protected with epoxy paint or based
on polyurethane. In this way, an orange stain on the surface before the first year of
the service life of the building element is avoided.
On the one hand, reinforcement may need additional cover in architectural con-
crete surfaces. To ensure the designed cover, polymeric or concrete spacers should
be used in a similar colour to that of the finished surface. On the other hand, while
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designing reinforcement, highly dense areas need to be avoided, to stop coarse aggre-
gates from getting stuck, consequently hindering the vibration process. In densely
reinforced structures, the use of self-compacting concrete is preferable.
In terms of mix, the aggregate’s size and vibration process, in Europe, Eurocode
2 (CEN 2014e) should be complied with, ensuring that the volume of concrete fits
the formwork volume. Particularly ties in stainless or galvanised steel are advised,
and their ends must face the inner volume of concrete (Kenney et al. 2008).
Whenever possible, the concrete placement should be performed immediately
after the reinforcement is done, to avoid oxidation and subsequent oxidation stains.
2.7.1.3 Formwork
Formwork may not be considered so much as a material, but more as a tool or equip-
ment to build reinforced concrete elements, and specifically architectural concrete
surfaces. Still, considering the limited amount of times formwork can be reused, and
its importance for the appearance of surfaces, it is included in this section.
In Europe, standard EN 13670:2009 (CEN 2009b) should be complied with,
while in the United States of America, for instance, a guide by ACI Committee 347
(2014) is available. Nevertheless, essential knowledge about formwork properties
and materials is important at the design and construction stages.
More porous formwork materials are likely to result in darker architectural con-
crete surfaces. In this context, steel, aluminium, plastic and sealed wood are con-
sidered non-porous materials, also resulting in smoother surfaces, while non-treated
wood and engineered wood are porous formwork materials.
In addition, the strength of formwork needs to resist fresh concrete’s impulses.
Thus, metallic formwork has better behaviour in this sense but requires inner cladding
with stainless steel plates or marine-grade plywood to prevent contamination with
oxidation stains.
A system of controlled permeability formwork allows to significantly increase
the durability of an architectural concrete surface and improve its appearance. The
system consists of coupling a textile to regular formwork in order to drain and filter
excessive air and water. At the same time, fine materials of the mix are kept in the
surface (smoother results) and enough moisture is ensured for the curing process of
concrete. Surfaces created with controlled permeability formwork are less porous,
have fewer bug holes and higher strength. Thus, results for architectural concrete
surfaces are proven to be better (Chen et al. 2012; Lin et al. 2014).
The location and finish of formwork fastenings, as well as the stereotomy of the
concrete surface originated by formwork joints, have to be planned at the design
stage. The architect has to include formwork designs and specifications to detail
fastening and joints, as well as formwork panels dimensions (PERI Portugal; PERI
Group 2018).
Like formwork panels, which exist in standard and custom sizes, formwork fas-
tenings may be designed according to predefined positions in standard size formwork
panels, or custom positions in customised panels. The desired design pattern should
rule these options, considering execution and financial constraints.
Pathology wise, fastening points are a critical area of architectural concrete sur-
faces, as they may cause loss of fine constituents of concrete during construction, if
not properly fit and sealed (Kenney et al. 2008). Fastenings should be placed inside
PVC anchor cones (PERI Group 2018) and tubes to create adequate negative imprints
for fastening placement and removal.
Then, visible fastening marks on the finished surface may remain visible or be
disguised. When they are intended to be visible, several options are available. Usu-
ally, holes are left on the surface of concrete, but an additional set of holes, with the
same diameter, may be designed, generating a harmonious pattern (Fig. 2.25). Alter-
natively, fastening voids may be tamponed with specific accessories or filled with
adequate mortar or polyurethane sealant. These mortar and sealant must fulfil visual
demands in terms of colour, ageing and durability, compatible with the appearance
of concrete. Fastening marks may, in fact, be disguised but are very hard to become
unnoticeable without using an opaque coating over the surface, after filling the voids.
As for joining formwork panels, the efficacy of the task prevents the loss of fine
constituents of concrete and subsequent surface defects. Joint sealing materials, like
mastic and rubber joints, must be used to connect panels and silicone may also be
applied on the outer surface of the joint to increase joint sealing. Whenever possible,
concrete placement joints should coincide with joints between panels. Expansion
joints should coincide with both.
At the execution stage, the alignment of panels must be checked to avoid flatness
defects on the architectural concrete surface.
Fig. 2.25 Pattern of fastening marks in an architectural concrete surface

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2.7.1.4 Release Agents
Release agents are materials applied on formwork that, by creating a barrier between
the latter and concrete, avoid the adhesion of fresh concrete to the form, favouring
the form removal process and the appearance quality of the concrete surface. Some
factors should be taken into account while choosing release agents, namely (adapted
from Kenney et al. 2008):
• Compatibility of the agent with the formwork, formwork-sealer and mixture;
• Possible interference with subsequent application of products on the concrete
surface;
• Possibility of occurrence of colour changes and surface stains;
• Time elapsed between the application of the agent on formwork and the placement
of concrete;
• Weather and curing conditions.
Although release agents are indispensable products for the construction process
of architectural concrete surfaces with high-quality visual properties, they are simul-
taneously the main cause of colour variations in this type of surfaces (Kenney et al.
2008). To avoid colour stains, the use of oil-based products is not advised and anti-
staining release agents should be used, which are based on colourless paraffin and
are sprayed to form a very thin layer (Schlumpf et al. 2013).
As both inadequate and excessive applications of release agents are prone to
cause anomalous architectural concrete surfaces, the trial wall should be built using
the intended release agent, and smaller samples may also be tested, including their
behaviour towards environmental aggressive agents. Application procedures used in
the trial should be followed in the whole building for more homogeneous surface
results (Kenney et al. 2008; ACI Committee 303 2012).
2.7.2 Design of Architectural Concrete Surfaces
Besides concerns associated with materials, the design of architectural concrete sur-
faces from a non-structural point of view should cover the choice of surface finish,
colour and standardisation. At this stage, the design team must prepare a set of doc-
uments to be included in a separate section of the building project. Ideally, those
documents should consider budgeting, drawings, specifications and quality control
criteria, in view of quality control and assurance, bids and trial wall construction
(Kenney et al. 2008), not to mention the necessary discussions between the whole
design team, owner and contractors.
2.7.2.1 Types of Surface Finish
Smooth
An architectural concrete surface with a smooth surface (Fig. 2.26, part a) is obtained
by the removal of forms without further texturing work. For this reason, appearance
variations occur according to the type of form, as its texture (different levels of
smoothness) or any imperfection is engraved in the concrete surface.
Polished
After form removal and curing, a polished concrete surface is obtained through a
mechanical process. It consists of the controlled abrasion of the surface with sequen-
tial erosive steps, resulting in a new surface at the end. The depth of wear caused
by grinding depends on the desired aggregates exposure degree. The final polishing
step should be repeated as many times as necessary to reach the intended glow.
Formed Relief
Bas- to mid-relief (Fig. 2.26, part b) and sunk relief (Fig. 2.26, part c) give the
concrete surface any pattern, figurative or non-figurative shape, only constrained
by form removal and the minimal thickness of reinforcement cover. Such finishes
are obtained using polyurethane, elastomer or silicone formwork. Relief forms are
bonded or nailed to the forms, taking advantage of the plasticity of fresh concrete to
obtain the designed shape.
a b c
Fig. 2.26 Architectural concrete surface with: a smooth finish (a); mid-relief (b); and sunk relief
(c)
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Tooled
An architectural concrete surface with a tooled finish is obtained through a mechan-

ical process, after form removal and cure, using a jackhammer and a bush ham-
mer. This type of finish is of a destructive nature, so the adequate resistance and
reinforcement cover of concrete need to be ensured prior to tooling procedures.
Scaling
Although some authors (Kenney et al. 2008) consider scaling a type of tooled finish,
it is treated separately in this book. For a scaling texture, the surface is chipped
using chisel tips in pneumatic tools. Macroscopically, the surface shows a rough
appearance, similar to a rock, depending on the irregularity of the chiselling pattern.
Like a tooled finish, scaling decreases the thickness of the reinforcement cover,
thus it should be increased at the design stage, accounting for the variability of the
cover thickness of the finished concrete surface.
Blasting
Blasting techniques for concrete surfaces finish are used to expose the aggregates of
concrete. This set of finishes allows choosing the aggregate exposure degree, whose
depth/depth range must be specified, up to a maximum of a third of the size of coarse
aggregates (CCAA T57 2006). Exposure depth may surpass this limit if blasting is
combined with set retarders.
Blasting techniques include sand or abrasive blast, high-pressure water jet, and
the combination of these techniques (Kenney et al. 2008).
While using blasting techniques, if possible, the same team and equipment should
be used in the whole building, since distance, speed and pressure changes using the
equipment result in finishing differences (Kenney et al. 2008).
Flame-Cleaning
Flame-cleaning is a type of finish with a slightly rough and ridged texture, also soft-
ening the original colour of the unfished architectural concrete surface. The technique
consists of applying a flame over the surface of concrete. This texture is anti-slip;
hence, it is frequently used in architectural concrete floorings.
When flame-cleaning is to be used, concrete must have granite aggregates in its
composition, due to their melting capacity, fundamental for flame-cleaning.
Reactive
The reactive properties of concrete enable the creation of any pattern or image over
a concrete surface with the presence of water. The technique consists of: (i) sealing
the whole surface of concrete; (ii) using a waterproof mask (stencil-like) over the
concrete; and (iii) applying a reagent over the negative imprints of the mask. The
mentioned mask is the shape of the intended pattern or image. After this finish
technique is complete, the reagent interacts with water poured over the concrete
surface and acquires a darker colour, showing the image otherwise invisible (when
the concrete is dry).
2.7.2.2 Colour
The constant exposure of architectural concrete surfaces determines that special

attention has to be given to their appearance, particularly to uniformity, surface
details, colour and texture standards (Kenney et al. 2008).
The colour of architectural concrete surfaces depends on the binder, aggregates,
pigments, fillers and formwork used (CCAA T57 2006; Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute [PCI] 2007). While grey concrete is composed of Portland cement, white
concrete is composed of white cement, and coloured concrete results from adding
inorganic pigments to the concrete mix.
Grey architectural concrete surfaces are more vulnerable to degradation agents
that affect their colour, namely environmental factors, curing cycle and amount of
water (PCI 2007). Hence, even in grey surfaces, it is frequent to resort to pigmentation
processes, which enable a great variety of shades.
The adequate selection of fine and coarse aggregates is relevant for the colour
of concrete surfaces, especially when the intended finish consists of exposing the
aggregates (CCAA T57 2006; Kenney et al. 2008). Plasticisers may also be included
in the concrete mix to promote an easier dispersion of pigments, maximise their
intensity and the colour’s uniformity (Peurifoy and Oberlender 2011). Still, it is
found that every pigment has a saturation point beyond which the colour intensity
will not increase (CCAA T57 2006). The water-cement content also needs to be
analysed, as it may lead to colour variations (Kenney et al. 2008). The use of fillers
for colouring purposes is also possible but may decrease concrete’s strength.
For economy and colour uniformity purposes, grey and white cement can be
blended, but colour uniformity is expected to increase as the percentage of white
cement increases. Grey cement is associated with architectural concrete surfaces
with less intense colours (PCI 2007), as brighter surfaces result from the use of
white cement.
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2.7.2.3 Standards
Considering the European case, out of the standard series EN 1504, titled “Prod-
ucts and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures—Definitions,
requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity”, some parts should be
highlighted: part 1, referring to terms and their description (CEN 2005b); part 2, refer-
ring to the specification of products and systems for the surface protection of concrete
(CEN 2004h); part 3, providing specifications for structural and non-structural repair
(CEN 2005c); part 5, with specifications for the injection of concrete (CEN 2013d);
part 9, defining the general principles for using products and systems (CEN 2008d);
and part 10, that refers to site application of products and systems and quality control
of the works (CEN 2017f).
Any issues associated with placement, compaction and cure of concrete are ruled
by EN 13670:2019 (CEN 2009b), for general rules in the execution of concrete
structures.
Standard EN 206:2016 (CEN 2009f) applies to the specification, performance,
production and conformity of concrete and may refer to other relevant standards in
the specification and design of architectural concrete surfaces, namely about con-
stituents: EN 197-1:2011 on cement (CEN 2011c); EN 450-1:2012 on fly ash (CEN
2012f); EN 13263-1:2009 on silica fume (CEN 2009c); EN 934-2:2012 on admix-
tures (CEN 2012g); EN 12620:2008 on aggregates (CEN 2008c); EN 13055:2016
on light aggregates (CEN 2016g); EN 1008:2002 on water (CEN 2002c); and EN
12878:2014 on pigments (CEN 2014f). There are other standards on testing: EN
12350 series on fresh concrete (CEN 2009d, e, f, g, h, i, 2010b, c, d, e, f,); EN 12390
series on hardened concrete (CEN 2009j, k, l, m, 2012h); and EN 12504 series on
concrete in structures (CEN 2004i, 2005d, 2009n, 2012i). Durability standards are
defined locally (in each country), as does Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil
(LNEC) (2006, 2007a, b, c) in Portugal, with specifications E 461 (on the prevention
of expansive internal reactions), E 464 (on the prescription methodology for a design
service life of 50 and 100 years towards environmental actions), and E 465 (on the
methodology for estimating the performance properties of concrete that allow com-
pliance with the design service life of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete under
more aggressive conditions).
In the USA, for instance, a list of the set of cement and concrete standards devel-
oped by ASTM International is available online (ASTM International 2019c), con-
sidering, among others: abrasion testing, additions, aggregate reactions in concrete,
aggregates, air entrainment, chemical admixtures, compositional analysis, concrete’s
resistance to fluid penetration, fibre-reinforced concrete, hydraulic cements for gen-
eral concrete construction, lightweight aggregates and concrete, materials applied
to new concrete surfaces, non-destructive and in-place testing, organic materials for
bonding, petrography, self-consolidating concrete, strength, testing, volume changes
and workability. However, as in Europe, no specific standards for architectural con-
crete are available. So, the work developed in this field by the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) should be a reference for good-practice implementation in design and
execution. The guide on cast-in-place architectural concrete developed by ACI Com-

mittee 303 (2012) presents a broad approach of the production of architectural con-
crete, with recommended rules for specifying materials, formwork, concrete place-
ment, curing, additional treatment, inspection and their effect on the finished product.
In the same institute, another committee developed a guide regarding formwork for
as-cast concrete surfaces (ACI Committee 347 2014), considering recommendations
to meet the expected appearance of this type of surfaces, including a section for
architectural concrete surfaces. Additionally, Standards Australia (2018) developed
a standard on formwork for concrete, whose first edition was published in 1990, set-
ting the requirements for the design, fabrication, erection and stripping of formwork,
including the evaluation of the cast concrete surface.
2.7.3 Execution of Architectural Concrete Surfaces
2.7.3.1 Placement
The placement process of an architectural concrete surface must be carefully planned

so that the final result is successful, thus avoiding surface defects associated with
this execution stage. From the moment concrete leaves the plant until placement is
complete, operations must follow a schedule. For instance, the travel time between
the concrete plant and the construction site is important as it influences the state of
the mix when it is cast. Adequate planning should consider that trucks ought to leave
plants in order to arrive at the site little before they are needed, to avoid excessive
waiting times, prone to cause colour variations in architectural concrete surfaces
(ACI Committee 303 2012).
While beginning placement procedures, it is advised (Kenney et al. 2008) not
to use the first 0.2 m3 of pumped concrete, as the equipment retains some material
that originates water-cement ratio variations and subsequent colour variations on the
surface of concrete.
Furthermore, the placement of concrete should be done from heights below 1.5 m
using different pumps, conveyors or steep-sided buckets with easy to move chutes
(Kenney et al. 2008). In columns and walls, concrete should be placed in layers of
no more than 50 cm to ease its compaction. Thus, during continuous vibration pro-
cedures, 10–15 cm from the previous layer should be transposed for uniformization
purposes. The contact between the vibrating equipment, formwork and reinforce-
ment should be avoided, as it can cause irreversible damage, namely on the surface
of concrete.
When self-compacting concrete is used, it must be pumped using adequate and
constant velocity through the whole process, while avoiding sudden movements.
Moreover, interruptions during the placement process are prone to cause placement
joints and the incorrect homogenisation between layers, due to the irreversibility of
the gravity compaction process.
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2.7.3.2 Demoulding
The success of demoulding procedures is also very important for the appearance of
architectural concrete surfaces. And, once again, planning is key.
Demoulding should be done with care, preventing damages on surfaces associ-
ated with impact or pressure for the removal of forms. Adjacent surfaces should be
demoulded after the same curing time, otherwise, colour differences are likely to
occur. The demoulding schedule should be thoroughly stipulated, hence avoiding
pulling off pieces of concrete, mainly next to edges and corners, resulting from pre-
mature demoulding. The accurate timing of demoulding procedures also tends to
avoid colouring issues associated with changes in the properties of release agents, in
this case, due to late demoulding.
Once moulds are removed, the surface should be protected to avoid any harm,
including from normal construction operations (ACI Committee 303 2012). Sharp
edges and protruding corners require specific protection, as they are more vulnerable.
2.7.3.3 Curing
Correctly curing architectural concrete surfaces stops some types of staining, dis-
colouration and cracking on the surface. The curing process involves keeping accept-
able moisture content and temperatures to obtain the designed surface colour, texture
and durability. Thus, all the architectural concrete areas need to go through the same
process and curing time to prevent colour variations on the surface (CCAA T57 2006;
Kenney et al. 2008). Products for concrete curing are not advised in architectural
concrete surfaces, especially if white, because they can cause staining.
The most significant curing period corresponds to the first stages of strength
development (Kenney et al. 2008), i.e. from the initial set until strength required for
stripping is reached. Adequate care and procedures should be followed according
to curing needs, considering: curing in the moulds, moist curing, membrane curing
and hot-weather or cold-weather curing. More information on specific curing types
should be consulted in the literature (CCAA T57 2006; Kenney et al. 2008; ACI
Committee 303 2012).
2.7.3.4 Surface Finish
At this stage, if applicable, anchor points of formwork are treated, with adequate
accessories and products, according to the intended appearance (Sect. 2.7.1.3).
Also at this stage, the designed surface finish is executed, considering the options
mentioned in Sect. 2.7.2.1, or others more innovative.
At the end of the surface finish works, general cleaning is advised using plain
water or water with a neutral detergent. These cleaning procedures will remove dirt
accumulated during execution and prepare the surface for prescribed water-repellent
or anti-graffiti treatments. Superficial water-repellent products may be colourless or
cause a glowing surface, and are usually silane, siloxane or acrylic resins-based.
2.7.3.5 Quality Control at the Execution Stage
As a general rule for assessing procedures and products used in architectural concrete
surfaces, they should be applied in the trial and, after approval, they should be the
standard for the whole building.
In any case, it should be ensured that: reinforcement and formwork are free from
oil and dirt; release agents are applied as thin uniform films; and formwork joints
are adequately sealed and watertight.
Quality control mechanisms should be put in place on-site to enforce compliance
with rules and good practices advised by professional associations, standardisation
agencies, manufacturers and suppliers. Those rules and good practices have been
approached throughout Sect. 2.7.
2.8 Door and Window Frames
Throughout the history of architecture, and accompanying the evolution of building

technology, the opaque area of building façades progressively decreased, giving
place to increasingly larger wall openings. This tendency allowed increasing natural
lighting of indoor areas, as well as ventilation. However, the susceptibility of the
building envelope to aggressive agents also increased.
The mentioned openings, whether windows or doors, need to answer multiple
performance requirements. They need to work as a barrier, protecting the building
from weather conditions and noise, but also as an intermediary, as they provide access,
ventilation and visual contact. To positively reply to such functional requirements,
the industry of door and window frames is very dynamic, constantly presenting
innovative solutions, techniques and materials (Steven Winter Associates Inc. 1999).
The central innovation point in door and window frames manufacturing is asso-
ciated with the transition from handcrafted manufacturing (for instance, in wood
frames) to industrialised/standardised manufacturing (for instance, wood milling
and aluminium extrusion).
This approach to the technology of door and window frames is expected to famil-
iarise the reader with the main materials, design and execution issues within this type
of building element so that the diagnosis process of defects and the recommendation
of repair techniques are more contextualised.
2.8.1 Materials Used in Door and Window Frames
Door and window frames may be built using several materials. Still, this book focuses
only on four framing materials: wood, iron/steel, aluminium, and PVC. These mate-
rials started to be used in door and window frames approximately in the presented
order, always trying to improve the comfort and inhabitability conditions offered by
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previous solutions. Such improvement process is still in progress, as new materials

and adaptations are constantly being offered by the industry. For instance, hybrid
frames (combining two or more materials) are becoming common and the use of
wood composites, fibreglass, glass fibre reinforced polymers, polyurethane, among
others, is also rising.
Additionally, the set of accessories used in door and window frames is also
addressed in this section, comprising ironmongery, glazing shims, joints and sealants,
mastics, and sealing rubber and tape.
2.8.1.1 Wood Door and Window Frames
Wood is an organic material. When compared with other building materials, it may
be considered more complex, according to its use, as it requires specific technical and
scientific knowledge. For instance, for each wood species, the variability degree and
the species’ properties need to be taken into account, as they limit the type of applica-
tion. Those properties may be colour, texture, odour, gloss, but also density, hardness,
mechanical resistance, permeability and workability (Sousa 2002). Table 2.17 lists
the most common wood species used in door and window frames.
In its natural state, wood may present some negative characteristics concerning
the good performance of frames. However, the effect of those characteristics has been
progressively reversed as a result of technological advances (Stamm 1977; Hoadley
2000; Henriques and Azevedo 2018):
• The degradation of wood properties and the occurrence of internal stresses result-
ing from changes in the moisture content were reversed by controlled drying
processes;
• In an environment favouring the development of biological agents, deterioration
was circumvented with preservative treatments and protecting finishes;
• The high heterogeneity and anisotropy, due to the structure of oriented fibres, were
solved by processing wood into laminates, plywood and wood agglomerates.
Table 2.17 Wood species

Commercial nomenclature Scientific nomenclature
commonly used in door and
window frames (Sousa 2002) Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa
Northern red oak Quercus rubra
European black pine Pinus nigra
Afzelia africana/African mahogany Afzelia bipindensis
Iroko Chlorophora excelsa
Cherry tree Amburana cearensis
Utile Entandrophragma utile
2.8 Door and Window Frames 99
Most of the improved durability properties of wood door and window frames result
from treatments and finishes applied to natural wood. Most preventive treatments are
meant to ensure good resistance of wood towards living beings, namely fungi, insects
and marine xylophagous. As for the finishing coats, they may be applied for deco-
rative purposes, but also as a means of protecting the wood substrate. Additionally,
finishing coats may also be applied to improve the resistance to microorganisms and
mechanical and chemical resistance (Grüll et al. 2011).
There are various treatments for wood, but only the most common ones are men-
tioned, namely: preventive treatments for wood, applied by brushing, spraying, dip-
ping, immersion, autoclave and heat treatment; and finishing coats, which are paints,
varnishes and wood stains.
2.8.1.2 Iron and Steel Door and Window Frames
The first metallic window frames were made of wrought iron. In a subsequent stage,
cast iron started to be used and the production of iron window frames became industri-
alised. In a third stage, considering technological developments in the production of
metals, steel started to be used, taking its improved properties into account when com-
pared with iron. In fact, during the twentieth century, steel door and window frames
became popular, due to their slenderness and fire safety (Steven Winter Associates
Inc. 1999).
Still, the high susceptibility of steel to corrosion, its weak thermal performance
and the rise of new materials, more economical and with improved efficacy, led to
the less frequent use of steel door and window frames. Even though technological
advances allowed improving the behaviour of steel, like galvanisation and the use of
stainless steel, in door and window frames, it is a type of material whose value for
money cannot compete with that of aluminium and PVC. However, galvanised and
stainless steel are frequently used in fire doors, which is a niche market within the
door frames industry.
2.8.1.3 Aluminium Door and Window Frames
Aluminium is a very abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. Still, its extraction requires
complex tasks with high environmental impact (Norgate et al. 2007). Nevertheless,
aluminium is also a metal with high recycling potential (Duflou et al. 2015). In the
construction industry, aluminium has assumed a progressively important role as a
result of the inherent quality of the material combined with improvements in the
transformation industry, as well as in the finishes applied in aluminium building
elements (Steven Winter Associates Inc. 1999).
The use of aluminium in door and window frames has become one of the main
applications of this type of metal in construction, due to its aesthetical potential,
great variety of colours, finishes and shapes, associated with good resistance and
durability. Still, aluminium has two disadvantages: (i) the high amount of energy
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used in the manufacturing stage; and (ii) its high thermal conductivity. Nevertheless,
the most recent technological advances have tried to deal with these disadvantages.
The extraction of aluminium has been progressively substituted by recycling, which
spends 5% of the energy spent during extraction (Duflou et al. 2015). As for thermal
conductivity, it was dealt with by the adoption of profiles with an intermediate thermal
break (Gustavsen et al. 2011).
The main degradation process of aluminium door and window frames is corrosion.
Aluminium is chemically active towards alkaline materials. Hence, cement, gypsum
and lime attack aluminium in their hardening process, as well as afterwards, if these
materials are kept constantly damp. So, it is convenient to protect aluminium surfaces
according to the claddings surrounding them (a coat of bitumen compound between
wet cement and aluminium, for instance) (Lane 2018).
Two main processes are used to treat the surface of aluminium door and window
frames (Lane 2018): (i) anodising, which creates a superficial layer of aluminium
oxide through an electrochemical process; and (ii) thermo-lacquering, which protects
aluminium with a pellicle of a thermosetting polymer. Both these treatments grant
aluminium high durability properties, low maintenance and enable the use of various
colours in the latter (Asif et al. 2005).
2.8.1.4 PVC Door and Window Frames
PVC is a synthetic material that, with great value for money and good properties, is
abundantly used by modern societies in a various range of products, from construction
products to consumer goods, despite the most recent trends against the use of plastic
materials. It is also used in door and window frames.
The first PVC door and window frames were known to degrade easily, due to a
high coefficient of thermal expansion, resulting in great dimensional changes when
subjected to high thermal amplitudes (Steven Winter Associates Inc. 1999). How-
ever, nowadays, due to manufacturing advances, PVC door and window frames can
perform adequately in terms of dimensional stability and degradation resistance,
which is mainly caused by solar radiation, but also by extreme temperatures, with
relatively low maintenance. PVC frames are also very resistant to moisture (Hinks
and Cook 1997).
PVC door and window frames are manufactured through an extrusion process.
After extrusion, the material is cut in linear pieces, which, after assembling, result in
a door or window frame. To give PVC framing good structural stability, the sections
are generally less slender than those of aluminium framing. The dimensions of PVC
sections for door and window frames are similar to those of wood frames. In PVC
door and window frames, it is frequent to add metallic or wooden reinforcement
(Hinks and Cook 1997; Gustavsen et al. 2007).
Several colours and finishes are available for PVC door and window frames,
namely through lacquering and the application of pellicles. In addition, this type
of door and window frames has good thermal and acoustic insulation properties
(Gustavsen et al. 2007).
2.8.1.5 Accessories Used in Door and Window Frames
Accessories represent about 20–30% of the final cost of a door or window frame sys-
tem. Very frequently, they are also the source of various defects, mainly due to faulty
assembling (Preiser and Schramm 2005). Additionally, accessories are fundamen-
tal for the door or window frame’s adequate performance considering its functional
requirements.
Ironmongery
In the production of ironmongery, extruded aluminium, cast aluminium, brass, stain-

less steel, zamak (a zinc, aluminium, magnesium and copper alloy), carbon steel,
nylon, polyacetal and 1020 steel may be used. The choice of material depends on
the material used in the door or window frame, its type and intensity of use.
In sliding doors and windows, four main types of ironmongery are available (Gorse
et al. 2012):
• Flush mount latch: latch with a recess for locking the door or window using a
finger, with or without a key; it is installed levelled with the frame surface;
• Crescent sash lock: compact lock, usually in aluminium or zamak and nylon; it
may be adjusted to several situations;
• Multipoint locks: normally used in double sash sliding doors or windows, consist-
ing in a lock for each sash with the option of including a handle; usually made in
aluminium or steel;
• Rollers: meant to allow the sliding of movable sashes through the guides in the
bottom or top rail (or both); rollers are normally made of nylon or steel and use
aluminium or zamak housing.
The main types of ironmongery used in hopper and awning windows are (Gorse
et al. 2012):
• Tie bars: used in awning window frames with a window sill higher than 1.60 m;
the tie bar needs a guide; it is usually made of aluminium or nylon, and normally
has multiple notches allowing multiple opening angles;
• Locking handles: composed of a lock and a handle, it is an effective and sturdy
system for intensive use windows;
• Keepers: they are used to limit the opening angle of awning windows up to a point
agreeable with the hinges’ properties and the intended use.
In casement windows, three main types of ironmongery are used (Gorse et al.
2012):
• Cremone bolt: used when the locking mechanism needs to be hidden inside the
frame profiles; it is made of aluminium, steel or brass and consists of a box with
a lever or handle that activates a rod that locks within holes in the outer frame; a
version working outside the profiles of the frame also exists;
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• Bolts: they are usually made of aluminium, stainless, zinc plated or chrome steel,
brass or nylon; bolts are also an option when doing repair works in more complex
locking systems;
• Hinges: made of steel, aluminium or brass, they allow the opening of movable
sashes.
Glazing Shims
Shims have bearing and positioning functions for the door or window glazing within
the frame. They transmit existing stresses in the glass to specific areas of the frame.
Simultaneously, shims keep the glass away from direct contact with the door or
window frame profiles. According to their function, there are four types of shims
(Snider 1977):
• Bearing (or ribbed) shims: used to bear the weight of the glazing, they are placed
between the edge of the glazing unit and the bottom rail (Kubal 2008); normally
made in plastic materials, their length depends on their material and on the glazing
dimensions;
• Peripheral and safety shims: with a smaller size when compared with bearing
shims, this type of shim stops the glass from getting into direct contact with the
profile of moveable sashes; peripheral and safety shims are installed loose so that
they act only in case of additional stresses resulting from the movement of the
sash;
• Side shims (spacers): meant to transmit horizontal stresses, side shims also allow
keeping a uniform distance between the glazing unit and the frame profile; they also
help to limit lateral deformations of the joint and maintaining a uniform thickness
of the watertightness mastic;
• Wedges: the use of wedges allows to avoid that opening and closing movements
of moveable sashes displace the glazing unit from its original positioning.
The distance between the axis of glazing shims and the edge of the glazing unit
should be 1/10 of the length of the opening, as the distance between the external
edge of the shim and the edge of the glazing unit should be 1/20 of the glazing unit
length (Snider 1977). Shims should be placed as shown in Fig. 2.27.
Joints and Sealants
As sealants are one of the most degradable elements in a door or window frame
system, their choice and correct application associated with adequate maintenance
are essential for the watertightness of the system. Leakages through door or window
frames essentially occur in four instances:
• In the joints between the frame and the opening in the wall;
• In the joints between the frame and moveable sashes;
• Between glass panes/glazing units and mullions or rails;
• In the gaps between profiles.
C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
C3 C3 C1 C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1
C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
C3 C1 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
C1 C2 C1 C1 C1 C1
C1 C1
Fig. 2.27 Location of the different types of shims in different types of door and window frames
(from left to right, top to bottom: fixed window, casement window, hopper window, awning window,
European tilt and turn window, pivot window, sliding window, vertical sliding window). C1—
bearing shims; C2—side shims; C3—safety shims
Hence, it is essential to adopt systems ensuring that these areas are watertight for
the longest possible period with little maintenance. Joints between glazing units and
rails may be treated as follows (Snider 1977):
• Open joints: for small thickness glazing or with small dimensions (4 mm thick,
semi-perimeter of 2.5 m or maximum length of 2 m) joints may be open; the glass
is mechanically fastened with the aid of nails, pegs or bolts and the mastic will
then ensure watertightness and stop the glass from vibrating (Fig. 2.28);
• Closed joints: this type of joint is characterised for completely wrapping the glass
unit, totally filling any voids; closed joints may be made with glass stops or glazing
beads (Fig. 2.28);
• Joints for sliding frames: the joint in sliding frames is made of U-profiles without
a glass stop, docked at the edges of the glazing unit;
Fig. 2.28 Different types of joints between the glazing units and rails (from left to right: open joint,
closed joint, joint with exterior glass stop fastened with nails or screws and self-draining joint)
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• Self-draining joints: when double glazing is used, joints need draining holes, so
that water leakage and condensation phenomena are avoided; drainage is ensured
by 8 mm diameter holes, connecting the bottom of the bottom rail profile to an
exfiltration chamber or directly to the exterior; for door and window frames less
than 1 m long, two holes should be done, one at each corner of the bottom rail;
for door and window frames more than 1 m long, a hole should be added for each
supplemental 0.5 m (Fig. 2.28).
Mastics
Mastics are the bonding element and watertightness barrier in many joints in door and
window frames, complementing the shape of the joints and the sealants. They may
be distinguished according to their properties, namely movement capacity, adhesion,
durability, ease of application, chemical compatibilities and types of curing. From
the great variety of existing products in the market, the most common are:
• Putty: it is still found in most of iron and wood door and window frames needing
repair works; putty is made with raw linseed oil and ground chalk; it is usually used
for heritage preservation purposes, as it does not have good durability, adhesion
and elongation properties; still, it is a low-cost solution;
• Butyl bitumen: made with poly-isobutylene and isoprene filled with talc or calcium
carbonate, additives and solvents, butyl bitumen is usually used in inner sealing of
frames and for filling slits; it has the advantage of being relatively cheap, with good
water resistance and adhesion; however, the service life of butyl bitumen depends
on its low elasticity, low memory when tensioned and a tendency for staining the
substrate with exuded oils (Kubal 2008);
• Acrylic bitumen: made with acrylic polymers mixed with adhesion enhancers,
plasticisers and additives, the classification of acrylic bitumen depends on the
solvent used; if the solvent is water, acrylic bitumen have properties similar to
those of butyl bitumen, not tolerating temperature changes; this type of bitumen
is normally used in indoor environments; if any other solvent is used, curing is
not complete, thus accomplishing 10% elongation; this type of bitumen has good
adhesion properties and a service life of about 10 years, when exposed to aggressive
weather conditions, although having an unpleasant odour while curing and limited
elastic memory (Kubal 2008) (Fig. 2.29, part a);
• Polysulfide: due to its high adhesion capacity and low permeability to damp,
polysulfide is normally used in double glazing manufacturing; it is made with
polymers, curing agents, stabilisers and adhesion enhancers, having elongation up
to 25%, rapid curing and good adhesion; however, polysulfide shows low resistance
to ultraviolet radiation (Kubal 2008);
• Polyurethane: it is not recommended for intense solar exposure, but it has high
resistance to friction and ageing; it may be painted and has an elongation of about
25%; it may be bi-component or mono-component and it is made with a poly-
mer, usually polyester, which reacts with a di-isocyanate, calcium carbonate and
catalysers.
a b c
Fig. 2.29 Mastics and sealing accessories used in door and window frames: a acrylic bitumen;
b sealing rubbers; and c sealing tape
Sealing Rubber and Tape
Sealing rubber and tape usually ensure watertightness between the fixed frame and the
moveable sash of door and window frames. Sealing rubber (Fig. 2.29, part b) should
have mechanical strength properties (permanent deformation), chemical resistance
(towards detergents, ozone and ultraviolet radiation, among others) and dimensional
stability (for temperatures between −20 °C and 170 °C) compatible with its function
(Bolte and Boettger 1997). The properties of sealing rubber are determined by their
material (PVC, ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), natural or thermoplastic
rubber, silicon or styrene-butadiene (SBR), among others) and dimensional adequacy
to the design and materials of the door or window frame.
Sealing tape (Fig. 2.29, part c) is essentially used in sliding doors. It is composed
of polypropylene fibres, which have a rigid base, usually with an adhesive surface
on the back. Hence, these tapes adhere to the intended surface, ensuring a good level
of insulation. Sealing tape should always be applied considering the manufacturers’
recommendations. The polypropylene fibres may be improved with silicon, allow-
ing to improve watertightness as well as sliding properties. Products as chlorine,
turpentine, acids and combustible oil are aggressive for this type of tape, altering its
characteristics.
2.8.2 Design of Door and Window Frames
Windows and doors are placed in wall openings. Windows are composed of glazing
and framing profiles, meaning that not all of its surface is transparent or translucent,
as the frame represents the fraction of the window that is opaque (Gorse et al. 2012).
The wall opening is composed of jambs (or door jambs), on each side, a lintel, on
the top, and a door or windowsill, on the bottom (Fig. 2.30, part a). Sills are very
important to protect façades against rainwater action.
Wall openings are filled with doors or windows, allowing ventilation and lighting
of indoor rooms, as well as a visual relationship between indoors and outdoors. The
framing is a transition element between the wall (opaque) and the glazing, allowing
fastening the glass to other building elements and bearing the glass itself. Although
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upper rail of
the fixed frame
fixed frame
lintel
moveable
sashes
jamb
hinge
lock and handle
windowsill
sealant and
glass stop
glazing
bottom rail of
a the fixed frame
b
Fig. 2.30 Elements of a wall opening (a) and basic components of a door or window frame (b)
door and window frames are a relatively small part of the building envelope, they are
extremely important to the performance of the building. Frames bear glass panes,
ensure watertightness of indoor areas, absorb various requests (for instance, from
wind loads), and give an important contribution to the optimisation of the building’s
energy efficiency.
A door or window frame is composed of various elements, which vary according
to the type of frame material and type of window. The base elements of a door or
window frame are (Fig. 2.30, part b): a (fixed) frame; sashes (fixed or moveable);
glazing, opaque sheets or grating; glass stops; ironmongery (hinges, locks, etc.)
and sealants. In Europe, the vocabulary associated with door and window frames is
standardised by EN 12519:2018 (CEN 2018d).
2.8.2.1 Functional Requirements of Door and Window Frames
The set of door and window frames of a building is considered a subsystem of the
building and should comply with various requirements that influence their perfor-
mance, e.g. control of lighting, thermal and acoustic insulation, ease of use, main-
tenance, aesthetical demands, safety and watertightness (Steven Winter Associates
Inc. 1999).
External pedestrian doors and windows are comprised in Regulation (EU) No.
305/2011 (The European Parliament and The Council of the European Union 2011),
which lays down harmonised conditions for the marketing of construction products.
Within the European Union, this document determines the minimal expected per-
formance levels for construction products establishing rules for those products to be
adequate for their use conditions, hence presenting properties that allow the build-
ing to comply with safety, health, comfort, durability and environmental protection
requirements (Pinto and Fernandes 2011). According to the mentioned regulation,
construction products, as door and window frames, should have CE marking and the
respective declaration of performance. Particularly door and window frames, in order

to have CE marking, should comply with the requirements defined by standard EN
14351-1:200+A2:2016 (CEN 2016h). According to this standard, the requirements
door and window frames must comply with, as well as their performance assessment,
depend on their expected use. Still, generally, the performance assessment requires
(Pinto and Fernandes 2011):
• Making initial type tests to the product in a certified laboratory;
• That the manufacturer implements a system of internal control of production,
referring to the main properties of the product that are declared in CE marking.
The initial type tests are meant to demonstrate that the product complies with the
harmonised standard requirements (Table 2.18) and that the declared performance
Table 2.18 Initial type test for external windows and pedestrian doors (adapted from Pinto and
Fernandes [2011])
Essential characteristics Calculation or test standard Field of application
Resistance to wind load EN 12211:2016 (CEN 2016i) All types of doors and
windows
Watertightness EN 1027:2016 (CEN 2016i) All types of doors and
windows
Mechanical resistance of EN 14609:2004 (CEN 2004j) Applies to doors and
safety mechanisms windows with safety
mechanisms
Acoustic performance EN ISO 10140-3:2010 (test) All types of doors and
(CEN 2010g); and EN windows and specific types
14351-1:2006+A2:2016
(calculation) (CEN 2016h)
Heat transmission rate EN ISO 12567-1:2010 (test) All types of doors and
(CEN 2010h); EN ISO windows
12567-2:2005 (test) (CEN
2005e); EN ISO
10077-1:2017 (calculation)
(CEN 2017g); and EN ISO
10077-2:2017 (calculation)
(CEN 2017h)
Air permeability EN 1026:2016 (CEN 2016k); All types of doors and
and EN windows
14351-1:2006+A2:2016
(CEN 2016h)
Impact resistance EN 13049:2003 (CEN 2003) Applies to doors with glass
Door height EN 12519:2018 (CEN 2018d) Applies to doors with glass
Unlocking capability EN ISO 179-1:2010 (CEN Applies to doors with
2010i); and EN 13637:2015 emergency/panic mechanisms
(CEN 2015e)
Acting force EN 12046-2:2000 (CEN Applies only to automatic
2000) doors
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characteristics translate the behaviour of the product.

Besides the harmonised properties comprised by CE marking, other characteristics
highlighted by EN 14351 1:2006+A2:2016 (CEN 2016h) are also relevant, namely
(Pinto and Fernandes 2011):
• Impact resistance in bay windows (windows that extend down to the ground);
• Durability;
• Acting forces;
• Mechanical resistance;
• Resistance to repeated opening and closing actions.
Additionally, some other less common characteristics may be considered (Pinto
and Fernandes 2011):
• The behaviour between different environments;
• Ventilation, when ventilation grids are included in the door or window frames;
• Bullet resistance (bulletproof glazing);
• Explosion resistance;
• Burglary resistance.
2.8.2.2 Types of Windows
The use of a specific type of window implies having good knowledge on its charac-
teristics and influence on the users’ daily life, due to the interaction of the user with
the window and the importance of windows as a defining element of the building
envelope. Windows are used to allow the entrance of light in indoor rooms and for
ventilation. They are composed of a (fixed) frame and sashes; the former is fastened
to the wall opening and the latter may be moveable. As for types of windows, an
ample range is available, whether in the market or in existing buildings.
Fixed (or picture) windows (Fig. 2.31) do not have moveable sashes. Thus, their
function is limited to lighting indoor rooms and visual contact between indoors
and outdoors. They are frequently complemented by windows with moveable
sashes. Fixed windows are very common in storefronts and office buildings. As
for maintenance, their exterior surface must be cleaned from the outside.
Casement windows (Fig. 2.31) are very common in buildings. This type of win-
dow allows moving vertically hinged sashes, normally with the axes on the sides of
the fixed frame. In this type of windows, the locking mechanism is usually placed
on the opposite side of the hinges, in the moveable sashes. Casement windows may
have one or two moveable sashes. The single moveable sash is connected to the
fixed frame through the hinges and the locking mechanism. The two moveable
sashes are connected at the centre through the locking mechanism, and each one
is connected to the fixed frame through their hinges. Casement windows may be
completely opened, as such favouring maintenance/cleaning operations. When com-
pletely opened, casement windows do not control ventilation well. If moveable sashes
rotate towards indoors, casement windows are said to be French-style, otherwise, they
are English-style.
a b c
d e f
g h i j
Fig. 2.31 Different types of windows. a—fixed window; b—casement windows; c—hopper
window; d—awning window; e—European tilt and turn window; f—vertical pivot window;
g—horizontal pivot window; h—sliding window; i—double-hung window; j—jalousie window
Hopper and awning windows (Fig. 2.31) work similarly to casement windows,
but instead of a vertical axis, they rotate around a horizontal axis. They can open
towards the outdoors (awning) or indoors (hopper), having the axis at the upper and
bottom rail, respectively. These types of windows have the advantage of providing
good ventilation, even when it is raining. However, their external surface is difficult
to clean, needing to be cleaned from the outside.
The combination of casement and hopper windows results in the so-called Euro-
pean tilt and turn windows (Fig. 2.31). This type of window allows the opening of
sashes through their rotation both around a vertical (at the side of the frame) and a
horizontal axis (at the bottom of the frame).
Pivot windows (Fig. 2.31) are generally composed of a single sash that opens
through the rotation around a central vertical or horizontal axis. Since, when the
sash opens, a part of the window is projected outside, no grating or outside blinds or
shutters may be used.
Sliding windows (Fig. 2.31) are composed of one or more sliding sashes that
move on rollers in the horizontal direction. If necessary, this type of windows may
be encased in the wall in such a way that the moveable sash moves inside the wall. In
terms of air permeability, sliding windows normally present a worse performance,
requiring some accessories to improve their performance. In terms of ventilation,
except in the case of sliding sashes encased in walls, only a percentage of the window
may be completely open, depending on the number of rails and sashes.
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A vertical sliding window (single or double hung window) (Fig. 2.31) has one or
more sashes that slide vertically. This type of window is usually manually opened
and the sashes stop on bearing lateral accessories (butterfly fasteners or pivot bars
with lock shoes). If the size of vertical sliding windows does not allow easy opening,
they have a counterbalance system. It is usually hidden laterally and consists of two
weights, whose sum is equal to the weight of the sash. This system allows opening
the window in various positions, hence allowing to control ventilation.
Jalousie windows (Fig. 2.31) are composed of many adjustable slats of metal
or glass, generally horizontal. Opening jalousie windows allow good control over
ventilation and easy cleaning. As they project externally, the slats may compromise
the use of external blinds or shutters.
2.8.2.3 Types of Doors
In the building envelope, doors control the access between indoors and outdoors. They
have a more limited set of types, compared to windows. Still, the most common are
highlighted.
A side-hung door (Fig. 2.32) is the most common type of pedestrian door. It works
similarly to a casement window and when it has two moveable sashes it is called a
casement door, or French door.
a b c
d.1 d.2
Fig. 2.32 Different types of doors. a—side-hung door; b—folding door; c—revolving door; d.1—
encased sliding door; d.2—surface hung sliding door
Doors may also function as folding doors, sliding doors and revolving doors.
Additionally, doors are commonly divided into manually and automatically opened
doors. Folding doors (Fig. 2.32) are made of several articulated leaves that bend
over each other around vertical axes that slide horizontally. Sliding doors (Fig. 2.32)
have one or more moveable leaves that slide horizontally over the surface of the wall
(surface hung sliding door) or encased in the wall (like windows can be). Revolving
doors (Fig. 2.32) generally have three or four leaves that rotate around a concentric
vertical axis.
2.8.3 Execution of Door and Window Frames
Considering the complexity and the most recent and innovative systems of doors
and window frames, the execution process requires specialised labour. Most of the
work is done in a workshop, and only the installation is done on-site. The good
performance of doors and windows relies on their adequate installation in order to
comply with functional requirements.
2.8.3.1 Execution of Wood Door and Window Frames
In simple terms, the process of execution of a wood door or window frame (Fig. 2.33)
is described next. First, the dimensions should be checked, considering a ±1 mm
tolerance. Then, glass stops and sealants are cut to their size and installed. Next, the
glazing unit is installed and the profiles are assessed in terms of torsion or any fault.
Lastly, all the ironmongery is installed.
Then, the doors or windows are transported to the construction site and
installed in the respective opening with the adequate materials recommended by
the manufacturer.
a b c
Fig. 2.33 Steps in the execution of wood door and window frames: a gluing wood profiles;
b installing sealants; and c ironmongery
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2.8.3.2 Execution of Iron/Steel Door and Window Frames
After the production process of the iron or steel profiles, they are mounted to form a
door or window frame. Next, they receive the desired finish, for instance, electrostatic
painting. Then, sealants and accessories are installed in the door or window frame.
After transportation, the frames are installed on-site with the adequate materials
recommended by the manufacturer, taking into account the correct treatment for the
joint between the fixed frame and the wall opening.
2.8.3.3 Execution of Aluminium Door and Window Frames
After extruding the profiles, there is a dimensional and fault checking process. Then,
the profiles are cut and holes are drilled so that they can be mounted into a frame.
Joints are sealed and connectors are fastened (Fig. 2.34, parts a and b). Next, a new
dimensional checking process is carried out (±1 mm tolerance). Then, glass stops and
sealants are cut to their size and installed with the glazing unit. The frame is assessed
in terms of torsion or any faults and, lastly, ironmongery is installed (Fig. 2.34c).
After transportation to the construction site, the door and window frames are
applied in the wall opening using the materials recommended by the manufacturer.
2.8.3.4 Execution of PVC Door and Window Frames
After extrusion, the profiles are cut into the required size, as well as any reinforcement.
Then, holes are drilled where necessary and the reinforcement is applied and fastened.
Afterwards, the profiles are welded together and cleaned. Then, joint sealants are
applied and ironmongery is installed. Sashes are mounted in fixed frames and, next,
the glazing unit is installed. After transportation, the door or window frame is installed
on-site using adequate materials recommended by the manufacturers.
a b c
Fig. 2.34 Steps in the execution of aluminium door and window frames: a sealing profiles;
b fastening profiles; and c ironmongery
2.9 External Claddings of Pitched Roofs 113
Table 2.19 Types of external

Type of cladding Examples
claddings of pitched roofs
Natural stone Clay-slate
Artificial stone Ceramic tile
Micro-concrete tile
Fibre-cement
Metallic Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Zinc
Plastic Acrylic (polymethacrylate)
Polycarbonate
Glass fibre reinforced polyester
PVC
Mixed Composed plates
Sandwich panels
Asphalt shingles
Metallic tiles
2.9 External Claddings of Pitched Roofs
External claddings of pitched roofs have evolved as Mankind developed its knowl-
edge about materials. Ceramic tiles are a traditional roof cladding in Mediterranean
countries, but, in other countries, micro-concrete tiles and asphalt shingles, for
instance, are commonly used. The development of fibre-cement, metallic and plastic
claddings resulted in a great variety of solutions and applications mainly for industrial
buildings and other roofs with a great span. The need for improving the characteris-
tics of metallic claddings led to the appearance of mixed solutions (composed plates,
sandwich panels and composed metallic tiles).
External claddings of pitched roofs may be grouped as shown in Table 2.19.
2.9.1 Materials Used in External Claddings of Pitched Roofs
Most of the materials used nowadays in external claddings of pitched roofs emerged
in the nineteenth century, associated with technological innovations, the industriali-
sation of processes and significant advances in various scientific fields. Still, external
claddings of pitched roofs have progressed in terms of functional performance, dura-
bility and optimisation of manufacturing processes (Schunck et al. 2003). External
claddings of pitched roofs should be waterproof, resistant to fire and weather agents,
and should ensure thermal insulation. In Europe, external claddings of pitched roofs
should comply with CR 833:1992 (CEN 1992).
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2.9.1.1 Clay-Slate Tiles
The use of clay-slate tiles goes back to the seventeenth century. It is common in hous-
ing and historical buildings (Fig. 2.35). Clay-slate is a sedimentary rock with variable
composition and microstructure. The combination of minerals dictates its physical,
chemical and mechanical characteristics. Clay-slate tiles may show different shapes
and colours, allowing the designer to play with those characteristics. These tiles show
high dimensional stability towards significant temperature variations. If adequately
maintained, this material may last over 100 years. Roofs with clay-slate tiles should
have a minimum slope of 15° (Association Française de Normalisation [AFNOR]
1993a; Levine 1993).
Clay-slate is extracted from mines and transported and stored off-site. While being
transported to the construction site, elements should be stacked up in rows separated
with wooden slats, protecting the corners and avoiding any contact with the ground.
The main characteristics of clay-slate tiles are shown in Table 2.20. This mate-
rial should comply with ASTM C406/C406M-15 (ASTM International 2015a), EN
12326-1:2014 (CEN 2014a) and EN 12326-2:2011 (CEN 2011a).
a b
Fig. 2.35 Heritage building with the pitched roof cladded with clay-slate tiles (a) and building
with the external cladding of the pitched roof in clay-slate tiles (b)
Table 2.20 Main

Parameter Clay-slate tiles characteristics
characteristics of clay-slate
tiles (Levine 1993) Unit weight [kg] 0.5–5.8
Length [cm] 15–35
Thickness [cm] 0.5–1
Width [cm] 25–61
Fire behaviour Incombustible
Width between bearing points Depends on the dimensions
[cm] and arrangement of the slates
Number of elements 5–27
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 15–54
Singularities in clay-slate roofs are executed with metallic elements, generally

in copper or lead. The malleability of these metals allows their quick and simple
adjustment to the singularity. The execution of the ridge, hip and abutment may be
done with lead or copper sheet, moulded as required, or with slates. The valley is
executed with clay-slate tiles arranged along this line. Ventilation is provided by
grids.
The origins of ceramic tiles go back to the Roman Empire. The massive application
of roof tiles, in various types of buildings, mainly in southern Europe, results from
the availability of raw materials and low cost, as well as from a simple manufac-
turing process. Ceramic tiles are probably the first artificial material with standard
dimensions applied in buildings (LNEC 2018).
The growing needs of the market led to a large range of ceramic tiles, whose
appearance, with various colours, tones and finishes, allows answering a large range
of wishes of homeowners. Ceramic tiles are also available with factory-applied
water-repellents. Moreover, the search for higher efficiency at the construction site,
allied with the intent of decreasing the number of joints, made ceramic tiles larger
(Avellaneda 1998).
The field of application of ceramic tiles comprises most traditional buildings, cur-
rent housing, commercial, office, school and other services buildings, older industrial
buildings, churches, pavilions, among others.
Ceramic tiles show good performance towards the main weather agents (rain,
hail, frost, freeze-thaw cycles, wind, thermal variations, sunlight), high durability,
high dimensional precision, simple manufacturing process, low cost of raw materials,
high variety of shapes and styles, and are non-toxic, inert and recyclable products.
Still, ceramic tiles are associated with high waste (during the manufacturing process,
transportation and application), a long application process (making it more expen-
sive) very susceptible to human error, requiring qualified labour, and performance
being highly dependent on the correct execution of singularities.
Ceramic tiles are manufactured from clay. It has hygroscopic properties, acquiring
plasticity with water. This property allows moulding the intended element. The clay
used in tiles manufacturing should be homogeneous, of regular size grading and free
of impurities. These properties will influence the quality of the final product.
Ceramic tiles for roofs should comply with TR 13548:2004 (CEN 2004k), EN
538:1994 (CEN 1994a), EN 539-1:2005 (CEN 2005f), EN 539-2:2013 (CEN 2013e),
EN 1024:2012 (CEN 2012j) and EN 1304:2013 (CEN 2013f).
Ceramic tiles may have multiple shapes, like flat tiles, Roman tiles, Monk and
Nun tiles and interlocking roof tiles (Fig. 2.36).
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a b c
d e f
Fig. 2.36 Different types of ceramic roof tiles. a—interlocking roof tile; b—Marseille roof tile;
c—interlocking flat roof tile; d—Monk and Nun roof tiles; e—Roman roof tiles; f—flat roof tile
Roof Tiles with Interlock
Interlocking roof tiles (known as Lusa tiles in Portugal) and Marseille roof tiles
are the most common types of roof tiles with interlock. Compared with flat tiles,
roof tiles with interlock allow considerably improving water and airtightness due to
the longitudinal and transverse lock between elements, creating a barrier to several
external agents, simultaneously avoiding slippage. The interlocking of elements eases
the application on-site and improves application efficiency.
Marseille tiles (Fig. 2.36), originally from France, provide good watertightness
to the roof due to intertwining joints, ease of interlocking and fastening of elements.
Compared with interlocking roof tiles, Marseille tiles are lighter per square metre,
thus they are adequate for larger roofs, as the structure may be more economic.
Table 2.21 shows the main characteristics of Marseille roof tiles.
The most common accessories for Marseilles tiles are ventilation tiles, pathway
tiles, ventilation-pathway tiles, chimney accessories, ridge and hip tiles and eaves’
tiles.
Interlocking roof tiles (Fig. 2.36) provide an effect similar to that of Monk and
Nun tiles, but with interlock. These tiles provide high watertightness, given by the
interlock. Interlocking roof tiles should be carefully transported and handled, as
breaking between the flat and the curved areas is common (LNEC 2018).
Table 2.22 shows the main characteristics of interlocking roof tiles.
The most common accessories for interlocking roof tiles are used in chimneys,
for ventilation and pathways, ridges, hips and eaves.
Table 2.21 Main

Parameter Marseille roof tiles’
characteristics of Marseille
characteristics
roof tiles (CTCV 1998;
LNEC 2018) Unit weight [kg] 2.8–4.5
Length [cm] 39–48
Height [cm] 5–9
Width [cm] 23–30
Longitudinal overlay [cm] 4–8
Transverse overlay [cm] 4–8
Width between bearing points 33–45
[cm]
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 36.4–44.8
Table 2.22 Main

Parameter Interlocking roof tiles’
characteristics of interlocking
characteristics
roof tiles (CTCV 1998;
LNEC 2018) Unit weight [kg] 2.9–4.5
Length [cm] 38–48
Height [cm] 5–9
Width [cm] 23–30
[cm]
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 36.7–42.6
Cover and Channel Tiles
Monk and Nun tiles and Roman tiles are included in this set of tiles. Roman tiles
are composed of an element working as a cover and another working as a channel,
while in Monk and Nun tiles (Fig. 2.37) these elements are not differentiated.
When cover and channel tiles started to be used, they showed locking problems
when applied in roofs with a considerable slope, leading to watertightness problems.
With the progress in the industry of building materials, fasteners started to be used,
providing more stability to the roofing. Nowadays, this type of tiles is mainly applied
in traditional or historical buildings.
Monk and Nun tiles (Fig. 2.36) satisfyingly adapt to different types of pitched
roofs. They can be red, beige or brown. Their main characteristics are presented in
Table 2.23.
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Fig. 2.37 Example of a pitched roof with Monk and Nun tiles
Table 2.23 Main

Parameter Monk and Nun roof tiles’
characteristics of Monk and
characteristics
Nun roof tiles (LNEC 2018)
Unit weight [kg] 1.3–2.5
Length [cm] 40–58
Height [cm] 5–7
Width [cm] 12–20
[cm]
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 35.0–46.8
Monk and Nun tiles need accessories for ridges, ventilation and eaves.
Roman tiles (Fig. 2.36) are traditionally composed of two elements, the cover and
the channel, which can be semi-circular or trapezoidal. The main characteristics of
Roman roof tiles are shown in Table 2.24.
Roman tiles need ridge and eaves accessories.
Flat Tiles
Flat tiles (Fig. 2.36) need very careful application due to watertightness requirements.
The main characteristics of flat tiles are shown in Table 2.25.
Table 2.24 Main

Parameter Roman roof tiles’
characteristics of Roman roof
characteristics
tiles (CTCV 1998; LNEC
2018) Unit weight [kg] 1.8–4.0
Length [cm] 40–57
Height [cm] 5–6
Width [cm] 12–23
[cm]
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 28.0–63.0
Table 2.25 Main

Parameter Flat roof tiles’ characteristics
characteristics of flat roof
tiles (CTCV 1998) Unit weight [kg] 1.2
Length [cm] 25–27
Height [cm] 2
Width [cm] 15–17
Transverse overlay [cm] –
[cm]
Number of elements [unit/m2 ] 30–35
Weight [kg/m2 ] 36.0–42.0
This type of tile does not require many accessories, except for the ridge and hip.
Interlocking Flat Tiles
Interlocking flat tiles (Fig. 2.36) allow taking advantage of the appearance given
by flat tiles with the fastening and watertightness properties of roof tiles with
interlock. The most relevant characteristics of interlocking flat tiles are shown in
Table 2.26. Interlocking flat tiles use a large range of accessories, including for the
ridge, abutments, ventilation, eaves and chimneys.
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Table 2.26 Main

Parameter Interlocking flat roof tiles’
characteristics of interlocking
characteristics
flat roof tiles (CS Coelho da
Silva SA 2016) Unit weight [kg] 4
Length [cm] 49.1
Height [cm] 3.6
Width [cm] 25.3
Width between bearing points 38.5
[cm]
Number of elements 12.5
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 50
2.9.1.3 Micro-concrete Tiles
Micro-concrete tiles were first developed in northern Europe countries, where clay
does not have the best properties, resulting in tiles with a low resistance to freezing.
The most common micro-concrete tiles’ profiles are a double “S” and double Roman
tiles.
Micro-concrete tiles show good dimensional stability, homogeneous character-
istics, good watertightness, high mechanical strength, low susceptibility to thermal
variations and good behaviour in coastal areas and areas affected by freeze-thaw
cycles. Micro-concrete tiles have a large range of colours and finishes, adapting to
the visual needs of each roof. Still, the weight of micro-concrete tiles is a disadvan-
tage, implying greater loads in the bearing structure. Additionally, this type of tiles
implies high energy consumption in the manufacturing process. In terms of physi-
cal properties and application, micro-concrete tiles are similar to ceramic tiles. The
size of micro-concrete tiles has progressively increased, showing better application
efficiency and better watertightness, as the number of joints decreases (Avellaneda
1998).
Roofs with micro-concrete tiles should have a minimum slope of, approximately,
15°. Lower slope values imply complementary measures to ensure watertightness
(sublayer or waterproofing membrane) (Schunck et al. 2003).
Micro-concrete tiles should comply with EN 491:2011 (CEN 2011d) and EN
490:2011+A1:2017 (CEN 2017i).
Micro-concrete tiles are manufactured with cement, sand and water. Colours may
be obtained using pigments, obtaining blue, green, red, orange, beige, white, brown
and black tiles. Coarse aggregates may be added to the mix so that tiles have a rougher
texture.
The main characteristics of micro-concrete roof tiles are shown in Table 2.27.
The singularities of the roof should be executed using special pieces produced
by manufacturers of micro-concrete tiles. These special pieces are used in the ridge,
eaves, for pathways and ventilation.
Table 2.27 Main

Parameter Micro-concrete roof tiles’
characteristics of
characteristics
micro-concrete roof tiles
(Argibetão 2009; LNEC Unit weight [kg] 4.5–4.6
2018) Length [cm] 42.0
Height [cm] 5–7 (Roman profile) or 4–6
(double “S” profile)
Width [cm] 30.0–33.3
Width between bearing points 29.5–35
[cm]
Number of elements 9.5–11.3
[unit/m2 ]
Weight [kg/m2 ] 42.0–48.0
2.9.1.4 Fibre-Cement Roof Claddings
Fibre-cement is one of the oldest composite materials used in the construction indus-
try. Fibre-cement is an incombustible, stainless, waterproof, not putrescible, chemi-
cally stable material, with low susceptibility to impact deformations and thermal gra-
dients, with a reasonable capacity to absorb noise and good mechanical behaviour.
As fibre-cement is light and has good mechanical capabilities, it may be used in
large spans. As it is also highly resistant to chemical agents, it is recommended for
farms, factories and buildings in the shoreline. The application of fibre-cement is
highly efficient and low cost. Still, it is not a solution with a pleasant appearance, it
becomes brittle with long exposure to ultraviolet radiation and the replacement of
elements (large elements) is more difficult than that of tiles or slates.
Fibre-cement sheets are applied in schools, factories, farms, sports arenas, storage
facilities and housing with lower aesthetical requirements.
Fibre-cement may be manufactured as sheets (medium size elements) or large size
corrugated elements. Fibre-cement tiles are also available. Fibre-cement large-size
corrugated elements are self-bearing. Since the production of fibre-cement elements
with asbestos was banned (due to its health hazard), fibre-cement has been produced
with synthetic (polyvinyl alcohol [PVA]) and natural (cellulose) fibres. This change
in the manufacturing process led to stopping the production of large-size corrugated
elements, as the new synthetic or natural fibres did not have good properties to
produce large-size elements. In the current market, fibre-cement sheets may be used
as an external cladding of pitched roofs or as a sublayer. Sheets may be rose, green,
black or white. The minimal slope for this type of cladding is 6°.
Raw materials, the manufacturing process and the final characteristics of
fibre-cement products should comply with EN494:2012+A1:2015 (CEN 2015f),
EN12467:2012+A2:2018 (CEN 2018e) and EN15057:2006 (CEN 2006i).
Fibre-cement is manufactured with a cement matrix (73%), synthetic (PVA) (2%)
and natural (cellulose) (3%) fibres, admixtures (12%) and water (10%). Fly ash may
be used replacing part of the cement content. Fibre-cement sheets have polypropylene
strips in the corrugated profile for better protection of application, inspection and
maintenance labour (Fig. 2.38).
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polypropylene
reinforcement
strips
Fig. 2.38 Inclusion of polypropylene strips in the corrugated profiles of fibre-cement sheets for
better resistance
Table 2.28 Main characteristics of flat fibre-cement roof tiles (Cembrit 2018; Eternit 2019a)
Parameter Flat fibre-cement roof tiles’ characteristics
Length [mm] 40, 50 or 60
Width [mm] 24, 25, 30 or 40
Thickness [mm] 4
Unit weight [kg] 0.67–1.5
Number of elements [unit/m2 ] 10.1–26.04
Weight [kg/m2 ] 13.43–21.3
Minimum roof pitch 20°–35°
Table 2.29 Main characteristics of corrugated fibre-cement roof sheets (Cembrit 2017, 2019;
Eternit 2019b)
Characteristics Pitch of corrugation [mm]
72.3 130 146.5
Length [mm] 1525, 2450 or 3050 1375, 1675, 1825, 1220, 1375, 1525,
1975, 2275, 2600 or 1675, 1825, 1975,
2900 2125, 2275, 2440,
2600, 2750, 2900,
3050 or 3660
Width [mm] 782 1020 1086
Thickness [mm] 5.8 6.0
Depth of profile [mm] 19.8 36 47.6–54
Apparent density 1400 1400–1700
[kg/m3 ]
Approximate weight 14.5 13 17
[kg/m2 ]
Minimum pitch 10° 5°
Fibre-cement flat tiles and corrugated sheets are available. Flat fibre-cement tiles
have the characteristics shown in Table 2.28. Corrugated fibre-cement sheets may
show a pitch of corrugation of 72.3 mm, 130 mm or 146.5 mm. If compatible, fibre-
cement corrugated sheets may be used as a sublayer. Common corrugated fibre-
cement sheets have the characteristics shown in Table 2.29.
Accessories are used in the ridge, hips and abutments.
2.9.1.5 Metallic Roof Claddings
Metallic roof claddings have an important role in the cladding of pitched roofs.
They are mostly applied in industrial buildings, sports arenas, aircraft hangars, farm
buildings and large commercial buildings, as they allow building large span roofs
quickly and low cost due to their light weight. Metallic elements, compared with
small size claddings, have the advantage of a lower number of joints, resulting from
using large-size elements, and having great versatility. However, fastening points
are sensitive and they should be well defined at the design stage. Metallic claddings
ensure the correct drainage of rainwater with a relatively low slope, as the material
is very smooth, hence giving high velocity to the flow of rainwater and hindering
the accumulation of snow. This type of roof cladding may have a large range of
colours, selected according to the needs of the designer and building owners. Metallic
claddings may also be used in roofs with a curvature (Fig. 2.39, part c). Metallic
roof claddings are removed and recycled at the end of their service life. Still, some
disadvantages are associated with the use of metallic roof claddings, like low acoustic
a b
c d e
Fig. 2.39 Different types of metallic roof claddings: a copper roof cladding; b zinc roof cladding;
c curved metallic roof cladding; d trapezoidal metallic sheet roof cladding; and e moulded metallic
sheet roof cladding mimicking ceramic roof tiles
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Table 2.30 Metallic

Material Minimal thickness Standard
materials used in the external
[mm]
cladding of pitched roofs and
their minimal thickness Steel 0.60 EN 505:2013 (CEN
2013g)
Stainless steel 0.40 EN 502:2013 (CEN
2013h)
Aluminium 0.60 EN 507:2019 (CEN
2019f)
Copper 0.50 EN 504:1999 (CEN
1999c)
Zinc 0.60 EN 501:1994 (CEN
1994b)
and thermal insulation, high absorption of solar radiation, high dimensional variations
and high susceptibility to the occurrence of condensations.
The finish protection of metallic sheets should be selected according to the expo-
sure of the cladding given its sensitiveness to aggressive environments and indoors
condensations. Finishes may be polymeric paints (Fig. 2.39, parts d and e), oxides,
metallisation and plastic or reflective pellicles.
Metallic materials used in roofs should have a minimum thickness that ensures
functionality and resistance towards weather agents (Table 2.30).
Ferrous materials, like steel and iron, oxidise when exposed to harmful agents,
producing iron oxide. This component is indicative of the degradation of the cladding.
So, in ferrous materials, corrosion protection is applied. In the case of non-ferrous
materials, such as aluminium, copper (Fig. 2.39, part a) and zinc (Fig. 2.39, part b),
oxidation is not a degradation process but protection. The production of an adhesive
and compact layer of oxide provides high protection towards weather agents. The
corrosion of metallic claddings should be considered: at the design stage, selecting
and adapting the cladding according to the environment corrosivity; at the installation
stage, avoiding assembling errors; and during the service life, using the cladding as
it was designed and doing the planned and needed maintenance works. The environ-
ment corrosivity may be assessed according to standards EN ISO 9223:2012 (CEN
2012k) and EN ISO 9226:2012 (CEN 2012l). Metallic roof claddings should comply
with EN 14782:2006 (CEN 2006j).
The slope of roofs with metallic claddings should take the location of the building
into account. If the building is in a flat region, away from the shoreline and with
normal exposure, the minimum recommended slope is 15°. If the building is in the
shoreline, in a mountain or highly exposed, the slope should be above 27°.
Steel
Steel roof claddings are available as tiles, slates or sheets. Steel for roofing may
be galvanised, lacquered, stainless or with plastic or reflective pellicles. Galvanised
steel is a cheaper material that allows taking advantage of the mechanical properties
of steel with improved behaviour towards corrosion. Lacquered steel is obtained
through the application of an organic coating over galvanised steel. However, when
compared with stainless steel, galvanised or lacquered steel show lower durability,
due to the faster degradation of the finish treatment if the environment is aggressive.
Stainless steel shows good behaviour in industrial, maritime and farm environments.
Still, its cost is significantly higher than other metallic roof claddings, only surpassed
by copper. Thus, stainless steel is not very commonly used in roofs.
Materials that come in contact with steel should comply with EN 508-1:2014
(CEN 2014g) and EN 508-3:2008 (CEN 2008e), so that early deterioration does not
occur.
The main characteristics of steel elements are shown in Table 2.31.
Table 2.31 Main characteristics of steel roof claddings (EDAR 2018; LNEC 2018; Mundiperfil
2019)
Characteristics Sheet Tilea Slateb
Flat Corrugated Trapezoidal
Length [mm] 2000–2500 1000–4000 1000–5000 Dependent on the
Width [mm] 1000–1250 836 570–1000 selected shape
Minimal Steel 0.60–2.8 0.6–1.25 0.4–1.25 0.5–1.25
thickness Stainless 0.5–0.6 0.5–0.8 0.5–0.8
[mm] steel
Pitch of corrugation – 76 76–310 –
[mm]
Depth of profile [mm] – 18 18–150 –
Apparent density 7870
[kg/m3 ]
Thermal conductivity 57
[W/m °C]
Coefficient of thermal 0.000012
expansion [°C−1 ]
Fire behaviour Incombustible
Tensile strength [MPa] 3500–5500
a Dimensions follow those defined for ceramic and micro-concrete tiles according to the target profile
b Dimensions follow those defined for clay-slate tiles according to the target profile
126 2 Technology
Aluminium
Aluminium is a light, soft, non-magnetic, grey metal, with a low fusion point, high
thermal and electrical conductivity, good workability and high coefficient of thermal
expansion. Aluminium roof claddings are available as tiles, slates or sheets, but sheets
are the most common, as they allow taking full advantage of the material’s properties.
Aluminium sheets are composed of aluminium alloys with copper, magnesium,
silicon and manganese, for instance. These alloys show good mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance. Aluminium may be anodised, lacquered, varnished or have
a plastic or reflective pellicle.
Aluminium has a high chemical affinity with oxygen. This affinity results in the
creation of an alumina pellicle, due to oxidation. This is a transparent adhesive pelli-
cle with 0.1 µm that avoids oxidation from spreading inside the cladding. Aluminium
sheets should not be in contact with some metals, nor with wood, paint with lead
oxide, acids and chlorides, as they result in the corrosion of aluminium. The appli-
cation of aluminium sheets in roofs is not advised in maritime (10–15 km from the
shoreline) or industrial environments. If the bearing structure is made of steel, a strip
of bituminous cardboard should be placed between the aluminium cladding and the
bearing elements, to avoid bimetallic corrosion. Materials in contact with aluminium
should comply with EN 508-2:2019 (CEN 2019g).
The main characteristics of aluminium roofing elements are shown in Table 2.32.
Table 2.32 Main characteristics of aluminium roof claddings (Zappone 2000; EDAR 2018; LNEC
2018)
Corrugated Trapezoidal
Length [mm] 1000–3000 1000–3000 Dependent on the
Width [mm] 660–1120 660–1120 selected shape
Thickness [mm] 0.6–1.2
Pitch of corrugation [mm] 68–98 127–310 –
Depth of profile [mm] 19 35–150 –
Apparent density [kg/m3 ] 2700
Thermal conductivity [W/m °C] 200–230
Coefficient of thermal expansion [°C−1 ] 0.0024
Flexural strength [MPa] 0.7–1.5
Young’s modulus [MPa] 6700
Copper
Copper is a highly ductile material, with high thermal and electrical conductivity,
easy to weld, recyclable and that does not require any protection pellicle. It shows a
long service life, as it may be seen in roofs with about 120 years. However, it is very
expensive. The durability of copper is effective even in highly aggressive environ-
ments, namely in coastal, industrial and farm areas and highly polluted urban cen-
tres. Copper is available as veneer, slates, tiles, rolls or sheets. Copper roof claddings
should comply with EN 1172:2011 (CEN 2011e).
Copper alloys may include zinc (brass), tin (bronze) or nickel, but zinc and tin
alloys are the most common. Still, in a maritime environment, the nickel alloy
shows excellent performance. Materials in contact with copper roof claddings should
comply with EN 506:2008 (CEN 2008f).
In contact with environmental agents, copper produces a patina of copper oxide
that provides a protection layer, which is easily rebuilt after any damages. This pellicle
is initially brown, then grey and, at the end, green.
The main characteristics of copper roof claddings are shown in Table 2.33.
Table 2.33 Main characteristics of copper roof claddings (Bragança et al. 2003; EDAR 2018)
Characteristics Sheet Roll Veneer Tilea Slateb
Corrugated Trapezoidal
Length [mm] 1000 1000–1250 – 1000–1250 Dependent on
Width [mm] 836 800–1000 500–800 800–1000 the selected
shape
Thickness 0.50–1.0
[mm]
Pitch of 76 160–200 –
corrugation
[mm]
Depth of 18 35–55 –
profile [mm]
Apparent 8930
density [kg/m3 ]
Thermal 293–400
conductivity
[W/m K]
Coefficient of 0.0000168–0.000017
thermal
expansion
[°C−1 ]
Tensile 2200–3000
strength [MPa]
Young’s 1.32
modulus [MPa]
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Table 2.34 Main characteristics of zinc roof claddings (VMZINC 2016; Rheinzink 2017; EDAR
2018; LNEC 2018)
Length [mm] 1250–3000 1000–2500 1000–2500 Dependent on
Width [mm] 432–1000 750–836 800 the selected
shape
Pitch of corrugation [mm] – 63–103 200 –
Depth of profile [mm] – 18–37 25–35 –
Thermal conductivity [W/m K] 95–119
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.000022–0.000029
[°C−1 ]
Tensile strength [MPa] 1900–2500
Compressive strength [MPa] 2.0
Flexural strength [MPa] 1.5
Zinc
The use of zinc in roof claddings goes back to the nineteenth century and is very
common. It is available as sheets, tiles or slates.
Zinc shows good performance in urban environments. Zinc and tin alloys are
especially advised for roofs in chemically aggressive environments, such as industrial
areas or the shoreline. Zinc may deteriorate in the presence of wood, lime, gypsum,
cement, bituminous cardboard or acids. When exposed to environmental agents, a
pellicle of zinc oxide and zinc salts is formed, becoming a barrier towards the attack
of environmental agents. When in contact with a steel bearing structure, a non-acid
material should be applied between the zinc element and the bearing structure to
avoid bimetallic corrosion.
Materials in contact with zinc roof claddings should comply with EN 506:2008
(CEN 2008f).
The main characteristics of zinc roof claddings are outlined in Table 2.34.
2.9.1.6 Plastic Roof Claddings
Plastic roof claddings are recommended for industrial, commercial and farm build-
ings when natural lighting needs are a relevant factor. Plastic claddings may
be divided in thermoplastics (polymethacrylate, PVC and polycarbonate) and
thermosets (glass fibre reinforced polyester).
Table 2.35 Distance

Thickness [mm] Distance between bearing points [mm]
between bearing points for
polymethacrylate sheets’ 3.0 600
roofs (INDAC 2015) 4.0 800
5.0 950
6.0 1100
8.0 1300
10.0 1500
12.0 1700
Plastic roof claddings easily adapt to different types of pitched roofs. However, the
use of this type of material implies a shorter service life than most of the remaining
roof claddings. Ultraviolet radiation is the main source of degradation of plastic roof
claddings, as the energy from solar radiation starts a set of oxidation reactions in plas-
tic. This oxidation process implies losing the ability to transmit light and makes plas-
tic claddings very brittle and progressively opaque. The prolonged contact of plastic
claddings with damp accelerates the degradation process associated with ultraviolet
radiation. In rural and coastal areas, the degradation risks increase. To decrease the
material’s susceptibility to ultraviolet radiation, a protective membrane is applied
over the plastic cladding to provide increased stability and durability towards solar
radiation. Plastic sheets are very susceptible to thermal differentials (day-night), as
they cause considerable volumetric variations. The mechanical resistance is very low,
as well as fire resistance.
Plastic claddings should comply with the requirements defined in EN
1013:2012+A1:2014 (CEN 2014h).
The minimal slope of roofs with plastic claddings is 5°. The distance between
bearing points should be as defined in Table 2.35 (Instituto Nacional para o
Desenvolvimento do Acrílico [INDAC] 2015).
Plastic tiles may also be applied in roofs cladded with ceramic tiles to allow
the entrance of natural light. These plastic elements should have the size of the
corresponding ceramic tiles and should comply with EN 1873:2014+A1:2016 (CEN
2016l).
Polymethacrylate Sheets
Polymethacrylate sheets, more commonly known as acrylic sheets, are similar to

glass in terms of transparency and are used to make domes, skylights and other small
surfaces. Their shape may be flat, circular or corrugated.
The dimensions and profiles of acrylic sheets vary according to the manufacturer.
The main characteristics of this type of roof cladding are shown in Table 2.36.
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Table 2.36 Main characteristics of polymethacrylate roof sheets (INDAC 2015; LNEC 2018)
Parameter Polymethacrylate roof sheets’ characteristics
Length [mm] 1000–3050
Width [mm] 1000–2030
Service temperature [°C] −30–240
Apparent density [kg/m3 ] 1200–1500
Thermal conductivity [W/m °C] 0.16
Coefficient of thermal expansion [°C−1 ] 0.000028–0.000073
Tensile strength [kg/m2 ] 4,900,000–8,400,000
Flexural strength [kg/m2 ] 14,000,000
Young’s modulus [kg/m2 ] 330,000,000–500,000,000
Polycarbonate Sheets
Polycarbonate sheets are presented with flat, corrugated or trapezoidal profiles,

adjusting to the designer’s needs. Polycarbonate sheets may be compact, with higher
impact resistance and transmittance, or alveolar, with better thermal and acoustic
behaviour.
This material may be applied in stadiums, subway stations, swimming pools
and greenhouses, for instance. The main characteristics of polycarbonate sheets are
shown in Table 2.37.
Table 2.37 Main characteristics of polycarbonate roof sheets (Sabic 2013; Dagol 2016a, b;
Onduline 2019)
Parameter Compact polycarbonate Alveolar polycarbonate
sheets sheets
Length [mm] 2050–3050 3000–8000
Width [mm] 1250–2050 1230–2100
Thickness [mm] 0.8–10.0 4.5–32.0
Service temperature [°C] −40–135
Thermal conductivity [W/m °C] 0.16–0.21 1.4–3.9
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.000073 0.000067
[°C−1 ]
Tensile strength [kg/m2 ] 4,900,000–8,400,000 –
Flexural strength [kg/m2 ] 1500 650
Young’s modulus [kg/m2 ] 220,000,000–230,000,000
Table 2.38 Main characteristics of glass fibre reinforced polyester roof sheets (LNEC 2018;
Onduline 2019)
Parameter Translucent sheets Opaque sheets
Length [mm] 2000–3000 2000–3000
Width [mm] 800–1000 1058
Thickness [mm] 0.8–1.7 1.45
Pitch of corrugation [mm] 31.7–76.2 250
Depth of profile [mm] 15 35
Service temperature [°C] −30–130 −30–140
Apparent density [kg/m3 ] 1200–1500 1700
Thermal conductivity [W/m °C] 0.16–0.21
Coefficient of thermal expansion [°C−1 ] 0.000012–0.000028 0.000067
Glass fibres mass [kg/m2 ] 0.270 (class 1 profile); 0.350 (class 2 profile);
0.450 (class 3 profile); above 0.580 (class 4
profile)
Tensile strength [kg/m2 ] 8,800,000–11,200,000 –
Flexural strength [kg/m2 ] 9,500,000–17,000,000 10,000,000
Young’s modulus [kg/m2 ] 500,000,000–1,200,000,000 –
Glass Fibre Reinforced Polyester Sheets
Translucent glass fibre reinforced polyester sheets may have flat, corrugated or trape-
zoidal profiles. The dimensions and profiles vary according to the manufacturer. The
main characteristics of this type of sheets are highlighted in Table 2.38.
Opaque glass fibre reinforced polyester sheets are also available in a wide range
of colours. This type of cladding is mainly applied in industrial buildings, due to
the good resistance to chemical agents. These sheets show better fire and chemical
behaviour than translucent sheets.
PVC Sheets
PVC sheets are opaque and may be flat or corrugated. The dimensions and profiles
vary according to the manufacturer. The main characteristics of PVC sheets are
highlighted in Table 2.39.
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Table 2.39 Main characteristics of PVC roof sheets (Palram 2013; H&F Manufacturing
Corporation 2018; LNEC 2018)
Parameter PVC roof sheets’ characteristics
Length [mm] 1820–3640
Width [mm] 660–1080
Thickness [mm] 0.8–3
Pitch of corrugation [mm] 32–177
Depth of profile [mm] 14–51
Resistance limit temperature [°C] 70
Thermal conductivity [W/m °C] 0.107–0.130
Coefficient of thermal expansion [°C−1 ] 0.000038–0.000063
Tensile strength [kg/m2 ] 4,600,000–6,300,000
Flexural strength [kg/m2 ] 9,500,000
Young’s modulus [kg/m2 ] 329,000,000
2.9.1.7 Mixed Roof Claddings
Mixed roof claddings combine the properties of different materials to overcome the
limitations of individual materials.
Bitumen and Aluminium Sheet Coated Steel Plates
Bitumen and aluminium sheet coated steel plates are also known as isothermal plates.
They are composed of a resistant core in galvanised steel 0.45 mm or 0.63 mm thick,
protected on both sides by bituminous coats with mineral fillers, which are then
coated with embossed aluminium sheets. The upper side of the plate may be grey,
yellow, red, blue, white, black or green, and the back face of the plate is white or
grey (Fig. 2.40) (LNEC 1982, 2000). This type of plates is commonly used on roofs
with a great span. The use of bitumen decreases the noise associated with rainfall
and improves the thermal behaviour. These plates should be used in low corrosive
environments and with a slope higher than 5%. Compared with galvanised steel
plates, bitumen and aluminium sheet coated steel plates allow reducing about 90%
of the noise caused by rainfall.
Sandwich Panels’ Roof Claddings
Sandwich panels are composed of two metallic sheets, in aluminium or steel, or by

a metallic sheet and a fibre-cement sheet, and a core of rigid foam or mineral wool.
Metallic sheets may have different finishes: pre-patinated, aluminium, zinc, an alloy
ribbed
aluminium sheet
bituminous coat
with mineral fillers
galvanised
steel plate
bituminous
primer
ribbed
aluminium sheet
Fig. 2.40 Composition of bitumen and aluminium sheet coated steel plates
of aluminium and zinc, anodised, organic or plastic or reflective pellicle, according to

the type of metal and the environment. Sheets may be flat, corrugated or trapezoidal.
Sandwich panels should comply with EN 14509:2013 (CEN 2013i).
The use of prefabricated sandwich panels allows taking advantage of the use of
metallic roof claddings with some disadvantages mitigated. The use of polyurethane
foam between two metallic sheets significantly improves the acoustic and thermal
behaviours, compared with a simple metallic roof cladding. The application effi-
ciency of sandwich panels is slightly better, according to its dimensions, and it does
not need an extra thermal insulation layer. However, at the end of its service life,
this type of roof cladding is hard to recycle, due to the difficult separation between
metallic elements and thermal insulation (Zamora 1998).
Natural lighting is possible using translucent plastic sandwich panels. These pan-
els are composed of two connected plastic plates with an air gap between them.
These panels allow natural lighting without significantly compromising thermal insu-
lation. Translucent plastic sandwich panels are composed of glass fibre reinforced
polyester plates or polycarbonate plates with thicknesses ranging from 30 to 80 mm
and length and width according to the design needs. This type of panels is only used
to complement the application of metallic sandwich panels.
The main characteristics of sandwich panels are shown in Table 2.40.
Asphalt Shingles
Asphalt shingles are composed of ceramic granulate, oxidised bitumen, fibreglass and
silica sand. Asphalt shingles are waterproof, flexible, recyclable and easy to apply.
However, their application is not efficient, they show high expansion and capture
high levels of solar radiation, which may result in the loss of volatile components,
causing cracking. Asphalt shingles are not advised for warm weather regions. As
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Table 2.40 Main characteristics of sandwich panels for roof claddings (Irmalex 2015; Painel 2000;
Alaço 2019a, b)
Parameters Sandwich panels for roof claddings
Length [mm] 2000–20,000 20,000 2000–24,000
Width [mm] 1000 1000 1000
Thickness [mm] 30–200 64–104 30–115
Pitch of corrugation [mm] – 125 250–500
Depth of profile [mm] – 37 35–40
Width between bearing points [mm] 4000–6000
Density [kg/m3 ] – – 42
Weight [kg/m2 ] 11.3–28.9 14.5–16.1 9.9–11.5
Thermal conductivity [W/m K] 0.20 0.25 0.26
Compressive strength [kg/m2 ] 14,276
a protection measure, a reflective product may be applied over the shingles, but it
usually has a short service life (Richardson 1980). Asphalt shingles have different
shapes and colours.
Asphalt shingles require a minimum slope of 11° (AFNOR 1993b; Schunck et al.
2003).
This type of roof cladding should comply with EN 544:2011 (CEN 2011f),
ASTM D7158/D7158M-19 (ASTM International 2019d), ASTM D6381/D6381-15
(ASTM International 2015b), ASTM D3018/D3018M-11(2017) (ASTM Interna-
tional 2017b), ASTM D3161/D3161M-19 (ASTM International 2019e) and ASTM
D3462/D3462M-19 (ASTM International 2019f).
Asphalt shingles do not use accessories in singularities. The most relevant
characteristics of asphalt shingles are shown in Table 2.41.
Table 2.41 Main characteristics of asphalt shingles for roof claddings (GAF 2019; Onduline 2019)
Parameters [mm] Asphalt shingles for roof claddings
Rectangular Oval Variable shape
Length 305–432 334 Variable
Width 876–1016 1000
Thickness 0.8–3.0
Spacing between slots 333 200 Variable
Exposed length 114–191 140
Table 2.42 Main characteristics of metallic tiles and slates coated with mineral granules for roof
claddings (Decra Metal Roofing 2015; Boral Steel 2018, 2019)
Parameters Metallic tiles and slates coated with mineral granules’ characteristics
Length [mm] 1113–1330
Width [mm] 348–368
Thickness [mm] 20–40
Metallic Tiles and Slates Coated with Mineral Granules
This type of cladding is used in new housing buildings with a slope above 27%. The
mineral granulates allow absorbing noise, namely that from rainfall.
The main characteristics of metallic tiles and slates coated with mineral granules
are shown in Table 2.42.
2.9.2 Design of External Claddings of Pitched Roofs
2.9.2.1 Functional Requirements
The functional requirements of a pitched roof refer to a set of minimal properties

that should be complied with so that the roof fulfils its purpose. The functional
requirements of pitched roofs have been progressively becoming stricter.
Functional requirements may be grouped in structural safety, inhabitability,
durability and economy and environmental protection.
Structural Safety
The structural safety of a pitched roof is given by the adequate design in terms of
permanent (dead), variable (live) and accidental loads. Permanent loads refer to the
weight of the external cladding, bearing structure, singularities, equipment and acces-
sories. Variable loads refer to wind, rain, snow, thermal changes and earthquakes.
Accidental loads are associated with exceptional phenomena, like fire, explosions or
impacts. These loads should be taken into account while considering the codes in
place for structural dimensioning, which are out of the scope of this book.
Still, it may be mentioned that the bearing structure of a pitched roof may be
continuous or discontinuous. Continuous bearing structures refer to reinforced con-
crete slabs with a specific slope that allows creating living spaces below the roof
surface. Discontinuous bearing structures may be executed using wood, reinforced
concrete, steel or masonry. This type of structure is composed of trusses, bearing
purlins, rafters and battens that bear the external cladding of the pitched roof.
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Inhabitability
Inhabitability requirements for a pitched roof include air and watertightness, thermal
insulation, ventilation and acoustic insulation. A pitched roof should be built so that
it is water and airtight. The waterproofing of a pitched roof is provided by its external
cladding and complementary elements. The choice of an adequate roof cladding is
important, as well as the adequate execution of singularities (ridges, hips, valleys,
among others), joints, fastening, overlays and the selection of an adequate slope.
The slope is a very important property of a pitched roof, as it increases water and
airtightness when the quality of the cladding elements or of the design is insufficient.
Increasing the slope of the roof, the velocity of the rainwater flow increases, hence
decreasing the risk of leakage. However, increasing the slope of the roof may have
an adverse result if fastening is not adequately designed, as the roof becomes more
unstable due to wind and rain loads.
The selection of the roof’s slope requires assessing the type of external cladding,
exposure of the building and the length of spans. Opting for a steeper slope allows
taking advantage of the area below the roof surface, but significantly increases the
cost of the roof, as more cladding elements are needed and the bearing structure must
be designed for more demanding requirements. The slope of a roof also influences
the maximum length of the roof side. This limitation is associated with the velocity
of the rainwater flow and adequate drainage.
The overlay between cladding elements ensures the protection of the roof towards
weather agents. The minimum overlay should be determined according to the
exposure of the building, weather conditions and distance to the shoreline.
The roof plays an important role in the building’s thermal performance, as a
significant amount of thermal exchanges occur through the roof. As the most recent
directives point towards decreasing energy needs of buildings, and the roof is a highly
exposed building element, its behaviour is decisive to reach low energy objectives.
So, in terms of thermal behaviour, the roof is important for the thermal comfort
of indoor areas and, simultaneously, for the energy performance of the building.
Additionally, the lower surface of roofs is very susceptible to condensations, which
have a negative impact on the durability of claddings. Hence, the design of the roof
should prevent the occurrence of condensations.
The ventilation of roofs is also important. It may occur next to the lower surface of
the external cladding, in the ridge and in ventilation tiles, if the attic is not ventilated,
or in the attic. The ventilation of a roof is essential to decrease its maintenance costs
and prolong its service life (Oxley 2001). On the other hand, it allows removing the
excess moisture on the lower surface of the roof cladding, avoiding a long period
of occurrence of moisture (Lstiburek and Carmody 1991). Still, the roof should not
be excessively ventilated, as it implies higher energy needs in the winter, although
better thermal comfort may occur in the summer. Thus, a balanced solution is required
according to the comfort needs of the building.
Acoustic comfort requirements are associated with the need to improve the per-
formance of the roof towards the discomfort caused by outdoors’ noise. The acoustic
insulation characteristics should be adequate to the type of use of the building and the
surrounding conditions. Acoustic comfort is more frequently considered in buildings
next to industrial areas, air traffic areas, railways and high traffic roads. At the design
stage, it is essential to determine the type of acoustic insulation, defining a set of
protection measures for the inhabitants. The acoustic insulation of a roof consists of
applying materials with elastic properties and low inertia and density.
Durability
Durability is an essential requirement of all building materials. It refers to the abil-

ity of a given building element keeping its performance levels during a predefined
service life, considering the action of aggressive agents and regular maintenance.
The service life of the elements that compose a pitched roof depends on the charac-
teristics of each material, design, local environmental conditions, weather, chemical
and physical limitations, and on how and when maintenance actions are carried out.
The main durability requirements of pitched roofs refer to the mechanical behaviour,
dimensional stability, resistance to chemical agents, resistance to freeze-thaw cycles
and appearance homogeneity.
Economy and Environmental Protection
Economy in the context of building pitched roofs aims at optimising the use of
resources during the various stages of the life cycle of a roof, including construction,
maintenance, replacement and waste treatment.
External claddings of pitched roofs should be easy to apply on-site. Variable
application conditions will influence construction costs and the complexity of works,
which should be as low as possible.
At the construction stage, the initial costs of acquiring cladding materials and
transporting them to the construction site should be taken into account. Next, appli-
cation costs, including labour, equipment and accessories, should be considered to
determine the total construction costs.
Replacing materials implies the removal of existing materials and taking that
waste to recycling or treatment plants. Removed materials, if in adequate conditions,
may also be reused.
A sustainable roof is one that emphasises the selection of efficient and environ-
mentally friendly materials (Hutchinson and Roberts 1999).
2.9.2.2 Design of Pitched Roofs Cladded with Ceramic Tiles
Given the importance that ceramic tiles have in some regions (for instance, south-
ern Europe), the main good practice rules for designing pitched roofs cladded with
ceramic tiles are presented.
Slope
The slope to be used for different types of ceramic tiles is shown in Table 2.43.
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Table 2.43 Minimum slope of pitched roofs with ceramic tiles in Portugal (slope in centimetres
per metre of horizontal projection) (CTCV 1998)
Type of tile Exposure of Size of the Locationa
the roof roof side Zone I [%] Zone II [%] Zone III [%]
Interlocking Protected Up to 6.0 m 32 40 45
roof tiles Normal 39 44 50
Exposed 44 51 57
Protected 6.0–10.0 m 39 44 50
Normal 43 48 55
Exposed 48 56 63
Marseille Protected Up to 6.0 m 61 65 70
tiles Normal 67 73 78
Exposed 77 84 90
Protected 6.0–10.0 m 66 72 77
Normal 74 80 86
Exposed 85 91 99
Monk and Protected Up to 6.0 m 50 55 59
Nun tiles Normal 55 61 66
Exposed 64 69 76
Protected 6.0–10.0 m 55 59 65
Normal 61 67 73
Exposed 69 77 84
Roman tiles Protected Up to 6.0 m 40 45 49
Normal 44 49 55
Exposed 51 57 64
Protected 6.0–10.0 m 44 50 55
Normal 48 55 61
Exposed 56 63 69
Flat tiles Protected Up to 6.0 m 58 64 68
Normal 64 70 76
Exposed 75 81 87
Protected 6.0–10.0 m 64 69 75
Normal 71 77 84
Exposed 83 89 96
Interlocking Protected – 10–22b or 10–22b or 10–22b or
flat tiles Normal >22 >22 >22
Exposed
a Zoning in continental Portugal combining wind loads and rainwater levels. Higher or lower climate
severity was attributed according to the average annual rainfall, altitude of the region and distance
to the sea
b When underlayment or a waterproofing membrane exists
Table 2.44 Overlay according to exposure of the roof for ceramic tiles without interlock (CTCV
1998)
Type of roof tiles Exposure Location
Zone I [m] Zones II and III [m]
Monk and Nun tiles and Protected 0.14 0.15
Roman tiles Normal 0.15 0.16
Exposed 0.16 0.17
Flat tiles Protected, normal and 0.07 0.08
exposed
F F
F F F F F
F F F
F F
F F F F F
F F
F F F
F F F F F
F F
F F F
F F F F F
F F F
F F
F F F F
F F 1 m² F
F F
F F F
a b
F
F
F
F
F
F- roof tiles that should be fastened
Fig. 2.41 Application of fastening criteria for ceramic roof tiles with interlock in a roof with a
slope higher than 150% (a), and for flat ceramic roof tiles in a roof with a slope higher than 175%
(b)
Overlay
The overlay of ceramic tiles with interlock is defined by their design and is not
adjustable. On the other hand, flat tiles, Roman tiles and Monk and Nun tiles should
have the recommended overlay shown in Table 2.44.
Fastening
Fastening of ceramic tiles is influenced by the slope of the roof. As a general rule,
the use of slopes higher than 65° implies fastening the tiles (Schunck et al. 2003).
Ceramic tiles with interlock should be fastened to the substrate when the slope
is higher than 150% or wind loads are significant. One in every five tiles should be
fastened, as shown in Fig. 2.41 (part a) (CTCV 1998), or one tile per metre should
be fastened (Zamora 1998). Flat ceramic tiles should be fastened when the slope is
higher than 175% or exposure conditions demand it. Ten flat tiles should be fastened
per square metre (Fig. 2.41, part b). In slopes higher than 300%, or in extremely
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Table 2.45 Fastening of cover and channel tiles according to wind loads and the slope of the roof
(adapted from CTCV [1998])
Slope [%] Location and wind exposure Eaves and sides Current area
s ≤ 30 Zones I and II, protected and Fastened tiles Tiles without fastening
normal places
Zones I and II, exposed places Fastened tiles Fastened tiles
Zone III, every place Fastened tiles
30 < s ≤ 60 Zones I and II, protected and Fastened tiles Tiles without fastening
normal places
Zones I and II, exposed places Fastened tiles Fastened tiles
Zone III, every place Fastened tiles
aggressive exposure conditions, all tiles should be fastened. Cover and channel tiles
should follow instructions in Table 2.45. Tiles may be fastened with clamps, nails,
metallic wire, synthetic products or mortar.
Galvanised steel should not be used to fasten tiles in a maritime or industrial
environment. The application of synthetic products (mastic or polyurethane foam)
or mortar provides more stability and watertightness to roofs cladded with cover and
channel tiles (Appleton 2011).
When mortar is used, it should not be excessive to avoid overweighting and
restricting the adequate ventilation of the roof. Hence, joints between tiles should
never be completely filled. Mortars should be of hydraulic lime, with a content of
250–350 kg of hydraulic lime per cubic metre of dry sand, or 150 kg of cement
and 175–225 kg of hydraulic lime per cubic metre of dry sand. The use of simple
cement mortars is not advised due to their excessive hardness, which may lead to
cracking (of the mortar and roof tiles), considering the high thermal variations in
a roof (CTCV 1998; Zamora 1998). Sand should be free from impurities and the
application of admixtures should not cause the degradation of other materials. If
colouring agents are needed, the content should be around 5–7%. After applying the
mortar, all residues should be removed (CTCV 1998).
The application of mastic or polyurethane foam is meant for increasing cohesion
between roofing elements, limiting their movement and absorbing any dimensional
changes without cracking. Materials should be clean and free from fat to promote bet-
ter adhesion. Next, the mastic or polyurethane foam is applied followed by the tiles.
These products show advantages comparing to mortar, as they are not putrescible,
are less porous, easier to apply, lighter and present better labour efficiency.
2.9.3 Execution of External Claddings of Pitched Roofs
2.9.3.1 Clay-Slate Tiles
The application of clay-slate tiles is generally done over a wood deck (Fig. 2.42,
part a), but they may also be applied over wood battens with a flexible underlayment
(Fig. 2.42, part b). A roof with clay-slate tiles may have three different displays:
regular, textured and gradual. The regular appearance is given by the application of
tiles with very similar colour, smooth texture, dimension and thickness. The tiles
have the shape of a rectangle, allowing to provide a regular appearance. The textured
display uses tiles with different thicknesses and a rougher texture, and their colour is
not as homogeneous as in the regular display. In the gradual display, tiles are graded
according to their thickness, size and exposure. Thicker and larger tiles are placed
next to the eaves, while smaller and thinner tiles stay close to the ridge. This way,
from the ridge to the eaves, tiles increase their thickness and dimension.
Clay-slate tiles for slopes over 30° should be overlaid about 7.5 cm or 5 cm in
mansards and roofs with a slope above 60°. For pitched roofs with a slope lower
than 30°, tiles should overlay about 10 cm (Levine 1993). Tiles are mechanically
fastened to the substrate with nails or clamps, properly sealed with washers, cement
or synthetic mortar, increasing the watertightness of the roof (Stahl 1984; AFNOR
1993a).
a b
Fig. 2.42 Application of clay-slate tiles over a wood deck using nails and clamps (a) and over
wood battens using nails (b)
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4th
3rd
rows of
roof tiles
2nd
1st
4th 3rd 2nd 1st
columns of 4 roof tiles
Fig. 2.43 Alignment and beginning of application of interlocking ceramic tiles
Roof Tiles with Interlock
Interlocking roof tiles start to be applied from the bottom right of the roof, with rows
perpendicular to the slope of the roof, aligned by the centre of the tile’s channel
(Fig. 2.43). Interlocking tiles are placed over wood battens, supported by protruding
bolts in the back face of tiles.
Cover and Channel Tiles
The application of cover and channel tiles follows the same procedures as roof tiles
with interlock, namely in terms of the order of application of tiles and alignment.
Channel tiles are placed with the larger edge on top and the cover tiles fit over channel
tiles with the larger edge on the bottom. These tiles should be fastened with clamps,
nails, mastic or mortar.
Flat Tiles
The application of flat tiles follows the same procedures as tiles with interlock, in
terms of the order of application and alignment. Flat tiles require that battens are
spaced according to the size of tiles and overlay, considering exposure conditions.
As for the adjustment of elements, tiles may have aligned or misaligned joints,
according to the desired visual effect (Fig. 2.44).
a b
Fig. 2.44 Flat tiles with aligned (a) and misaligned joints (b)
Interlocking Flat Tiles
Interlocking flat tiles follow the same application methodology of roof tiles with
interlock. As for the alignment, the same adjustments used for flat tiles are followed.
2.9.3.3 Micro-concrete Tiles
The application of micro-concrete tiles follows the procedures used for ceramic
tiles with interlock in terms of the order of application and alignment of the different
elements. Micro-concrete tiles require battens with high-quality geometric character-
istics so that interlocking elements are well adjusted, making the application process
easier.
The slope of the roof defines the overlay between elements and, in turn, the spacing
between battens. As for the overlay, minimal values should follow recommendations
in Fig. 2.45, between 7 cm and 12.5 cm (LNEC 2018; Argibetão 2019).
The application of micro-concrete tiles requires fastening to the substrate so that
the roof shows adequate stability and watertightness (Appleton 2011). Fastening may
use metallic clamps, mortar (cement) or synthetic products (mastic or polyurethane
foam). Metallic fasteners should be in stainless steel, copper, zinc or galvanised
steel (except in maritime or industrial environments). The use of mortar or synthetic
products should follow the procedures recommended for ceramic tiles.
2.9.3.4 Fibre-Cement Claddings
Fibre-cement sheets should be applied in the opposed direction of prevailing winds.

Each element is placed overlaying the previous one (Fig. 2.46). To avoid overlaying
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slope [%]
373%
275%
214%
180%
143% overlay 7 cm
120%
100%
slope [deg] 75°
70° 81% overlay 8 cm
65°
61° 70%
55°
50° 60% m
10 c
45° 51% rlay
39° ove m
45% 2.5 c
35° lay 1
31° 36% over
27°
24° 29% supplementary
20° waterproofing
20%
16° systems
11°
11%
6°
Fig. 2.45 Minimal overlay of micro-concrete tiles according to the roof slope
four adjacent sheets, the corners of sheets should be cut diagonally with an electric
disk saw complemented with the use of a dust vacuum cleaner.
Fibre-cement sheets should overlay according to the slope of the roof. The lon-
gitudinal and transverse overlay should follow recommendations in Table 2.46. A
watertightness complement may be required. It is applied in the overlay area to avoid
rainwater blown by the wind from leaking in the joints (LNEC 2018).
Fastening fibre-cement sheets provides an adequate response to external loads.
To place fastening elements in fibre-cement sheets, holes have to be drilled on the
top of the corrugated profile using an electrical drill with a diameter 3 mm higher
than the fastening element diameter. Adequate screws or self-drilling screws should
be used, considering the material of the purlins (timber or steel, for instance), and
washers should also be used.
2.9.3.5 Metallic Roof Claddings
Metallic sheets should be applied in the direction opposite to dominant winds. Each
element is placed over the previous one. As metallic sheets are light, they are very
susceptible to wind loads.
The lateral overlay between metallic roof sheets should be of 1½ corrugations,
in the case of a corrugated profile, and 1 corrugation, in the case of trapezoidal
profile (LNEC 2018). As for the top overlay, it should not be below 0.15 m. If the
roof slope is below 10%, overlays should be sealed, to improve watertightness. The
sealant should be flexible and follow the dimensional movements of the cladding
and substrate (Richardson 1980), like mastic or a bituminous strip (Fig. 2.47) (Metal
direction of prevailing winds
ridge
direction
of lay
eaves
direction of lay
Fig. 2.46 Direction for applying fibre-cement sheets
Table 2.46 Overlay of fibre-cement sheets according to the roof slope (LNEC 2018)
Slope of the roof Minimal overlay of fibre-cement sheets Watertightness
[°] Transverse Longitudinal complement
Roof side up to Roof side over [cm]
10 m 10 m
6–10 1½ corrugations 1½ corrugations 20 Needed
11–14 1½ corrugations 1½ corrugations 20 Needed
15–17 ½ corrugation 1½ corrugations 18 Needed
Exposed areas:
1½ corrugations
18–20 ½ corrugation ½ corrugation 16 Unnecessary
21–45 ½ corrugation ½ corrugation 14 Unnecessary
≥45 ½ corrugation ½ corrugation 10 Unnecessary
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a b
Fig. 2.47 Applying bituminous strips as a watertightness complement in the transverse (a) and
longitudinal (b) overlays of metallic roof claddings
Table 2.47 Different

Fastening system Metal
fastening systems for metallic
roof claddings Screwed Aluminium, steel, copper and zinc
Clamped Steel, copper and zinc
Interlocked Aluminium, steel and zinc
Riveted Aluminium, steel, copper and zinc
Welded Aluminium, steel, copper and zinc
Construction Association 2014). Movements are caused by thermal loads, dry-wet

cycles, freeze-thaw cycles, dynamic loads and structural movements (Stahl 1984).
Metallic roof claddings have different fastening methods, shown in Table 2.47.
Fastening should be done with washer faced screws (wooden bearing structure),
clamps (steel or reinforced or prestressed reinforced concrete bearing structure),
screws (wooden and steel bearing structure) or steel cables (domed bearing structure).
Fastening elements may be in copper or stainless.
Fastening holes should be drilled on the top of the corrugated profile or rib with a
diameter 2 mm or 3 mm larger than the fastening element. Washers may be bitumi-
nous, plastic or metallic, stopping rain from leaking in fastening holes. The fastening
element should be adequately tightened, not too rigid or loose. Fastening elements
should then be protected with a plastic cap to provide better protection from envi-
ronmental agents. Cladding sheets should be fastened to each other every 50 cm.
Fastening to the bearing structure should be guaranteed every 1 m, placed alternately
(Fig. 2.48).
Fastening elements should be compatible with the metallic roof cladding to avoid
the occurrence of bimetallic corrosion. The number and spacing of screwed or riveted
fasteners should be adjusted according to the size of the sheet, weight, aggressiveness
of the location and loads.
b b
a a a a a a
b b
b b
a a a a a a
b b
b b
a a a a a a
Fig. 2.48 Arrangement of fastening elements of metallic and plastic roof claddings. a—Fastening
to structure elements; b—fastening to underlaying cladding sheets
The clamping process consists of profiling the sheet on-site, laterally overlaying
the sheets in homogeneous strips with a coil that clamps the joint. The minimum
height of the joint should be 3 cm. The connection to the substrate is done in the
lateral rim of the element using structural fasteners. The height of the joint and
spacing between elements should be adjusted according to the roof’s exposure.
Interlocking elements consists in applying the elements using lateral fittings
between sheets, resulting in a faster application process. Capping may be applied
to the joint, if necessary. The connection to the bearing structure is done in the lat-
eral rim of the element. This on-site application methodology requires high labour
efficiency.
Elements may also be fastened to each other using welding. The connection to
the bearing structure is welded, if it is a metallic bearing structure, otherwise another
type of fastening should be applied (LNEC 2018).
2.9.3.6 Plastic Roof Claddings
The execution of plastic roof claddings should start at the lower right corner and end
on the upper left corner, in the opposite direction of dominant winds.
Plastic roof claddings may be prepared using tools normally used in metal and
wood. Tools manufactured with hard metal are recommended. Cutting may be done
using manual or automatic saws. To drill holes, a regular drill for metallic sheets
may be used, and the drill should be about 5% larger than the fastening element, to
allow dimensional variations of the roof cladding. When local heating is detected,
the plastic cladding should be cooled with water or compressed air.
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Table 2.48 Top overlay

Roof slope [°] Minimal top overlay Watertightness
according to the roof’s slope
[cm] complement
for plastic roof claddings
(LNEC 2018) 5–15 25 Recommended
15–30 20 Unnecessary
>30 15 Unnecessary
The minimal lateral overlay should correspond to two corrugations (corrugated

sheets). The top overlay is associated with the slope of the roof (Table 2.48).
As plastic sheets are very light, their fastening needs special attention, as the
light weight makes plastic sheets very susceptible to wind loads. The number of
fastening elements should take the element size into account, as well as weight and
environmental exposure. Fastening is only recommended at the top edge of the sheet,
below overlay joints. Fastening of plastic sheets (between sheets and to the substrate)
should follow the criteria for metallic roof claddings using screws. The tightness of
fastening should be adequate to avoid breaking the plastic element. The use of shims
under the sheets is recommended during the fastening process, to prevent fractures.
Polycarbonate sheets may also be interlocked.
Fastening may also use adhesive material or adhesive tape. Adhesive materials
should be judiciously selected to avoid unwanted reactions with the plastic roof
cladding. The adhesion process starts with cleaning the surface, removing any foreign
elements with a cloth with isopropanol. Next, a fine coat of adhesive material is
applied below one of the pieces placing both surfaces together and pressing them
slightly. If the adhesion between elements needs to be increased, the surfaces may
be slightly pricked. After a few minutes, the adhered pieces may be moved, although
maximum resistance of the adhesive connection is only achieved after a few days.
Adhesive unions are exemplified in Fig. 2.49.
Sealants applied in plastic roof claddings should follow recommendations for
metallic roof claddings.
Fig. 2.49 Examples of ways of adhering plastic roof claddings elements together
2.9.3.7 Mixed Roof Claddings
Sandwich Panels Roof Claddings
Sandwich panels are applied with highly specialised joints between panels, which
allow increasing the watertightness level of the roof.
The overlay of elements is done according to the pre-fabricated interlock. Fasten-
ing between elements and to the substrate is done using metallic screws, according
to recommendations for metallic roof claddings.
Asphalt Shingles
The application of asphalt shingles requires a continuous roof deck substrate, which
is usually made of wood, over which a flexible membrane may be applied to increase
watertightness.
A cord of cementitious mastic is applied along the eaves, followed by the first row
of asphalt shingles, about 10 cm high along the eaves, fastened with nails. This first
row is meant to increase the roof’s watertightness. Over this row, the application of
the exposed cladding starts. The application starts in the steepest side of the roof and
follows the order mentioned for ceramic tiles.
The arrangement of elements is done so that joints are misaligned. Fastening may
be applied manually or automatically, provided that at least 4 nails per tile are applied,
or 8 nails if the slope is higher than 80°. To obtain a homogeneous overlay, each row
should be marked. Asphalt shingles should be overlaid, at least, 15 cm to ensure the
roof’s watertightness.
Metallic Tiles and Slates Coated with Mineral Granules
The application of this type of cladding starts in the lower right corner and the
elements are fastened to the bearing structure with metallic fastening elements (nails
or clamps). The elements are interlocked in each other and, in the end, singularities
are executed, namely in the ridge and hips.
2.10 Flat Roofs
In this section, the main technologies available for building flat roofs are concisely
presented, considering that the technology itself is not the central focus of this book,
but understanding it potentially allows a better diagnosis of detected defects, as well
as more adequate proposals of repair techniques.
A flat roof is composed of horizontal layers (or with a pitch below 10°, as defined
by BS 6229:2018) (Gorse et al. 2012; British Standards Institution 2018). In a flat
150 2 Technology
Table 2.49 Basic

Basic requirements Flat roof component
requirements (The European
Parliament and The Council Mechanical resistance and stability Bearing structure
of the European Union 2011) Safety in case of fire Bearing structure
and components of a flat roof
Thermal insulation
Hygiene, health and the environment Waterproofing
Thermal insulation
In-service safety and accessibility Protection layer
Protection against noise Bearing structure
Energy economy and heat retention Thermal insulation
Shaping layera
Sustainable use of natural resources All components
a Ifthe shaping layer is made of concrete with lightweight
aggregates, it will complement the action of the thermal insulation
layer (Cohendet et al. 1988)
roof system, those overlapping layers are responsible for the satisfaction of func-
tional requirements (Table 2.49). In general terms, a flat roof is composed of: (i)
bearing structure; (ii) shaping layer; (iii) thermal insulation; (iv) waterproofing; and
(v) protection layer. A flat roof may also include a screed layer, a vapour-barrier and
a separation layer.
The drainage system is a very important part of a flat roof. It may be com-
posed of gutters, downpipes, and secondary scuppers/overflow pipes, with the objec-
tive of draining rainwater. The drainage system needs adequate care, as any faulty
drainage element may compromise the roof’s watertightness, or, if clogged, the lack
of drainage may affect the mechanical strength of the flat roof.
Flat roofs may be classified according to accessibility, protection layer, type
of waterproofing, positioning of the thermal insulation layer in relation to the
waterproofing layer, slope and bearing structure (Lopes 2010).
Even considering regular inspections and maintenance of flat roofs, rehabilitation
may be needed after some time in service. Rehabilitation may increase performance
levels or provide a response to updated functional requirements, such as improved
energy efficiency, improved noise reduction and prevention of damages in the bearing
structure.
2.10.1 Materials Used in Flat Roofs
Nowadays, a vast diversity of materials may be used in waterproofing systems in

the building sector. According to Lopes (2010), considering the types of materials
used, a waterproofing system may be classified as traditional or non-traditional.
Additionally, auxiliary materials for waterproofing need to be used and the flat roof
cladding system requires the use of thermal insulation.
2.10 Flat Roofs 151
Table 2.50 Classification of

Application Class of materials Type of materials
traditional waterproofing
materials (adapted from On-site Bituminous materials Direct distillation
Lopes [2010]) bitumen
Oxidised or blown
bitumen
Engineered materials Bituminous
emulsions
Bituminous paints
Modified bituminous
products
Pozzolanic cement
Prefabricated Saturated or Bituminous canvas
impregnated meshes Bituminous felt
Bituminous Reinforced with felt
membranes Reinforced with
canvas
Reinforced with sheet
2.10.1.1 Traditional Waterproofing Materials
Traditional waterproofing materials may be liquid/viscous, being applied on-site,

or prefabricated, the latter also known as waterproofing membranes (Table 2.50).
The application of liquid or viscous traditional materials decreased a lot, and, nowa-
days, they are mainly used as preliminary surface treatment or as protection of other
waterproofing materials (Lopes 2010).
Bituminous Materials
Bitumen is a black liquid mixture with high viscosity, non-volatile, mostly non-
soluble in water, with adhesive and waterproofing properties. The bitumen viscosity
decreases at temperatures between 150 and 200 °C. It is composed of various organic
raw materials, mainly carbon and hydrogen. Bitumen may be produced artificially
(refinery processes from petroleum) or naturally extracted (asphalt) (EOTA 2004a).
Artificial bitumen is commonly known as oxidised bitumen (or blown) and is
usually part of multilayer systems applied on-site, used as an adhesive for bituminous
membranes or to execute tail-ends (Lopes 2010). Most waterproofing bituminous
materials are applied hot and in a liquid or viscous state.
The ageing of bituminous materials is affected by sunlight, namely the ultraviolet
range, low and high temperatures and sudden temperature changes.
152 2 Technology
Engineered Materials
Engineered traditional waterproofing materials are applied on-site in a hot state, either
liquid or viscous. In flat roofs, bituminous emulsions are used as an impregnation
product for porous substrates or as part of a multilayer waterproofing system applied
on site, guided by part 7 of ETAG 005 (EOTA 2004b). Bituminous paints may be
used as a primer, to treat the adhesion surface (substrate) of waterproofing bituminous
systems, as well as a protection for those systems, when applied as the upper layer.
Modified bituminous products are those with a bituminous base to which small
amounts of additives are added, generally resins, with the objective of improving the
products’ characteristics (Lopes 2010).
Prefabricated Materials
Traditional prefabricated materials are bituminous meshes and membranes, with

one or more layers of canvas, felt or sheet reinforcement involved in bituminous
mixtures and with a lower and upper finish (Lopes 2010). Standard EN 13707:2013
(CEN 2013j) is focused on reinforced bitumen sheets for roof waterproofing.
2.10.1.2 Non-traditional Waterproofing Materials
Non-traditional waterproofing materials (Table 2.51) are those modified bituminous

materials with a percentage of modifying elements equal to or above 7%, as well
as non-bituminous materials used in the building sector. Bitumen-polymers, ther-
moplastic and elastomeric membranes are currently among the most used in flat
roofs’ waterproofing systems. Polymeric resins are also commonly used, not only as
waterproofing but also in the repair of these systems. The most used non-traditional
waterproofing materials are highlighted next.
Emulsions and Solutions of Polymer-Modified Bitumen
Emulsions of modified bitumen do not work as a waterproofing material by them-

selves, but rather as a primer to treat surfaces for the application of waterproofing
membranes. This type of bituminous mixtures contains a considerable amount of
dispersed-bitumen in an aqueous medium with one or more emulsifying agents and
polymers. The emulsion may contain fine aggregates, fillers or fibres and it may be
applied using a paint roller, paint brush or spray gun. Catalytic elements may also be
added to the emulsion’s mixture if there is a need to speed up the curing process. In
general, the type of elements used to modify the bituminous mixtures varies accord-
ing to the required properties of the end-product, in order to improve the mixture’s
characteristics (McNally 2011). Polymer-modified bitumen emulsions and solutions
should comply with part 2 of ETAG 005 (EOTA 2004a).
2.10 Flat Roofs 153
Table 2.51 Classification of non-traditional waterproofing materials (adapted from Lopes [2010])
Application Class of Classification Type of materials
materials
On-site Liquid or Emulsions and Emulsions and solutions
viscous material solutions of polymer-modified
bitumen
Water-dispersible
polymers
Polymer-modified bitumen applied hot
Polymeric resins Unsaturated resilient
polyester resins
reinforced with fibreglass
Unsaturated flexible
polyester
Polyurethane
Cementitious products Mixture of polymeric
resins and cement
Prefabricated Membranes Bitumen-polymers APP bitumen-polymers
SBS bitumen-polymers
Thermoplastic PVC incompatible with
bitumen
PVC compatible with
bitumen
CPE (chlorinated
polyethylene)
FTO or TPO (flexible
thermoplastic polyolefins)
Elastomeric Butyl rubber
(isoprene-isobutylene)
EPDM
(ethylene-propylene-diene
monomer)
Chlorosulfonated
polyethylene
PIB (poly-isobutylene)
Polymeric Resins and Cementitious Products
Polymeric resins are applied in a liquid or viscous state and are framed by the
stipulations of part 8 of ETAG 005 (EOTA 2004c). They are composed of resin
with fillers, solvents and pigments. The resins are usually applied in two consecutive
layers to create the waterproofing system (Lopes 2010). If used, the polychloroprene
resin is applied first to ensure watertightness. Next, if that is the case, a layer of
chlorosulfonated polyethylene resin is applied. This second layer main purpose is
154 2 Technology
to resist heat, solar radiation (ultraviolet range) and ensure colour stability. Another
popular option is to use acrylic and polyester resins. In the case of unsaturated
resilient polyester resins reinforced with fibreglass, part 3 of ETAG 005 (EOTA
2004d) should be followed while, in the case of unsaturated flexible polyester resins,
part 4 of ETAG 005 (EOTA 2004e) should be followed. Acrylic and polyester resins
products may also be used to repair waterproofing systems, besides being used in
new flat roofs, with various accessibility options (vehicle circulation, for instance).
The thickness of a polymeric resins’ waterproofing system is between 2 and 4 mm,
usually corresponding to three layers, consuming around 1–1.5 kg/m2 .
Cementitious products also include a mixture of polymeric resins with fillers and
additives. They may be applied using a paint brush or a float trowel. Cementitious
products, as well as polymeric resins, require great care at the execution stage to
ensure a uniform thickness of the whole layer after drying. The curing time is also
important, and application in regions with more frequent rainfall patterns should be
planned ahead.
It is good practice to use reinforcement within these systems. It is applied over
the first layer of the waterproofing system while it is still fluid so that the reinforce-
ment gets impregnated into the layer. The most commonly used reinforcement is
non-woven polyester felt if the system uses polyester resins or modified bitumen.
Reinforcement of woven polyamide, polyester or fibreglass may also be used in
systems using polyurethane resins or acrylic emulsions (Lopes 2010). The use of
polyurethane resins should follow the guidelines of Part 6 of ETAG 005 (EOTA
2004f). Cementitious products are generally reinforced with fibreglass mesh, but
polyester felt may also be used.
Polymeric resins have the advantage of being easily applied in singular points of
the flat roof, as well as of being easily repaired. They may also be applied using bright
colours, which reflect the sunlight better when compared with asphaltic membranes.
It is also a product with good chemical resistance, which can be in permanent contact
with seawater (Lopes 2010).
Membranes of Bitumen-Polymers
Membranes of bitumen-polymers are made of a modified bituminous mixture, with

direct distillation bitumen, polymers, mineral fillers and various additives. These
membranes are obtained by covering one or two reinforcement meshes with a
modified bituminous mixture incorporating plastomeric resin (atactic polypropylene
polymers [APP] membranes) or elastomeric resin (styrene-butadiene-styrene [SBS]
membranes) (European Union of Agrement 2001). Reinforcement meshes may be
in polyester or fibreglass (Lopes 2010). According to Rodriguez et al. (1993), SBS
membranes show better mechanical behaviour when submitted to low temperatures,
while APP membranes show better mechanical behaviour when submitted to high
temperatures.
2.10 Flat Roofs 155
Both APP and SBS membranes are supplied in the form of rolls, usually 4 mm
thick (±1 mm) with 3.0–5.0 kg/m2 . Rolls should be stored and transported vertically
to avoid deformations.
Generally, the waterproofing system using this type of membranes is composed of
two membranes, and at least one of them is reinforced with a polyester felt. If the flat
roof has limited access, the system may use only one membrane in the waterproofing
layer. In fact, the prescription of any waterproofing system using membranes of
bitumen-polymers is conditioned by the flat roof’s accessibility, as loads acting on
the flat roof may affect the connection of the waterproofing system with the substrate
(Lopes 2010).
Membranes of bitumen-polymers are usually applied over a first coat of primer
(bituminous emulsion) and then they are welded using a blowtorch or hot air. Mem-
branes should be overlaid longitudinally with lap joints of about 10 cm and 15 cm
in the transversal direction (Gonçalves et al. 2008; Lopes 2010).
As for the environmental impact of this type of membranes, it should be
highlighted that they do not contain tar, hence constituting common industrial
residues.
Plasticised PVC Membranes
Synthetic membranes of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are among the most commonly
used thermoplastic membranes. They are composed of monomeric plasticised PVC
(PVC-P), plasticisers, pigments and fillers. Plasticisers provide the membrane with
enough flexibility to be applied in roofing, or it would be too rigid (Griffin 1982). Still,
the loss of plasticiser (due to volatility, solvents or water action) is one of the factors
contributing to the membranes’ ageing (Foley et al. 2002), as well as the contact with
bitumen or mineral oils. To decrease the loss of plasticisers, it is recommended to
add polymers with high molecular weight to the PVC membranes (Gonçalves et al.
2005).
PVC membranes may contain reinforcement meshes, usually in fibreglass or
polyester. The reinforcement may decrease shrinkage due to the loss of plasticisers
and help to stabilise dimensional variations due to temperature changes (Gonçalves
et al. 2005).
The PVC membranes’ flexibility and elasticity allow easy adaptation to various
shapes of the substrate and ensure better durability, as they are associated with fewer
defects resulting from expansion. Additionally, this type of membranes is very light;
five times lighter than asphaltic solutions, for instance. The thickness of plasticised
PVC membranes varies between 1.2 mm and 1.5 mm, with 1.6–2.0 kg/m2 (Lopes
2010). Waterproofing systems using plasticised PVC membranes only require a single
layer. As rolls (1–2.1 m wide and 15–20 m long) are larger than those of bituminous
membranes, for instance, the amount of lap joints is lower. Lap joints (about 40 mm
wide) are welded with hot air equipment, working at about 620 °C, which is a faster
and more efficient welding solution (Oba and Björk 1993). Furthermore, adhering
membranes using solvents is also applicable (30 mm lap joints, approximately), as
156 2 Technology
well as mechanical fastening (Foley et al. 2002), although the latter is more common
over metallic bearing structures. Still, using mechanical fastening is limited to inac-
cessible flat roofs, or to those only accessible for maintenance purposes. Mechanical
fastening must connect the waterproofing system to the substrate. Additionally, to
mechanically fasten membranes, wind loads must be previously considered at the
design stage (Miyauchi et al. 2011).
EPDM Membranes
Elastomeric ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM) membranes result from

mixing the EPDM with additives, like fillers, vulcanised agents and oils. This type
of membranes may also be manufactured with reinforcement, most commonly in
polyester and polyamide (Gonçalves et al. 2005; Lopes 2010). EPDM membranes are
generally applied through full bonding (liquid adhesive), partial bonding (mechanical
fastening), or loose laid. These membranes are stored in the format of rolls (15–40 m
long, 1.35–1.5 m wide) and typically are 1.5 mm thick with 1.2–2.3 kg/m2 (Lopes
2010).
2.10.1.3 Auxiliary Materials for Waterproofing
As mentioned in Sect. 2.10.1.2, waterproofing materials may benefit from the incor-
poration of reinforcement meshes to improve their mechanical behaviour. Reinforce-
ment may be classified, according to fibre orientation, in two categories: felt or can-
vas. In felts, fibres are interlaced without a preferential direction, while canvases are
obtained through intertwining threads creating an orthogonal mesh.
The most commonly used reinforcement of membranes is made of fibreglass or
polyethylene. The former does not deteriorate, does not absorb water and has great
dimensional stability, while the latter has high mechanical and high-temperature
resistance (Beer et al. 2005; Lopes et al. 2011).
2.10.1.4 Thermal Insulation Layer
In a flat roof cladding system, the thermal insulation layer is characterised by its low
thermal conductivity. The relative position of this layer to the waterproofing layer in
a flat roof determines the type of thermal insulation material that may be used, as
each one has different properties when in contact with water. The thermal insulation
materials most commonly used in the building sector are (i) mineral (rock or glass)
wool, (ii) expanded perlite (both of mineral origin), (iii) XPS or EPS (both synthetic),
and (iv) poly-isocyanurate foam (also synthetic). A fifth option may be added to this
list, particularly with a growing market in Mediterranean countries, namely ICB (of
natural origin).
2.10 Flat Roofs 157
Particularly in Europe, if an inverted flat roof solution (insulation layer over the
waterproofing layer) is to be used, the thermal insulation material requires specific
proprieties, such as (Schaefer 1977; Zirkelbach et al. 2013):
• Not absorbing water in such a way that all thermal and mechanical characteristics
are ensured (according to standard EN 12087:2013 (CEN 2013k)]);
• Good resistance to freeze-thaw cycles (according to standard EN 12091:2013
[CEN 2013l]);
• Good mechanical resistance to handling and to every load the material must
withstand during its application;
• Good resistance to high water vapour diffusion and very low water absorption
through vapour diffusion;
• Being non-putrescible.
Thermal insulation made with mineral fibres, namely rock or glass wool, is very
common in flat roofs. Rock wool is manufactured from volcanic rock and glass
wool from sand fibres. Both products are sold as rolls or slabs, whose thickness
varies between 20 and 120 mm. The slabs’ dimensions vary between 1.0–2.4 m long
and 0.6–1.2 m wide (Lopes 2010). Slabs may be sold without any coating or with
a bituminous membrane coating protected by a thermo-fused plastic film. Mineral
thermal insulation materials are incombustible and have high resistance to chemical
and biological agents, also showing good soundproofing performance. A vapour
barrier may be used below this type of insulation, to avoid condensations inside the
roof cladding system. The main technical characteristics of rock wool are shown in
Table 2.52.
Expanded perlite insulation is composed of about 60–70% perlite and cellulosic
and glass fibres agglomerated by a bituminous binder. This type of insulation is
sold as rigid plates that may be applied over bearing structures of concrete, wood
or corrugated metal sheets, with dimensions similar to those of mineral insulation
slabs. Expanded perlite insulation shows satisfactory compressive strength. However,
dimensional variations due to thermal variations are higher than those of mineral
insulation slabs (Lopes 2010). The main technical characteristics of expanded perlite
are shown in Table 2.52.
XPS and EPS are manufactured using thermoplastic resins and then sold as boards.
These materials are adequate to be used in inverted flat roofs solutions (EPS only with
high density), for their high mechanical and biological resistance, as well as high
dimensional stability, null capillary absorption, good resistance to water absorption
and to putrefaction. All these characteristics are important in inverted solutions due
to the constant contact of the insulation material with water. Still, applying XPS
or EPS in inverted solutions requires the additional application of heavy protection
over the thermal insulation layer, as the insulation material is loose-laid. The heavy
protection layer acts not only to ensure the positioning of the insulation boards but
also to protect the system against solar radiation (Schaefer 1977). Alternatively,
some paving slabs solutions already combine the thermal insulation material (XPS)
with a layer of fibre reinforced mortar, integrating heavy protection and insulation
in a single product. On the other hand, polystyrene thermal insulation materials may
158 2 Technology
Table 2.52 Technical specifications of the most commonly used insulation materials in the building
sector (adapted from Lopes [2010], ImperMachado [2014], DuPont [2019a], Fibrosom [2019], and
Viero [2019])
Thermal Thickness Thermal Density Thermal Fire reaction
insulation [mm] resistance [kg/m3 ] conductivity [EN
material [m2 K/W] [W/m K] 13501-1:2018
(2018a)]
Rock wool 60 1.55 25–300 0.038 Euroclass A1
80 2.10
100 2.60
Expanded perlite 60 1.20 15–180 0.041–0.050 Euroclass A2
80 1.60
100 2.00
XPS 30 0.85 30–55 0.034–0.036 Euroclass E
40 1.15
60 1.70
EPS 30 0.80 15–25 0.034–0.037 Euroclass E
140 3.9
240 6.7
Poly-isocyanurate 30 1.30 30–38 0.023 Euroclass B
foam 40 1.70
60 2.60
ICB 40 1.00 100–120 0.037–0.040 Euroclass E
60 1.50
80 2.00
also be applied in traditional flat roofs systems, although preferably in combination

with an independent waterproofing system. In other words, the waterproofing system
should not be applied with the use of heat, as, in those cases, polystyrene may fuse
(Lopes 2010; British Board of Agrément 2013). The low density of XPS and EPS,
associated with easy cutting, allows an easier and faster application when compared
with mineral insulation materials. The boards generally are 1.2 m long by 0.6 m
wide, with thicknesses ranging from 30 to 120 mm for XPS boards, and 30–300 mm
for EPS boards. The main technical characteristics of XPS and EPS are shown in
Table 2.52.
Poly-isocyanurate foam boards have dimensional and mechanical characteristics
similar to those of polystyrene boards. Still, poly-isocyanurate foam has great dimen-
sional stability at high temperatures and excellent behaviour towards fire. These
properties allow the application of a layer of synthetic or bituminous membranes
using heat over the insulation layer (Lopes 2010; Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manu-
facturers Association 2018). The main technical characteristics of poly-isocyanurate
foam are shown in Table 2.52.
2.10 Flat Roofs 159
ICB result from cork, a natural and renewable raw material, whose extraction from
trees is compatible with their life cycle. Besides good thermal insulation properties
(Table 2.52), it is also frequently used as an acoustic insulation material. As ICB have
high permeability to water vapour, when applied in flat roofs, it requires the additional
application of a vapour barrier layer below the boards. Moreover, the behaviour of
this material in the presence of water shows average values of capillary absorption,
after 24 h, 3.5–7 times higher than those of rock wool or expanded polystyrene. In
the case of absorption by immersion, values are even higher, namely 4.5–17 times
higher (Lopes 2010; Gil 2015).
2.10.1.5 Design of Flat Roofs
Flat roofs are susceptible to the action of atmospheric agents (Potter 1991; Carretero-
Ayuso et al. 2019). So, the design of flat roofs must consider the satisfaction of strict
functional requirements in view of adequate performance levels. These requirements
are typically grouped in three fundamental classes, namely: safety, inhabitability
and durability. Economic requirements may be added to the fundamental classes of
requirements. Table 2.53 presents the main functional requirements a flat roof should
comply with.
During the design of flat roofs, and considering the mentioned economic and
functional requirements, various options should be taken into account, namely bear-
ing in mind: accessibility; the existence of a protection layer; type of waterproofing;
the relative position of the thermal insulation and waterproofing layers; slope; and
type of bearing structure. The available options in each of these scopes are listed in
Table 2.54.
As for accessibility concerns, an option is to make the flat roof non-accessible.
This means there is limited access only for maintenance and repair personnel. If
this is the case, special circulation areas, although temporary, should be considered,
creating some pathways. The other options (accessible to people or vehicles) mean
that the design should consider the actions that result from the access to the flat roof,
paying special attention if it should be accessible to heavy vehicles. Special access
refers to green roofs and roofs with industrial or other types of equipment.
The protection layer of flat roofs is meant to protect the waterproofing or thermal
insulation layer from mechanical, weather and chemical aggressive actions. If the
flat roof does not have a protection layer, the upper layer, typically waterproofing, is
exposed. Light protection refers to prefabricated or applied on-site protection. Many
times, prefabricated light protection refers to self-protected membranes, using: fine
sand, fine gravel, and shale lamellae, of mineral origin; aluminium sheet or copper
sheet, of metallic origin; or plastic sheet, of organic origin. Light protection applied
on site refers to fine gravel, aluminium and lime paints. As for heavy protection,
which allows creating pathways, it is always applied on site. Still, it may be a rigid
layer or a layer of loose material. That rigid layer may be a screed, tiles over a screed,
or prefabricated plates of concrete, ceramic materials or wood. Typically, the layer
of loose material results from the use of cobble or coarse gravel.
160 2 Technology
Table 2.53 Functional and economic requirements of flat roofs (adapted from Lopes [2010])
Functional requirement class Requirement category Description
Safety requirements Structural safety Adequate dimensioning
considering the combination
of actions
Safety in case of fire Choice of products with an
adequate fire safety
classification
Safety against regular use Taking into account:
hazards puncturing and accidental
impacts actions, according to
the accessibility conditions of
the flat roof
Resistance of non-structural Taking into account: the
layers towards various actions aggressive actions of
atmospheric agents and the
variability of the indoor
environmental conditions
Inhabitability requirements Water and airtightness Towards water, snow, dust and
air
Thermal comfort Comfort in the winter
(thermal insulation and risk of
condensations) and comfort in
the summer (thermal
insulation and sun protection)
Acoustic comfort Protection against air and
percussion sounds
Visual comfort Natural lighting and adequate
reflectiveness of the
protection layer
Equipment and accessories Adequate position of various
positioning equipment and accessories
that need to be placed on the
roof
Appearance Adequate indoors and
outdoors’ appearance
Durability requirements Preservation of characteristics Preservation of mechanical
resistance properties,
materials, and resistance
towards regular use actions
Cleaning, maintenance and Aequate cleaning,
repair maintenance and repair
conditions
Economic requirements Global costs limitations Complying with the overall
limit of costs of the building
Energy efficiency Improving the building’s
energy efficiency, hence
reducing future energetic
costs
2.10 Flat Roofs 161
Table 2.54 Available options

Scope Options
to consider at the design stage
of a flat roof (adapted from Accessibility Non-accessible
Lopes [2010]) Accessible to people
Accessible to vehicles
Special access
Protection layer Without a protection layer
With a light protection layer
With a heavy protection layer
Type of waterproofing Traditional
material Non-traditional
Relative position of the Thermal insulation below the
thermal insulation layer waterproofing layer
Thermal insulation above the
waterproofing layer
Slope Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Type of bearing structure Rigid
Flexible
As for the type of waterproofing material, at the design stage, two main possibil-
ities must be chosen: traditional or non-traditional materials. Both options may be
applied on-site or prefabricated, and the details on these choices have already been
discussed in Sects. 2.10.1.1 and 2.10.1.2.
The thermal insulation layer may be placed, according to the position of the water-
proofing layer, in two different areas. According to the thermal insulation position,
the effect of thermal, mechanical and other types of actions affects the remaining lay-
ers of the flat roof system differently. The most common solution consists in applying
the thermal insulation as an intermediate layer, as the substrate of the waterproofing
layer. However, another solution is becoming more frequently used, which consists
of applying the thermal insulation layer over the waterproofing. This solution is
called an inverted flat roof (Schaefer 1977). The inverted solution has the advan-
tage of protecting the waterproofing layer from the extreme temperatures that may
affect a flat roof (Fig. 2.50). Still, a wise choice of materials, whether the type of
waterproofing or thermal insulation, is paramount for the success of the traditional
or inverted solutions.
Flat roofs’ main characteristic is having a very low slope, close to horizontal. Still,
the slope below which roofs may be considered flat varies from country to country,
although with small differences. As for the minimal slope, some countries admit a
null slope and others do not. In Portugal, for instance, the General Regulation for
Urban Buildings (Government of Portugal 1951) establishes a minimum 1% slope
162 2 Technology
a b
Fig. 2.50 Comparison of the temperature profile (warm weather case) in (a) a traditional flat roof
and in (b) an inverted flat roof (data from DuPont [2019b]). 1—protection layer; 2—waterproofing
layer; 3—thermal insulation layer; 4—bearing structure
for flat roofs (even though 2% is often recommended). Still, categorising flat roofs
according to slope values cannot be separated from the constituting layers of the
roofing solution and its accessibility. For instance, the slope of accessible flat roofs
should not go over a limit that would hinder the easy circulation of people. Addi-
tionally, roofs may be indirectly classified according to their slope, considering the
ease of rainwater drainage and the possibility of applying specific types of protec-
tion. These are the UEAtc criteria, which defines the four roofing classes referred in
Table 2.54 (European Union of Agrement 2001):
• Class I: allows free standing water and possible use of heavy protection;
• Class II: allows free drainage of water and the possible use of heavy protection;
• Class III: allows free drainage of water, but not the use of heavy protection;
• Class IV: special laying techniques are required because of the slope.
As for the bearing structure, it may be rigid or flexible. These designations are
attributed according to the relative deformations perpendicular to the roof surface
(Chudley and Greeno 2005; Lopes 2010). Rigid structures may be further categorised
in continuous and discontinuous structures. Rigid continuous structures include
solid reinforced and prestressed concrete slabs and rigid discontinuous structures
include precast reinforced or prestressed concrete boards and joists. The most usual
types of flexible structures are corrugated metal sheets and wooden planks (Centre
Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment 2007).
2.10.2 Execution of Flat Roofs
Considering all the specifics about flat roofs that have been mentioned in Sects. 2.10.1
and 2.10.2, some information may be added in the perspective of the execution of a
flat roof.
Starting with the bearing structure, and considering that the details of its execu-
tion are out of the scope of this book, it still should be highlighted that, during its
2.10 Flat Roofs 163
service life, it is necessary to regularly assess the existence of deformations in the

bearing structure. If they exist, they may originate the failure of overlaying layers
and subsequent leakages (Potter 1991).
The shaping layer is usually executed directly over the bearing structure, and it
attributes a slope to the roof surface. This layer may be left out if the bearing struc-
ture already incorporates the desired slope. If executed with materials with insulating
properties, the shaping layer may (totally or partially) replace the thermal insulation
layer. If that is the case, the vapour-barrier should be placed between the bearing struc-
ture and the shaping layer, instead of being applied over the shaping layer (Glover
2009). The shaping layer is considered a significant overload of the flat roof, while
not attributing additional resistance to the bearing structure. Hence, it should prefer-
ably be made with lightweight materials (cellular concrete or lightweight concrete
with expanded clay, insulation cork or expanded polystyrene granules) (Schlumpf
et al. 2013), allowing the correct performance of the whole flat roof system.
The screed layer is used to smooth surfaces when the shaping layer or the bearing
structure is too rough or uneven to receive the next layer (usually, the vapour-barrier).
The vapour-barrier is placed below the thermal insulation layer and over the
shaping or screed layer (depending on the case). It works as a way of avoiding
vapour coming from indoors to condense on the (cold) surface of thermal insulation,
which could decrease its performance.
As mentioned, the thermal insulation layer may be applied between the shaping
layer and the waterproofing layer (traditional solution) or over the waterproofing
(inverted solution). In both cases, execution varies according to the chosen materials.
The water vapour diffusion layer has the purpose of matching the pressure of the
water vapour trapped between the waterproofing layer and its substrate (Houghton-
Evans 2005). This water vapour should be released through adequate construction
solutions like venting chimneys or adequate detailing towards emerging elements
(Lopes 2011). Ultimately, the water vapour diffusion layer has the same purpose as the
vapour barrier, which is preventing water vapour from getting to thermal insulation.
However, if combined with construction details, it also allows the evaporation of
water vapour without the occurrence of condensation (Richardson 2001).
The waterproofing layer is responsible for the watertightness of the flat roof sys-
tem. It may be laid over the thermal insulation layer or over the shaping layer,
depending on the adopted solution (traditional or inverted, respectively). There are
several techniques to apply the waterproofing layer, depending on the adopted solu-
tion and on the chosen material. Those techniques were approached in Sects. 2.10.1.1
and 2.10.1.2.
The protection layer’s purpose is to preserve underlying layers protecting them
from mechanical and environmental actions, ensuring the durability and performance
of the waterproofing or thermal insulation layers. In some cases, namely when under-
lying elements are laid loose, the protection layer may also serve as ballast, avoiding
the lifting of elements (like insulation boards) (Schaefer 1977; Dow 2019). Choos-
ing the type of protection needs to take the accessibility of the roof and the type
of waterproofing into account. Executing the protection layer requires special care
164 2 Technology
to ensure the correct performance of the whole system (Potter 1991; Harrison et al.
2009).
Additionally, in a flat roof system, a separation layer may be used, especially
when a heavy protection layer is applied. In these cases, the separation layer intends
to decrease interactions between the heavy protection layer and the underlying layer
(usually waterproofing).
Equally important for the performance of flat roofs, singular points of flat roofs
require complementary waterproofing works, namely in expansion joints, tail-ends in
emerging elements, parapet walls, rainwater hoppers, downpipes, doorsills, among
others. The execution of construction detailing in singular points of flat roofs is
decisive for the performance of the roof (Chudley and Greeno 2005). Additionally,
the adequate dimensioning of the drainage system, including the slope value, is
paramount to avoid defects through the service life of the flat roof (Lawson 2012).
Ensuring watertightness in singular points essentially depends on applying water-
proofing with great care, considering some specific preventative measures, such as
(Kubal 2008):
• Starting to apply waterproofing from singular points, then continuing to the current
surface, beginning from areas with lower height;
• All tail-ends should be completely adhesive, regardless of the type of connection
used in the current surface;
• Tail-ends should also be reinforced, ensuring a better resistance to pull out, slipping
and cracking;
• When using accessories and auxiliary products, it must be ensured that they are
adequate and advised by the waterproofing manufacturer, thus contributing to the
complete compatibility between used products.
In the case of emerging elements (parapet walls, chimneys or doorsills), where
the current surface meets the emerging element, it is important to design a detail
that simultaneously ensures the watertightness of the waterproofing system and its
durability, considering all potential aggressive agents. In parapet walls, the tail-end
should be executed around the perimeter of the flat roof, considering a height of 10–
30 cm above the final level of the flat roof (Kubal 2008), although the tail-end may
go up to 1 m high (or up to the coping level). Two types of tail-ends may be generally
considered: a protected tail-end and an unprotected tail-end (Fig. 2.51). Unprotected
tail-ends typically end sealed below metal flashings. Typically, protected tail-ends
penetrate the parapet wall, below a layer of reinforced wall render.
As for the tail-end detail below doorsills, special attention should be paid not
only to the extent of waterproofing below the doorsill but also to the height of the
doorsill. A minimum height of 15 cm (from the waterproofing level) is recommended
for this type of tail-end. If such height is not possible to execute, then it is advised
to prolong the waterproofing under the doorsill, protected with mortar, over which
the doorsill element is applied (Centre Scientifique et Technique de la Construction
2016a). Figure 2.52 illustrates the adequate design of the tail-end below a doorsill.
2.10 Flat Roofs 165
a b
Fig. 2.51 Design details of tail-ends of waterproofing in parapet walls (general cases): a protected
tail-end and b unprotected tail-end. 1—wall render; 2—brick masonry; 3—tail-end strip of APP
modified bitumen membrane; 4—heavy protection layer; 5—separation layer; 6—APP modified
bitumen waterproofing membrane; 7—primer (bituminous emulsion) or vapour-barrier (if nec-
essary); 8—bearing structure; 9—sealant; 10—aluminium flashing profile; 11—tail-end strip of
self-protected APP modified bitumen membrane
Fig. 2.52 Design detail of the adequate tail-end in doorsills (general case). 1—doorsill with a
drip edge, laid on a bed of mortar; 2—metal flashing; 3—waterproofing layer; 4—pavers on paver
pedestals; 5—thermal insulation (thickness in accordance with thermal regulations); 6—vapour-
barrier; 7—shaping layer; 8—bearing structure; 9—thermal break to avoid a thermal bridge
166 2 Technology
Fig. 2.53 Design detail of a coping in stone or precast concrete of a parapet wall
In the coping of parapet walls, watertightness should also be ensured. For that pur-
pose, adequate coping elements should be used, namely self-protected waterproof-
ing membranes, sheet metal copings, or prefabricated stone and concrete elements.
Besides the material used, every coping should have a slight slope towards the flat
roof (inward, not outwards) and a water drip in each edge (Fig. 2.53) (Lopes 2011).
As for expansion joints, if they exist, they should have specific design detailing
in order to avoid cracking in the waterproofing layer or detachments in areas of
overlaid tail-ends. Expansion joints details vary according to the type of flat roof. In
accessible flat roofs, the tail-end in expansion joints should not occur at the circulation
level. Hence, the bearing structure (the slab) should be slightly lower in the area
of the expansion joint. Another option is to create the tail-end elevated from the
circulation level. Additionally, if there is a protection layer, and if it has joints, they
should coincide with the expansion joints. Another good practice is to separate the
waterproofing of the expansion joint’s tail-end from the surrounding surface so that
both can move independently. Moreover, expansion joints should not be close to
gutters or roof drains, and the shaping layer should be built so that water runs on
the opposite direction from the expansion joint (Fig. 2.54). No sharp edges should
remain in an expansion joint detail. Both sides of the expansion joint should be
connected by a strip of membrane (wider than the joint itself) and neoprene cord,
while the membrane from the current surface should be interrupted at both sides of
the expansion joints (Fig. 2.54). Over the neoprene cord, a second strip of membrane
is applied, adhesive only on each side (30 cm wide, minimum) (Centre Scientifique
et Technique de la Construction 2016b; Departamento de Edifícios LNEC 2016).
The general case for any singular point in a flat roof consists in applying a flexible
cord at the lower edge to separate the waterproofing layer used in the current surface
from the emerging element. Then, the top of the tail-end should be made through the
strapping of the area, complemented with an appropriate sealant.
2.10 Flat Roofs 167
Fig. 2.54 Design detail of an expansion joint in a flat roof (general case). 1—neoprene cord; 2—tail-
end strip of self-protected APP modified bitumen membrane; 3—tail-end strip of APP modified
bitumen membrane; 4—heavy protection layer; 5—separation layer; 6—APP modified bitumen
waterproofing membrane; 7—primer (bituminous emulsion) or vapour-barrier (if necessary); 8—
shaping layer; 9—bearing structure
Furthermore, in the drainage system, it is important to avoid any kind of obstruc-

tion and connection flaws between the current surface and the drainage equipment. A
roof drain, including a dome strainer, should always be used at the top of downpipes
(Lawson 2012). Also at the top of downpipes, the shaping layer should be lower to
face the thickening of the waterproofing layer in the area and connection elements
should be used between the waterproofing system and the downpipe.
In rainwater drainage areas, it is important to ensure that membranes are applied
in an upwards direction, so that the slight step resulting from the overlaid joints of
the membranes will not be exposed directly to the rainwater.
2.11 Concluding Remarks
This chapter provides a general understanding of the technologies associated with

claddings and building elements included in the proposed building inspection system.
Reading this chapter does not dismiss reading more detailed references, although,
according to the complexity of the analysed building elements, some sections have
a reasonable level of detail.
It is expected that, after reading this chapter, the subject of building pathol-
ogy, approached in Chap. 3, is better informed, as well as the application of repair
techniques (Chap. 5).
168 2 Technology
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Chapter 3
Pathology
Abstract The study of building pathology in a systemised way should privilege the
development of classification lists. Defects and their probable causes are organised as
diagnosis tools in the form of classification lists, providing a sound knowledge base
to the surveyor. These lists should be easy to refer to, organising defects and their
probable causes in a logical sequence. In the context of a global inspection system
for the non-structural building envelope, the classification of defects is organised
into four categories: defects of physical, chemical and mechanical nature, and other
defects. As for probable causes of defects, five categories are devised: design errors;
execution errors; mechanical actions; environmental actions; and use and mainte-
nance errors. Using both lists, the relationship between each defect and each cause is
determined according to the probable contribution of the causes to the occurrence of
a defect. That relationship is identified in the correlation matrix between defects and
probable causes. Furthermore, and considering that often defects occur in a sequence,
defects are associated in an inter-defects correlation matrix, which is based on the
defects–causes correlation matrix and provides the probability of occurrence of a
defect when another occurs.
3.1 Proposed Methodology
Considering the scope of building pathology, and any further established context, like
a specific building element or material, objective classification lists are a determining
tool for an inspection system, or for the organisation of information (CIB W86 1993).
The importance of classification lists requires that some time is dedicated to this
exercise, as a first step in creating an inspection system.
It is essential to review the literature on building pathology in general and in the
specific context of the study. This review should not only include previous approaches
to defects and causes of defects in buildings, façades or building elements, but also
information on building technology, as it provides essential guidelines to issues in
construction and design that can be potential causes of failure. The literature review
should be directed at identifying the common defects and how they are originated.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_3
188 3 Pathology
In this process, two lists should be built, one for defects and one for their probable
causes. There should be no confusion about what constitutes a defect or a cause.
When the inspection system is to be used in a general inspection of a building, it
is advantageous to analyse common defects and causes in specific building elements
and materials. This approach results in separate comprehensive lists per element that
lead to a complex inspection system, with occasional repetitions and a great level
of detail. Such a system may not be ideal when the inspection is not focused on a
specific building element, such as a ceramic tiles cladding. Hence, the separate lists
should be merged into a single global list, adjusting the level of detail, eliminating
repetitions and keeping it concise. This process implies combinations and divisions
of defects or causes, so that the global list may be applied to any building element.
Shorter lists are easier to read, but detail should not be neglected. It should be clear
for a surveyor to which defect a visual observation should correspond to.
After the extension of the lists of defects and causes is adjusted, they should be
coherently organized. The organization criteria should make sense for the context
of the classification and should improve the lists’ readability. It is common, and
advisable, to organize causes in a chronological order; i.e. if an error may occur at
an earlier stage of a building life cycle, like the design or the construction stages,
then the creation of a group of causes named “design errors” may make sense.
Finally, it is important to create a coding system for each list. A code may be useful
to refer to defects or causes in some contexts. Codes are usually a combination of
letters and digits that identify to which list the codes refer to. Additionally, they also
usually identify the group to which a defect or a cause belong to (e.g. A-A1, A-B1,
A-B2, Df7, Df8).
3.2 Classification of Defects
Considering the multiplicity of building elements and materials used in the building
envelope, a global inspection system should be focused on a coherent and consistent
list of defects that could be applied to any building element. The list of defects for
a global inspection system for the non-structural elements of the building envelope
is defined in Table 3.1. The list is organised in four categories, namely: defects of
physical nature; of chemical nature; of mechanical nature; and other defects. These
categories refer to the implicit origin of the defect. Each category corresponds to a
code composed of a capital A (for anomaly), a hyphen and a sequential capital letter
(A, B, C and D). Within each category, a sequential number is attributed to each
defect (A-A1, A-A2, A-B1, A-C1, A-D1, A-D2, and so on). Categories group the
defects according to the type of aggressive actions that affect buildings, the latter
being identified based on visual criteria easily applicable in fieldwork.
Each defect should match a visually identifiable phenomenon. Therefore, the
classification of defects cannot include, for instance, the identification of flaws in the
thermal insulation or in the ventilation system, but only the visible effects caused by
such flaws.
3.2 Classification of Defects 189
Table 3.1 Classification of defects in a global inspection system for the building envelope
Code Denomination Code Denomination
A-A Defects of physical nature
A-A1 Leakage damp A-A4 Colour changes
A-A2 Surface moisture A-A5 Spalling/peeling/exfoliation and
pop-outs
A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris A-A6 Cohesion loss/disaggregation and
chalking
A-B Defects of chemical nature
A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth A-B4 Blistering/bulging
A-B2 Vegetation growth A-B5 Corrosion on the current surface
A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening or
carbonation tail-end elements
A-C Defects of mechanical nature
A-C1 Mapped cracking A-C7 Warpage, swelling, deformation and
other flatness deficiencies
A-C2 Oriented cracking on the current A-C8 Material gap/puncture
surface
A-C3 Fracture or splintering on the current A-C9 Detachment
surface
A-C4 Cracking and/or splintering adjacent A-C10 Loss of adhesion
to joints/edges
A-C5 Wear or scaling of the finishing coat A-C11 Bending and rupture of metallic
fastening elements
A-C6 Scratches/grooves and deep wear – –
A-D Other defects
A-D1 Flaws in tail-end elements A-D9 Insufficient or excessive overlap of
the claddings elements in roofs
A-D2 Misalignment of cladding elements A-D10 Clearances/gaps in door and window
frames
A-D3 Finishing defects/discontinuities in A-D11 Absent or damaged hinges or locks
architectural concrete surfaces in door and window frames
A-D4 Finishing colour flaws in painted A-D12 Ponding/insufficient or excessive
façades slope in roofs
A-D5 Finishing texture flaws in painted A-D13 Inadequate operation of elements of
façades the rainwater drainage system
A-D6 Degradation of the filling material of A-D14 Deficient capping adjacent to flat
current joints roofs
A-D7 Absence/loss of filling material in A-D15 Incorrect or deficient interventions in
connecting elements or current joints claddings of pitched roofs
A-D8 Inadequate operation of expansion – –
joints in flat roofs
190 3 Pathology
3.2.1 Defects of Physical Nature
The “defects of physical nature” (A-A) are related to matter, the physical states of
substances and energy, without changing the chemical composition and properties of
substances (Zumdahl and Zumdahl 2006). Although phenomena of physical nature
are, sometimes, hard to dissociate from phenomena of chemical nature, in the build-
ings context, defects associated with moisture, staining, soiling, colour and disaggre-
gation of claddings are considered defects of physical nature. Starting with humidity
defects, leakage damp and surface moisture are considered. “Leakage damp” (A-
A1) refers to the development of stains (Fig. 3.1, part a), long-term or temporary,
associated with the presence of water, rainwater or plumbing water (Hedlin 1979;
Künzel and Zirkelbach 2008; Agence Qualité Construction [AQC] 2013a). In door
and window frames, it also refers to the admission of water through the glazing.
The defect “surface moisture” (A-A2) refers to the development of stains, long-
term or temporary, associated with the presence of water on the cladding sur-
face resulting from construction damp, rainwater, soil damp and condensation (i.e.
droplets on the cladding surface, as a result of water vapour passing to the liquid
state) (Powell and Robinson 1971; Hedlin 1979; Camuffo 2014; Junior and Carasek
2014). In door and window frames, condensation may occur inside multiple glaz-
ing (Fig. 3.1, part b), in the air gap (Song et al. 2007; AQC 2015). In a specialised
inspection system referring only to door and window frames, defect A-A2 could be
divided into two defects: one to identify condensation on the surface of glazing, and
another to identify condensation inside multiple glazing (Santos et al. 2017). How-
ever, in view of creating a concise list of defects, and avoiding repetition, defect A-A2
includes a set of similar phenomena, varying according to the building’s element and
the material in which they occur.
“Dirt and accumulation of debris” (A-A3) refer to changes in the appearance
of the cladding due to the accretion or deposition of leaves, animal remains, waste,
stickers, paint, dirt (Fig. 3.1, part c), dust, soot or other foreign elements on claddings.
In roofs, it may lead to the obstruction of the rainwater drainage system. Defect A-
A3 also corresponds to graffiti, i.e. unauthorised paintings, drawings or tags on the
claddings’ surface using various types of paint, usually associated with vandalism,
Fig. 3.1 Examples of defects of physical nature: a A-A1 leakage damp; b A-A2 surface damp;
c A-A3 dirt
excluding graffiti as an authorised form of artistic expression. Some authors (Amaro

et al. 2013; Sá et al. 2014; Pires et al. 2015; Silva et al. 2017), in the context of
specialised inspection systems, consider that graffiti is a defect per se, due to a
higher level of detail in the identification of defects. However, the classification of
defects in the context of a global inspection system does not allow that level of detail,
thus combining more specific defects in a broader defect, such as A-A3.
The defect “colour changes” (A-A4) refers to a coating with a heterogenous tone
or brightness or with an altered original colour (e.g.: loss of pigmentation saturation
or yellowing) (Gil et al. 2011). In pitched roofs with plastic claddings and PVC
window frames, this defect is characterized by chemical reactions of oxidation (Asif
et al. 2005; Berdahl et al. 2008). A-A4 may also refer to stains of orange ferrous
colour due to corrosion in adjacent or subjacent metallic elements (Fig. 3.2, part a).
“Spalling/peeling/exfoliation and pop-outs” (A-A5) refer to the detachment of
small portions or layers of the cladding elements without originating the fracture
through their whole thickness. A-A5 also corresponds to little craters on the surface
of ceramic tiles, with concentric cracks and a white dot on the back. In painted
façades, it refers to the spontaneous separation of limited areas of skin due to lack of
adhesion to the substrate (Fig. 3.2, part b). In architectural concrete surfaces, A-A5
refers to the local fragmentation and detachment of the concrete cover layer, possibly
exposing the reinforcement, particularly in prominent areas of the surface (CCAA
T57 2006).
The defect “cohesion loss/disaggregation and chalking” (A-A6) refers to the loss
of mass or separation of the cladding constituents in granule, crystal or dust shape,
with deposition on the surface, resulting from the degradation of one or more con-
stituents. It may also correspond to the progressive disintegration of superficial layers
of the cladding (Fig. 3.2, part c), with gradual loss of the agglutinative role of cement,
if applicable, originating the separation of the constituent aggregates. In pitched roofs
claddings, it is characterized by the deterioration and disaggregation of fibre-cement
claddings (Taylor 1990; Zivica and Bajza 2001; Beddoe and Dorner 2005; Dias et al.
2008).
Fig. 3.2 Examples of defects of physical nature: a A-A4 colour changes; b A-A5 peeling; c A-
A6 disaggregation
192 3 Pathology
3.2.2 Defects of Chemical Nature
“Defects of chemical nature” (A-B) are those related to interactions between sub-
stances that result in transformations of matter. These phenomena are frequently
associated with phenomena of physical nature. In the context of building pathol-
ogy, defects of chemical natural concern the development of living beings (plants,
fungi or insects—biological nature), efflorescence and corrosion. “Biodeteriora-
tion/biological growth” (A-B1) accounts for the accumulation and development of
microorganisms on the surface of claddings or in joints, in the presence of humidity,
mild temperatures, adequate pH and lighting (Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
2007; Barreira and Freitas 2008). A superficial layer, generally thin, of biological
nature and variable colour, usually greenish (Fig. 3.3, part a) or blackened is gen-
erated. It normally arises in corners, top areas and areas of water accumulation. In
wood frames, A-B1 also corresponds to rotting or attack of xylophages, with changes
in the material colour and texture. In the case of fungi, characteristic stains appear;
in the case of woodworms or termites, small holes appear in the wood (Dinwoodie
2000; Bravery et al. 2003). A-B1 is a broad defect, which may arise in every building
element or material used in the building envelope.
The defect “vegetation growth” (A-B2) accounts for the accumulation and pro-
liferation of plants (Fig. 3.3, part b), herbaceous or shrubs, which develop on the
surface of claddings or in joints, in the presence of damp, having solar radiation as
energy source (Flores-Colen et al. 2008; Sazedj et al. 2016).
“Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation” (A-B3) refer to usually
whitish stains of variable extent and shape, at times with local deformation of mortars
or paint coatings. A-B3 corresponds to the crystallization of salts on the surface (efflo-
rescence) or inside the pores (cryptoflorescence) of the cladding or joint filling mate-
rial. Water-soluble crystalline flakes are developed with a powdery appearance, as
well as vitreous-like films hardly soluble in water or runoffs from cracks, as in Fig. 3.3
(part c) (Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 2007; Goldberg 2011). Cryptoflores-
cence may originate the loss of cohesion/disaggregation due to volume increase of
crystallised salts. This defect accrues from the migration followed by evaporation of
water containing soluble salts. Carbonation corresponds to the appearance of whitish
non-soluble calcium carbonate salts incrustations on the cladding surface.
Fig. 3.3 Examples of defects of chemical nature: a A-B1 biological growth; b A-B2 vegetation
growth; c A-B3 efflorescence
Fig. 3.4 Examples of defects of chemical nature: a A-B4 bulging; b A-B5 corrosion on the current
surface; c A-B6 corrosion in metallic fastening
“Blistering/bulging” (A-B4) refers to the separation of a cladding layer from

the substrate with small convex deformations on the surface, translating into the
appearance of pleats, blisters or bulging (Fig. 3.4, part a). Blisters may be filled with
air or water (Paroli and Booth 1997). In severe cases, it may be accompanied by
cracks or detachment (Busching et al. 1978; Ransom 1987; Waldum 1993; Warseck
2003).
“Corrosion on the current surface” (A-B5) is linked to changes in metallic ele-
ments involving the colour, runoffs, blisters, detachments, pricks and perforations
(Korb and olson 1992; Porter 1994; Mattsson 2001). It is applicable to the main
cladding elements and to frames (Fig. 3.4, part b). In turn, “corrosion in metallic fas-
tening or tail-end elements” (A-B6) is specifically applicable to auxiliary elements
of fastening (Fig. 3.4, part c) or tail-ends (Centro Tecnológico da Cerâmica e do
Vidro [CTCV] 1998; Gómez and Gilles 2006).
3.2.3 Defects of Mechanical Nature
“Defects of mechanical nature” (A-C) are related to the phenomena associated with
movement, as well as with energy variations and loads that act on bodies. In the
case of “mapped cracking” (A-C1) (Day 2006; ACI Committee 224 2007), a set
of cracks without a well-defined orientation is formed on the current surface of the
cladding, with a polygonal pattern, resembling a net or mesh (Fig. 3.5, part a). Mapped
cracking does not separate cladding elements in pieces through their whole thickness,
but it may compromise the cladding’s water tightness and durability. In architectural
concrete surfaces, mapped cracking is also known as crazing As for defect “oriented
cracking on the current surface” (A-C2) (Douglas and Ransom 2007; Bakri and
Mydin 2014; Bonshor et al. 2016; Liisma et al. 2016), it corresponds to isolated
cracks with variable dimensions on the cladding’s current surface that, generally,
have a precise direction and slope (Fig. 3.5, part b). They may also present a mildly
jagged/zigzag appearance, according to their origin. The cracks thickness may be
significant and their depth is variable.
“Fracture or splintering on the current surface” (A-C3) is the development of
crevices in cladding elements with its separation into uneven parts, affecting the
194 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.5 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C1 mapped cracking; b A-C2 oriented
cracking on the current surface; c A-C3 fracture on the current surface
whole thickness of the cladding (Fig. 3.5, part c), causing fragments or shard (CTCV
2018). A-C3 compromises water tightness and may be considered an extreme case of
cracking. “Cracking and/or splintering adjacent to joints/edges” (A-C4) is a specific
case of cracking. A-C4 refers to cracking, crushing or splintering of the cladding
in singularities, as in expansion joints, borders (Fig. 3.6, part a) or fastening points.
In these cases, cracks may have a considerable thickness and normally have a well-
defined orientation.
“Wear or scaling of the finishing coat” (A-C5) refers to irreversible changes on the
surface of building elements due to peeling, wear or ageing of the coating (such as
glazing, in tiles) (CTCV 2003). Hence, the surface of the cladding below the finishing
coat becomes exposed (Fig. 3.6, part b). “Scratches/grooves and deep wear” (A-C6),
in turn, refers to superficial lines or grooves, with wider or narrower depth, wear or
ageing of the cladding layers, with mass loss, very common in floorings, but also
occurring in walls, as in Fig. 3.6 (part c) (Neville 2011). Generally, these changes
are caused by mechanical actions.
“Warpage, swelling, deformation and other flatness deficiencies” (A-C7) refer
to the appearance of convex or concave areas in claddings, with the irregular dis-
placement of elements outside their own plan (Fig. 3.7, part a, illustrating a deformed
door). This defect may correspond to the expansion or swelling of elements, dents and
shrinkage (Emmons 1994; Douglas and Ransom 2007; Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute 2007). In external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS), equally
Fig. 3.6 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C4 splintering adjacent to edges; b A-
C5 scaling of the finishing coat; c A-C6 deep wear
Fig. 3.7 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C7 flatness deficiencies; b A-C8 material
gap; c A-C9 detachment of the wall render
spaced horizontal lines may be visible as a result of uneven insulation plates. “Ma-
terial gap/puncture” (A-C8) is the localized absence of cladding material (Fig. 3.7,
part b), corresponding to holes due to piercing actions or to the partial separation and
loss of pieces of the cladding elements, in current areas or in singularities (Madsen
2004).
The defect “detachment” (A-C9) (Douglas and Ransom 2007; Camposinhos 2014;
Gaspar et al. 2016) is the complete or partial separation of cladding elements from
the substrate, possibly resulting from/in gaps on the current surface (Fig. 3.7, part c)
or in singularities. Depending on the application area, detachment may cause the fall
of elements. It was considered, in this classification list of defects, that detachment
applies to wall renders and non-continuous claddings with an indirect fastening
system. on the other hand, “loss of adhesion” (A-C10) is the adhesive rupture in the
cladding-substrate interface (Fig. 3.8, part a), which may result from/in new gaps
(Paroli and Booth 1997; Edis et al. 2014). In the context of the proposed classification
list of defects, “A-C10 Loss of adhesion” only occurs in claddings that were fastened
to the substrate using an adhesive system (e.g.: tiles).
The defect “bending and rupture of metallic fastening elements” (A-C11) refers
to deformations (Fig. 3.8, part b) and breakage of fastening elements, contributing
Fig. 3.8 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C10 loss of adhesion; b A-C11 bending
of metallic fastening element
196 3 Pathology
to the loss of water tightness of a roof or wall. It may also be associated with the
inadequate distribution of fastening points.
3.2.4 Other Defects
The group “other defects” (A-D) includes three types: (i) defects specific to a sin-
gle type of building element or material; (ii) defects referring to a singularity of
the cladding system/building element; and (iii) defects related with design and con-
struction errors, i.e. which already existed at the start of the building’s service life,
and that are associated with a poor quality control throughout the construction pro-
cess. Although the third type may represent, for instance, a mechanical problem,
it is distinguished from defects in groups A-A, A-B and A-C because those only
occur in-service conditions. Following these classification criteria, “flaws in tail-end
elements” (A-D1) refer to the poor design, use of inadequate materials and compo-
nents, and works incorrectly executed (Fig. 3.9, part a), originating local degradation
in tail-ends/singularities of the cladding system, which enable the accumulation or
leakage of water in those areas (Madsen 2004; AQC 2013b; CTCV 2018).
“Misalignment of cladding elements” (A-D2) refers to incorrect longitudinal and
transversal fittings, resulting in rows of elements with clearly irregular alignments in
pitched roofs, and translating into variable overlays from area to area. In natural stone
claddings (Fig. 3.9, part b), A-D2 refers to the absence of linearity/variable dimen-
sions in the joints of stone elements. As for defect “finishing defects/discontinuities
in architectural concrete surfaces” (A-D3), it is a specific anomaly that corresponds to
a set of errors resulting from the execution conditions of concrete surfaces (Emmons
1994; ACI Committee 309 1998; CCAA T57 2006; Vikan 2007; Figueroa and Pala-
cio 2008). Bug-holes (Fig. 3.9, part c) are small cavities of irregular shape, similar
to pores, which do not go over 15 mm of diameter, and, in more severe cases, can
be 20 mm deep. Honeycombing corresponds to large cavities (above 20 mm), not
necessarily but often spherical, with variable depth, arising when the space between
aggregates is not totally filled with mortar. Fastening marks result from the need of
interconnecting the formwork panels, and are considered defects when their shape
Fig. 3.9 Examples of other defects: a A-D1 flaws in tail-end elements; b A-D2 misalignment of
cladding elements; c A-D3 finishing defects/discontinuities in architectural concrete surfaces
is different from the design or when disaggregation of concrete particles or small

voids are detected in the fastening area. Dribbling is a discontinuity visible on the
surface of architectural concrete, which manifests itself through slight linear protru-
sions (reliefs), due to the path taken by the flux of cement grout. Crusts correspond
to the setting of mortar layers, frequently with a different colour, on the hardened
concrete. Formwork incrustation refers to the adhesion of pieces of the formwork
panels to the concrete surface.
“Finishing colour flaws in painted façades” (A-D4) corresponds to a set of flaws
associated with the application conditions of painting works (Talbert 2008). Lapping
is characterized by visible joints between adjacent painted areas, resulting from the
division of the surface during application. Bleeding is the diffusion of a coloured
substance (pigments) through the coating layer, from the substrate, creating stains or
colour changes (Fig. 3.10, part a). “Finishing texture flaws in painted façades” (A-D5)
are also associated with the application conditions of painting works. Cratering is the
appearance, in the coat, of small circular cavities that persist after the drying period
(Schoff 1999). Sagging are local irregularities in the thickness of the paint coat,
caused by the vertical or canted runoff of the painting product during the drying
period. The heterogeneous texture is characterized by local texture irregularities
in the painting coat (Fig. 3.10, part b). In the context of a specialised inspection
system for painted façades, defects A-D4 and A-D5 could correspond to five different
defects (lapping and bleeding, and cratering, sagging and heterogeneous texture,
respectively) (Pires et al. 2015). However, as these defects are only applicable to
painting works, and correspond to a low severity level, although visually unappealing,
in the context of a global inspection system, they were merged into two defects, one
corresponding to colour flaws and the other to texture flaws.
“Degradation of the filling material of current joints” (A-D6) refers to flaws in the
joints’ appearance, such as colour changes, staining (Fig. 3.10, part c) or powdery
consistency of the filling material. In flat roofs, it may also refer to ageing or oxidation
in overlay areas (Croce 2013). The “absence/loss of filling material in connecting
elements or current joints” (A-D7) is characterized by the absence of mastics in
pitched roofs, or joints’ filling material, in situations in which they would be required
(Fig. 3.11, part a). For instance, connecting elements in metallic claddings of pitched
Fig. 3.10 Examples of other defects: a A-D4 finishing colour flaws in painted façades; b A-
D5 finishing texture flaws in painted façades; c A-D6 degradation of the filling material of current
joints
198 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.11 Examples of other defects: a A-D7 loss of filling material in current joints; b A-D8 inad-
equate operation of expansion joints in flat roofs; c A-D9 insufficient overlap of the claddings
elements in roofs
roofs requires the application of mastics. When filling materials are present, they may
show cracks, erosion, dissolution, swelling or loss of adhesion.
The defect “inadequate operation of expansion joints in flat roofs” (A-D8) refers
to the absence of expansion joints, when needed, or to its poor design Fig. 3.11, part
b). It may also refer to the wear, ageing or oxidation of the joints’ elements (Cullen
1965). “Insufficient or excessive overlap of the claddings elements in roofs” (A-D9)
(CTCV 1998) corresponds to the opening of undesired joints between the cladding
elements (Fig. 3.11, part c), compromising the water tightness of roofs. It may also
correspond to the absence of overlay joints in flat roofs, or to their poor design and
execution.
“Clearances/gaps in door and window frames” (A-D10) is the defect that refers
to an incorrect clearance between the frame and the span or between the frame and
the leaf, i.e. between the finished masonry and the frame or between the fixed frame
and the movable leaf, respectively. It may also refer to the opening of connection
joints between frame elements (Fig. 3.12, part a) and to unevenness between movable
adjacent frames (leaves) (Douglas and Ransom 2007). “Absent or damaged hinges
or locks in door and window frames” (A-D11) refer to damaged or malfunctioning
hinges or locks (Fig. 3.12, part b), as well as to missing hinges or locks.
“Ponding/insufficient or excessive slope in roofs” (A-D12) corresponds to roofing
slopes that do not follow the minimum (Fig. 3.12, part c) or maximum established
values for each type of external cladding, considering that, when there is an excessive
Fig. 3.12 Examples of other defects: a A-D10 gaps in door and window frames; b A-D11 absent or
damaged hinges or locks in door and window frames; c A-D12 ponding/insufficient slope in roofs
Fig. 3.13 Examples of other defects: a A-D13 inadequate operation of elements of the rainwater
drainage system; b A-D14 deficient capping adjacent to flat roofs; c A-D15 incorrect or deficient
interventions in claddings of pitched roofs
slope, there may not be an adequate fastening to the substrate elements (National
Roofing Contractors Association 1989; Madsen 2004; Lawson 2012). “Inadequate
operation of elements of the rainwater drainage system” (A-D13) includes the inex-
istence of downspouts or roof drains (in Fig. 3.13, part a, the drain dome strainer
is loose), the poor design of downspouts (location, execution) and the absence or
inadequate design of scuppers, secondary scuppers/overflow pipes or gutters.
“Deficient capping adjacent to flat roofs” (A-D14) refers to the absence of capping
(Fig. 3.13, part b) or to its incorrect design or execution, such as a capping with no
slope or drip detail. “Incorrect or deficient interventions in claddings of pitched
roofs” (A-D15) is the application of cladding elements with shape or dimension
incompatible to the pre-existing elements, and the application of mortar (except in
specific types of pitched roofs) and/or asphalt membranes, for instance, over the
existing cladding in repair works (Fig. 3.13, part c).
3.3 Occurrence of Defects in Building Elements

and Materials
Pathological phenomena have different manifestations, according to the building

element and the building material in which they are detected, even if some defects tend
to occur in almost every type of element. Considering the global building inspection
system of the building envelope, and the methodology applied in its development, a
defects–building elements/materials matrix (Table 3.2) establishes the link between
the classification of defects and the types of building elements and buildings materials
included in the research. The lack of connections registered in such matrix will then
match lines filled with zeros in the defects–causes, defects–diagnosis methods and
defects–repair techniques correlation matrices, as well as lines and columns filled
with zeros in the inter-defects correlation matrix.
In the defects–building elements/materials correlation matrix, if a defect does not
match a specific element/material, it may not mean that other defect classification
processes would not match that defect with that element/material. It means that,
Table 3.2 Defects–building elements/materials matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope
200
Defects External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
claddings roofs ceramic stone window renders façades concrete
of pitched tiling claddings frames surfaces
roofs
A-A Defects of A-A1 • • • •
physical A-A2 • • • • • •
nature
A-A3 • • • • • • • • •
A-A4 • • • • • • • •
A-A5 • • • • •
A-A6 • • • • •
A-B Defects of A-B1 • • • • • • • • •
Chemical A-B2 • • • • • •
nature
A-B3 • • • • • •
A-B4 • • • •
A-B5 • •
A-B6 • • •
A-C Defects of A-C1 • • • • • • • •
mechanical A-C2 • • • • • • •
nature
A-C3 • • • •
A-C4 • • •
A-C5 • • •
A-C6 • • • • •
A-C7 • • • • • •
(continued)
3 Pathology
Defects External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
roofs
A-C8 • • •
A-C9 • • • • •
A-C10 • • • • •
A-C11 • •
A-D other defects A-D1 • • •
A-D2 • •
A-D3 •
A-D4 •
A-D5 •
A-D6 • • •
A-D7 • • • • •
A-D8 •
3.3 Occurrence of Defects in Building Elements and Materials
A-D9 • •
A-D10 •
A-D11 •
A-D12 • •
A-D13 •
A-D14 •
A-D15 •
• Indicates that the defect is considered in the specific building element/material
201
202 3 Pathology
in the context of this global building inspection system, that relationship was not
considered.
3.4 Classification of Probable Causes
After a comprehensive collection of all causes of defects that may affect the several
building elements and materials of the building envelope, successive association and
dissociation iterations were made with the main goal of reaching a list of causes
simultaneously broad and succinct.
In the context of a global inspection system for non-structural elements of the
building envelope, the list of probable causes is defined in Tables 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6,
3.7, and 3.8. This list is organised in five categories that follow a chronological order
(Branco and de Brito 2004), according to the stages of the building life cycle in
which they occur: design errors (design stage), execution errors (execution stage),
mechanical actions, environmental actions and use and maintenance errors (use stage
of the building). Each category is identified by a code composed of a capital C (for
cause), a hyphen and a sequential capital letter (A, B, C, D and E). Within each
category, each defect is attributed a sequential number (C-A1, C-A2, C-B1, C-C1,
C-D1, C-D2, C-E1, and so on).
Table 3.3 Classification of probable causes in the category “design errors” in a global inspection
system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
C-A Design errors
C-A1 Deficient design of the structure/support
C-A2 Deficient design/detailing of the slope
C-A3 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of the ventilation systems
C-A4 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of the thermal insulation system
C-A5 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of constitutive layers
C-A6 Deficient specification of layers’ thickness
C-A7 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of pathway accessories for maintenance access
C-A8 Specification of inadequate or incompatible materials, or missing specification
C-A9 Insufficient functional classification of the elements for the aggressiveness of the
environment in window and door frames
C-A10 Deficient application of regulations and/or specifications
C-A11 Deficient design/detailing of tail-end areas
C-A12 Deficient design/detailing of protruding elements in flat roofs
C-A13 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of singularities
C-A14 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of mechanical reinforcement systems
C-A15 Deficient design/detailing of expansion joints
(continued)
3.4 Classification of Probable Causes 203

Code Denomination
C-A16 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of the water drainage system
C-A17 Deficient design/detailing of overlaps
C-A18 Poorly designed or insufficient cladding joints
C-A19 Missing/incorrect prescription of the fastening system
C-A20 Deficient design/detailing of the area next to the ground
C-A21 Detailing inadequate to the substrate
C-A22 Deficient specification of the clearances between the span and the frame and between
the frame and the leaf in window and door frames
C-A23 Insufficient or badly distributed locks in window and door frames
C-A24 Missing/incorrect prescription of the application method/construction process
C-A25 Missing/incorrect prescription of the environmental conditions for application or
substrate conditions and preparation in painted surfaces
C-A26 Inadequate prescription of formwork or form-release agent in architectural concrete
surfaces
C-A27 Deficient detailing of the reinforcement in architectural concrete surfaces
3.4.1 Design Errors
The causes in the category “design errors” (C-A) are defined in Table 3.3. This
category includes all the causes that may result in building defects and that could
have been avoided at the building design stage, whether if considered in the design
and detailing or in the prescription of materials and of their adequate application.
“Missing/incorrect design/detailing of constitutive layers” (C-A5) is one of the
common design errors. In roofs, it may refer to the absence of the water vapour barrier
or thermal insulation, which may result in condensations in the winter (Lstiburek and
Carmody 1991). Some authors (Douglas and Ransom 2007) argue that the arrange-
ment of the roof’s building elements determines the probability of occurrence of
condensations. The water vapour barrier should be placed below the thermal insu-
lation so that it stops the water vapour from reaching the cold surfaces and forming
condensations due to the thermal differences between the interior and exterior. As
for the thermal insulation, it should be placed in the exterior layers of the roof, to
increase the temperature of the layers that are in direct contact with the indoor water
vapour, minimizing the risk of superficial condensations. The use of thermal insu-
lation in roofs meets the need of decreasing the heat flux between the interior and
the exterior, contributing to the improvement of the hygrothermal comfort and to a
lower energy consumption. C-A5 may also refer to the absence of a separation layer
between the protection layer and the waterproofing layer in flat roofs, which may
result in cracks (Walter et al. 2005).
In adhesive ceramic tiling, C-A5 may refer to the prescription of a single bedding
instead of a double bedding, also known as “back-butter” the tiles. A double bedding
may be advantageous, for instance, when the tiles area is larger than 50 cm2 . In these
204 3 Pathology
Table 3.4 Classification of probable causes in the category “execution errors” in a global inspection
system for the building envelope (part 1 of 2)
Code Denomination
C-B Execution errors
C-B1 Deficient compliance with the design project or tender specifications
C-B2 Use of inexperienced or poorly qualified/unspecialised labour
C-B3 Deficient application of the ventilation and thermal insulation elements
C-B4 Deficient application of layers
C-B5 Lack of precision in the execution of the lath or alignment of the external cladding
elements in pitched roofs
C-B6 Incorrect handling of materials or use of inadequate tools
C-B7 Use of unprescribed, inadequate, incompatible, low quality, non-certified and/or
non-approved materials
C-B8 Use of deficient materials due to the manufacturing process
C-B9 Deficient storage/transportation of materials
C-B10 Incorrect application of sealants
C-B11 Application under unfavourable/extreme weather conditions
C-B12 Missing/incorrect execution of tail-ends and associated protection elements
C-B13 Deficient execution of expansion joints in flat roofs
C-B14 Missing/incorrect execution/dimensioning of cladding joints
C-B15 Cladding laid continuously over substrate joints or over different substrate materials
C-B16 Deficiencies in the filling of joints
C-B17 Disregard for the cladding’s stereotomy
C-B18 Deficient execution of the water drainage system
C-B19 Deficient fastening
C-B20 Missing/incorrect execution of slope
C-B21 Disregard for the pauses between execution stages
C-B22 Application in dirty, chalky, irregular or damp and unprepared substrates
C-B23 Inadequate thickness of the bedding material
C-B24 Use of bedding material with high shrinkage or expansion
C-B25 Deficient application of the span frame, the glass or the window and door frames in
general, or deficient levelling of the leaves
C-B26 Deficient finishing coat
C-B27 Disregard for the composition or recommendations of the manufacturer or of the
prescription, or in the formulation of the product in general
C-B28 Insufficient supervision/quality control
C-B29 Inadequate thickness of the render
Table 3.5 Classification of probable causes in the category “execution errors” in a global inspection
system for the building envelope (part 2 of 2)
Code Denomination
C-B Execution errors
C-B30 Deficient execution of joints between strengthening profiles and between insulation
boards in ETICS
C-B31 Deficient treatment of singularities in ETICS
C-B32 Deficient overlap of reinforcement mesh in splices or of the finishing coat in ETICS
C-B33 Deficient execution of the finishing coat in ETICS
C-B34 Incorrect application of construction elements in ETICS
C-B35 Deficient casting/compaction/curing in architectural concrete surfaces
C-B36 Badly executed casting joint in architectural concrete surfaces
C-B37 Imprecise reinforcement positioning in architectural concrete surfaces
C-B38 Absent/deficiently applied form-release agent in architectural concrete surfaces
Table 3.6 Classification of probable causes in the category “mechanical actions” in a global
inspection system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
C-C Mechanical actions
C-C1 Deformation of the bearing structure/substrate
C-C2 Movements of structural nature of walls or foundations
C-C3 Movement of people or vehicles over the claddings
C-C4 Excessive loads on roofs and floorings
C-C5 Excessive vertical loads in wall claddings
C-C6 Impacts of heavy objects in result of inclement weather
C-C7 Intentional collisions/vandalism
C-C8 Accidental collisions with the cladding
C-C9 Stress concentration within the substrate
C-C10 Fragmentation of the substrate in expansion, peripheral or stone plate joints
C-C11 Vibrations
C-C12 Abrasion
cases, the adhesive material is spread both on the substrate and on the back of the tile.
This method maximizes the contact area between the adhesive material and the back
of the tile and allows the absorption of some flatness flaws of the substrate (Ezral
et al. 2011).
In ETICS, C-A5 may refer to a flawed interface between the system and other
elements (corners and claddings transitioning areas) or to the absence of a primer
coat, which may affect the adhesion of the finishing coat (Kvande et al. 2018). In
painted surfaces, C-A5 may refer to the incorrect prescription of the paint scheme,
206 3 Pathology
Table 3.7 Classification of probable causes in the category of “environmental actions” in a global
Code Denomination
C-D Environmental actions
C-D1 Wind
C-D2 Excessive, insufficient or differentiated solar radiation
C-D3 Chemical action of organic compounds or dirt
C-D4 Action of vegetation growth, fungi or mould
C-D5 Atmospheric contamination/pollution
C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt or small solid particles
C-D7 Temperature
C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow
C-D9 Wet-dry cycles
C-D10 Freeze-thaw cycles
C-D11 Action of water vapour or high relative humidity
C-D12 Dampening of the cladding system
C-D13 Natural ageing
C-D14 Thermal shock
C-D15 Action of chemical agents from the soil, cryptoflorescence and leaching
C-D16 Corrosion of fastening metallic elements and reinforcement
C-D17 Rising damp
C-D18 Erosion
C-D19 Alkali-silica reaction, sulphates or chlorides in architectural concrete surfaces
C-D20 Acids in architectural concrete surfaces
according to the intended purpose (e.g.: decoration, protection of the substrate or

increasing durability). At the design stage, the paint scheme should be prescribed,
including its constituents and formulation, the application method and the treatment
of the substrate.
The “specification of inadequate or incompatible materials, or missing specifica-
tion” (C-A8) is also a common design error. In pitched roofs, an incorrect specifica-
tion may lead to the corrosion of metallic claddings when incompatible metals stay
in direct contact; for instance, steel or copper elements in contact with aluminium or
zinc, originating bimetallic corrosion phenomena (Douglas and Ransom 2007). In
flat roofs, the chemical incompatibility between substrate materials and waterproof-
ing materials may originate the migration of components, like in some plasticised
PVC membranes applied over insulation substrates or bituminous products. As a
consequence, it may reduce the deformation capacity of waterproofing materials and
easily cause cracking (Walter et al. 2005).
In adhesive ceramic tiling, C-A8 may result, for instance, in the choice of cement
grout or standard tile adhesive, without aggregates, to fill joints larger than 5 mm,
Table 3.8 Classification of probable causes in the category “use and maintenance errors” in a
global inspection system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
C-E Use and maintenance errors
C-E1 Inexistent or inadequate maintenance
C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris
C-E3 Replacement of elements by others of different geometry or tonality in external
claddings of pitched roofs
C-E4 Change of the originally planned use conditions
C-E5 Vandalism
C-E6 Insufficient ventilation
C-E7 overly premature use of the flooring in adhesive ceramic tiling
C-E8 Incorrect handling of the movable parts and locking mechanism in door and window
frames
C-E9 Accidental actions inherent to the occupation, movement and normal use of users
C-E10 Equipment failure
C-E11 Perforation of the system/inadequate hole through a wall in ETICS
leading to cracking or loss of adhesion due to the high shrinkage and low elasticity
of the material. In natural stone claddings, it is insufficient to choose the type of
stone merely according to aesthetical criteria, as it may lead to solutions with limited
durability due to inadequacy to use. At the design stage, the prescription of a stone
cladding should include the size of the plates, their thickness and the stone charac-
teristics, the detailed specification of the fastening system and the characteristics and
size of the joints (Camposinhos 2014). An adequate choice of stone for a cladding
should consider its future use, wear and the surrounding environment.
In door and window frames, the inadequate choice of materials may lead to exces-
sive deformations of the frame, as, for instance, the incorrect choice of a coating may
lead to a higher vulnerability to degradation mechanisms. In ETICS, the choice of
an insulation material with insufficient dimensional stability may cause the joints
between insulation plates to become apparent or even to result in cracks in the coat
layer (Mack 2014), if adequate measures are not put in place. It is also agreed that
the choice of dark colours for the finishing layer of a façade surface may result in
cracking. In ETICS, it is also common to associate C-A8 with the lack of corrosion
protection in metallic elements (e.g. unprotected metallic profiles), causing oxida-
tion stains. In painted surfaces, the incorrect prescription of products may indirectly
lead to the occurrence of peeling, blistering, cracking, chalking, colour fading, dirt
accumulation, microbial colonization, craters, sagging or heterogeneous texture, and
may directly lead to the occurrence of lapping or bleeding (Pires et al. 2015). For
instance, the choice of texture of a painted surface conditions its future accumulation
of dirt, and is also associated with the type of paint and paint scheme.
The cause “missing/incorrect design/detailing of singularities” (C-A13) is also
frequently detected. In adhesive ceramic tiling, C-A13 may reflect the absence of
208 3 Pathology
reinforcement solutions of the bedding material (with a fibreglass mesh, for instance)
in areas with stress concentration in the substrate, in order to decrease the stress
transferred to the tiles. In natural stone claddings with an indirect fastening system,
incorrect detailing may cause the rupture of stone plates in the fastening area and
the bending or rupture of the fastening elements (Neto and de Brito 2011). In door
and window frames, the incorrect detailing of the window sill or the absence of
drips may cause leakages, for instance. The lack of capping is also a consequence
of missing detailing and may lead to the occurrence of defects on the façade, as it is
left unprotected from environmental actions. The absence or incorrect detailing of
capping, flashings and drips may lead to the accumulation of dirt on the façade and
to damp associated with water runoff (Fig. 3.14). In more severe cases, damp may
then be associated with biological growth on the façade. The absence of flashings in
ETICS’ parapet walls may also cause blisters.
As in the classification of defects, in the classification of probable causes, the
level of detail had to be adjusted to be integrated on a global inspection system,
frequently merging similar causes that occur in different building elements or mate-
rials. However, some causes specific to a building element or material were kept
isolated, given the potential severity of their effects. The cause “deficient detailing
Fig. 3.14 Incorrect detailing

of a window-sill in an ETICS
façade
of the reinforcement in architectural concrete surfaces” (C-A27) is an example, as it

may result in the occurrence of spalling or honeycombs (Silva et al. 2017).
3.4.2 Execution Errors
Tables 3.4 and 3.5 list the causes in the category “execution errors” (C-B). It refers to
the problems that arise from a poor execution of the design. It includes issues related
to a faulty quality control of materials, as well as with the use of inadequate tools.
“Deficient compliance with the design project or tender specifications” (C-B1)
is a common execution error, as a consequence of lack of communication between
designers, contractors and manufacturers. In pitched roofs, it may lead to faulty tail-
ends and to a slope too low or too steep (Garcez et al. 2012b). In door and window
frames, C-B1 may cause deformations, open joints, misalignments and damaged or
missing hinges and locks (Santos et al. 2017). In wall renders, C-B1 may be an indirect
cause to a multitude of defects, including visual, humidity and mechanical defects.
In painted surfaces, C-B1 may contribute to the occurrence of any defect. Even when
the prescription is correct, if the tender specifications are not fulfilled, the rapid and
pronounced appearance of defects is favoured. In architectural concrete surfaces,
the non-compliance with the design project may lead to the occurrence of stains,
efflorescence, cracking, disaggregation, spalling, flatness defects, honeycombs and
fastening marks (Silva et al. 2017).
The “use of inexperienced or poorly qualified/unspecialised labour” (C-B2) is
also a common cause of defects associated with the execution stage. In roofs, it
may result in faulty fastening and tail-ends, loose or detached cladding elements
and in an inadequate slope. Additionally, in pitched roofs, C-B2 may cause faulty
overlaps, sealants and repairs, condensation, significant deformation, misalignments,
corrosion and cracking (Garcez et al. 2012b). In flat roofs, C-B2 may also cause
creasing/bulging, inadequate expansion joints and overlapping joints, an inadequate
drainage system and faulty capping (Conceição et al. 2017). In door and window
frames, the use of inexperienced labour often results in a lack of care in handling
materials or tools, causing various damages in frames, like burns due to sloppy
welding, dents and distortions.
In wall renders, unspecialised labour may be one of the causes of the occurrence
of corrosion stains (as it may result indirectly in insufficient protection of metallic
elements), dirt, damp, efflorescence/cryptoflorescence, carbonation, adhesion loss,
crumbling and cracking (Sá et al. 2014). In painted surfaces, C-B2 is associated
with the use of an inadequate application method, which may also cause cracking,
as well as peeling, blistering, lapping, sagging, and a heterogeneous texture (Pires
et al. 2015). In architectural concrete surfaces, most of the construction defects
can be avoided with experienced labour. otherwise, defects such as flatness defects,
honeycombs, fastening marks, cement paste runoff, crust and formwork incrustation
tend to appear. Stains, bug holes and cracking may also be related to the use of
inexperienced labour (Silva et al. 2017).
210 3 Pathology
Another common execution error is the “incorrect handling of materials or use

of inadequate tools” (C-B6). In pitched roofs, this cause particularly affects metallic
claddings, as it may result in the early appearance of corrosion associated with
damages in the protection layer. The use of inadequate tools may also leave embedded
particles of other types of metal or cause damages, which become the preferential
points for the occurrence of bimetallic corrosion. In door and window frames, C-
B6 is often associated with broken glazing. In wall renders, this cause is mainly
reflected in the use of unclean tools during construction, which is associated with
the occurrence of efflorescence/cryptoflorescence (if the tools are contaminated with
salts) and loss of adhesion/detachment (Sá et al. 2014). In painted surfaces, C-B6 may
cause cracking, peeling, blistering, lapping, sagging, and a heterogeneous texture
(Pires et al. 2015). In architectural concrete surfaces, the use of inadequate tools
is mainly associated with the formwork, namely panels not properly clean, free of
dust, demoulding agent residue and corrosion. Furthermore, formwork panels should
not be deformed or wrapped due to previous use, which would compromise their
performance (Kenney et al. 2008).
The cause “use of unprescribed, inadequate, incompatible, low quality, non-
certified and/or non-approved materials” (C-B7) includes the use of materials with
manufacturing defects, which is a reflex of quality control issues at the construc-
tion site. In pitched roofs, corroded fasteners are often detected because they are
not stainless (inadequate materials). It is also frequent to detect the use of inade-
quate materials in tail-ends, namely the excessive use of mortar and of asphaltic
membranes. In adhesive ceramic tiling, the use of inadequate materials may cause
detachments, crushed borders, scratches, efflorescence/cryptoflorescence, pop-outs,
the degradation of joints, and the cracking or scaling of the tiles glazing (Silvestre
and de Brito 2009). In natural stone claddings, cause C-B7 may be associated with
the use of mortars with poorly washed sand (direct fastening system). Stains in stone
plates may anticipate and indicate their forthcoming detachment, associated with the
application of non-prescribed products which have constituents that may be absorbed
by the plate, such as solvents of bituminous mastics that exist in joint filling materi-
als. Cause C-B7 also includes the inadequate acceptance of materials with ruptures,
gaps, scratches and burnishing and polishing damages. Additionally, the application
of weakened or cracked stone plates increases the likelihood of being affected by
environmental agents, such as damp. Those plates may also deteriorate faster, con-
tributing to the rupture or mechanical instability of the cladding. In door and window
frames, the use of inadequate or low-quality materials is highly associated with the
detachment of sealing. It may also be associated with the degradation of the frame
coating, as the material may not be adequate to the aggressive environmental actions
to which the frames are subjected.
In wall renders, cause C-B7 may refer to various faults. C-B7 may refer to the use
of water or materials with soluble salts, causing efflorescence, or to the use of mortars
or paint insufficiently permeable to water vapour, hence stopping the evaporation of
water to the exterior, and favouring the occurrence of cryptoflorescence. C-B7 may
also refer to the inadequate use of dark colours in external claddings, which may
amplify the mortar susceptibility to cracking due to differential thermal variations.
In ETICS, cause C-B7 may reflect the use of: an insulation material with insufficient
dimensional stability; insulation plates with different thicknesses; metal elements
without corrosion protection; and a finishing coat with insufficient water permeability
or with a biocide with inadequate protection against micro-organisms. In architectural
concrete surfaces, the use of inadequate materials may be associated with the presence
of chlorides, namely concrete admixtures composed of chlorides, or with the use of
beach sand in the construction process. The use of contaminated water or reactive
aggregates is a direct cause of the occurrence of efflorescence (Silva et al. 2017).
At first sight, the cause “application under unfavourable/extreme weather condi-
tions” (C-B11) could be associated with environmental actions. However, the group
of environmental actions, as well as mechanical actions and use and maintenance
errors, refers to causes that occur during the use stage of the building and that are
not related with the quality of execution. So, in this case, if the material is applied
under unfavourable weather conditions, the issue is rushing the application of the
material not waiting for the optimal conditions. Hence, cause C-B11 is an execution
error. In flat roofs, blisters may occur in the waterproofing membrane if the moisture
content of the substrate is not within specific limits, highlighting the importance
of the weather conditions during the application process. While applying adhesive
ceramic tiling, the solar radiation and the wind intensity should be taken into account
for the drying process of the used materials. Excessive solar radiation and wind, as
well as too high (>30 °C) or too low (<5 °C) temperatures, and too high or too
low relative humidity, are adverse conditions for the application of adhesive ceramic
tiling (Goldberg 2011). The bedding material should be neither completely dry nor
under rainwater when the tiles are applied, to avoid altering the cladding durability
due to the inefficient bonding process. In wall renders, the application of the render
under unfavourable weather conditions is one of the main causes of the occurrence
of mapped cracking.
For ETICS, wind and temperature conditions are also important during the exe-
cution stage of the cladding. The application of this cladding system over a wet
or icy substrate may cause a faulty adhesion and lead to its premature detachment.
The system’s adhesion to the substrate, or even the adhesion between layers, is con-
ditioned by the weather, as the application of bonding materials in humid periods
or at low temperatures implies a larger drying period. on the other hand, with dry
wind in a hot day, the claddings drying process is very fast, which may lead to the
appearance of surface irregularities. In painted surfaces, adverse weather conditions
during application may cause peeling, blistering, cracking, microbial colonization
and finishing texture flaws (Pires et al. 2015). Unfavourable weather conditions may
also be the cause of occurrence of mapped cracking in architectural concrete surfaces
(Fig. 3.15). The appearance of hydration stains in this type of surface may also be
associated with the weather conditions during casting. Additionally, weather con-
ditions may affect the appearance of bug holes on the concrete surface (Silva et al.
2017).
“Missing/incorrect execution of tail-ends and associated protection elements” (C-
B12) is another common execution error. In pitched roofs, it is specifically associ-
ated with incorrect tail-ends in polycarbonate plates, which compromises the alveoli
212 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.15 Defects in an

architectural concrete
surface that were probably
caused by the application in
unfavourable weather
conditions
water tightness, originating the degradation of this type of claddings. In flat roofs,
one of the critical areas of execution of tail-ends occurs below door sills. It is often
detected that door sills are not sufficiently elevated from the roof surface, resulting
in tail-ends executed below the height of the roof surface. Instead, the waterproofing
tail-end should be extended below the sill and, afterwards, the sill should be applied
on a mortar bed (Lopes 2010). Additionally, the correct execution of window sills
is decisive for the protection of the façade from rainwater. The faulty execution of
capping and window sills may be directly associated with the occurrence of runoff
stains (Amaro et al. 2013). In adhesive ceramic tiles, the placement of inlaid unpro-
tected metal accessories in the joints is frequently observed. These accessories tend
to corrode, expand, crack the surrounding tiles and cause their detachment.
“Deficient fastening” (C-B19) is an execution error common in roofs, natural
stone claddings, door and window frames and ETICS. In pitched roofs, connec-
tions are occasionally too tight or the number of fastening elements is insufficient
or excessive. This may cause the deformation of the cladding elements due to the
lack of clearances needed for the free deformation of the elements in cases of tem-
perature variation. This may also originate the development of internal stresses and
subsequent cracking (Aguiar et al. 2011), compromising the water tightness of the
roof. In flat roofs, faulty fastening may cause fractures, detachment and punctures
(Conceição et al. 2017). In natural stone claddings, deficient fastening may be asso-
ciated with the rupture of anchor points, in an indirect fastening system. If the stone
cladding is directly applied on the substrate, deficient fastening may be associated
with insufficient bonding material or a bonding material incompatible with the sub-
strate, creating favourable conditions for the detachment of the stone plates. In door
and window frames, the incorrect fastening of parts of the frame may strongly com-
promise its water tightness (AQC 2013a). In ETICS, C-B19 may correspond to a
faulty anchoring of the insulation to the substrate. When this happens, the system
may become unstable and defects like cracking, detachment or leakage may occur.
C-B19 may also be associated with mechanical anchors too tight in ETICS (current
surface), which may cause mapped cracking (Amaro et al. 2013).
The cause “application in dirty, chalky, irregular or damp and unprepared sub-
strates” (C-B22) is an execution error that may affect adhesive ceramic tiling, natu-
ral stone claddings, wall renders, ETICS and painted surfaces. In adhesive ceramic
tiling, it may cause detachment, colour changes in joints and flatness defects (Sil-
vestre and de Brito 2009). In claddings directly applied on the substrate, the lack
of flatness is a propitious factor for the occurrence of voids in the bedding material,
originating the incomplete contact between the plates, the bedding material and the
substrate, hence providing favourable conditions to the detachment of the cladding
elements. In wall renders, cause C-B22 may be associated with excessive damp on
the substrate, a heterogeneous substrate or a faulty preparation of the substrate. It
may result in dampness and corrosion stains (associated with underlying metallic
elements), cracking and adhesion loss (Sá et al. 2014). In ETICS, an inadequate
preparation of the substrate may cause efflorescence. If the substrate is not properly
clean, it may retain salts on the surface which may then rise to the cladding surface
through local water passages in the joints between insulation plates. C-B22 may also
originate the detachment of the cladding system and lumps (Amaro et al. 2013). In
painted surfaces, a faulty preparation of the substrate may be a direct cause of the
occurrence of peeling, blistering and bleeding (Pires et al. 2015).
It is not always obvious whether the cause of a defect is the result of a design error
or an execution error. It may even be more difficult to assess the origin of the defect
if the surveyor does not have access to project and construction data. So, it should
be highlighted that the visual diagnosis process can only identify likely causes of
detected defects.
3.4.3 Mechanical Actions
Mechanical actions, as causes of defects in the building envelope, are those associated
with the activity of motion and loads on claddings, substrates and building elements
in general, including impacts, movements and stresses. Table 3.6 presents the list of
mechanical actions in the context of a global inspection system for the non-structural
building envelope. Some of the most recurrent mechanical actions may be described
as follows.
The “deformation of the bearing structure/substrate” (C-C1) refers to a change
of shape resulting from the application of loads (Leslie and Potter 2004). Deforma-
tion includes plastic non-recoverable movements, which, in pitched roofs, may be
evident where cladding surfaces have sagged and where ridge lines are excessively
deflected (Fig. 3.16). Cause C-C1 may be associated, in turn, with: a poor design
(sizing and spacing of the structural elements); overloads due to the inadequate sub-
stitution of the cladding; and the degradation of the structural material (e.g. insect
damage to timber structures or corrosion in steel structures). In adhesive ceramic
tiling, the deformation of the substrate may result in the detachment of tiles due to
214 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.16 Deformation of the bearing structure of a pitched roof
post-occupancy settlements or to creep of a structural member. In these cases, tiles

may reach a high-stress state if the characteristics of the bedding material do not
allow for it to degrade stresses (Goldberg 2011). As ceramic tiles have a negligible
tensile strength, any tensile stress leads to cracking of the glazing or of the full tile,
depending on the magnitude of the action. Similarly, the deformation of the substrate
of natural stone claddings may occur due to: variable actions, such as overloads, wind
or earthquakes; or permanent actions, such as the substrate’s own weight, shrinkage,
creep or (differential) settlements. Deformation may lead to cracking and detach-
ment of the stone plates (Neto and de Brito 2011). In door and window frames, the
deformation of the bearing structure/wall may lead to the deformation of the frame
itself and to broken glazing (Santos et al. 2017). In wall renders, deformation is a
direct cause of the occurrence of linear cracking (Sá et al. 2014). In ETICS, signifi-
cant movements of the substrate, incompatible with the system’s stability, may cause
linear cracking as well (Amaro et al. 2013). Finally, architectural concrete surfaces
may also be affected by imposed displacements that originate stresses capable of
physically degrading the cladding.
As for “impacts of heavy objects in result of inclement weather” (C-C6) and “in-
tentional collisions/vandalism” (C-C7), they are probable causes of defects that may
affect a large variety of materials or building elements, even if with a reasonable
degree of uncertainty, depending on the geographical location of the building and on
the area of the façade. When developing an inspection system for a specific material,
it is likely to consider C-C6 and C-C7 in the classification of causes, as opposed to,
for instance, “vibrations” (C-C11), whose most immediate effect is mainly detected
in window frames. Impacts may result from the accidental collision of objects dur-
ing a storm, but they may also be the consequence of vandalism, or other accidental
collisions (C-C8), like those that frequently occur in convex corners. It should be
highlighted that, in the classification of probable causes of the global inspection
system for the building envelope (Tables 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8), vandalism
appears as a cause in both mechanical actions and use and maintenance errors cate-
gories. This is justified by the wide range of actions that vandalism represents. So,
“intentional collisions/vandalism” (C-C7) refers to the mechanical actions of delin-

quency that may affect the building envelope, whilst “vandalism” (C-E5) essentially
refers to unauthorized graffiti.
Impacts, in pitched roofs, may lead directly to significant deformation of the
cladding, spalling, cracking and fractures (Garcez et al. 2012b). Fractures are also
one of the effects of impacts in flat roofs claddings, as well as punctures (Conceição
et al. 2017). Façades are always prone to impacts, although with variable levels of
exposure to the different types of impacts. The effect of impacts in natural stone
claddings varies according to their intensity, accordingly causing cracks, fractures or
even the detachment of stone plates (Neto and de Brito 2011). In door and window
frames, the unpredictability of impacts/extreme weather conditions often leads to
the omission of these actions at the design stage, while choosing the type of frame.
In wall renders, impacts may originate cohesion loss/crumbling, linear cracking and
scratches/grooves (Sá et al. 2014). Impacts are especially relevant in ETICS, due
to the usual low shock resistance of this type of cladding, especially to puncture.
In architectural concrete surfaces, impacts are a direct cause of wear/erosion (Silva
et al. 2017).
3.4.4 Environmental Actions
The group of “environmental actions” (C-D) includes all effects associated with
a construction’s surroundings that affect building elements and materials, such as
water, temperature and dirt. Table 3.7 lists the causes considered environmental
actions in the context of a global inspection system.
“Wind” (C-D1) is a good example of an environmental action that affects the build-
ing envelope. In roofs, wind is one of the major issues to be considered. In pitched
roofs claddings, strong wind may cause serious damages, e.g. the detachment of the
cladding (Fig. 3.17). Additionally, the effect of wind may be more severe if design and
execution degradation factors occur simultaneously, e.g. inadequate slope or extent
of overlaps or deteriorated fastening elements (CTCV 1998). In flat roofs, the wind
is one of the factors that may influence the occurrence of fractures. The abrupt action
of wind may originate the rupture of the waterproofing layer, consequently exposing
the roof, and the building, to atmospheric agents. The cyclic action of wind may
also cause fatigue issues in waterproofing layers, which may also result in cracking
or fractures (Baskaran and Smith 2005). When membranes are mechanically fas-
tened to the substrate, stress may be transferred from the cladding to the substrate in
fastening points (Cook 1992). Even if adhesive waterproofing membranes are used,
special attention should be paid to the perimeter and singularities. It is mandatory
that a roofing system is prepared to withstand wind actions in order to keep its water
tightness (Dixon and Prevatt 2010).
If combined with rain, “wind” (C-D1) may also have a pronounced effect on
façades. In other words, if a small defect occurs on a façade, like the local detachment
of the joint filling material of a tiled surface, rain and wind can easily cause the entry
216 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.17 Ceramic roof tiles

of a pitched roof affected by
strong wind
of water up to the bedding layer or to the substrate. Then, the defect will spread,
bedding will deteriorate and tiles will detach. A similar effect may also originate the
disaggregation of wall renders.
As for the isolated action of wind, some detachment episodes may occur associated
with suction phenomena, but only in extreme conditions, combining an insufficient
adhesion area of tiles with high-speed winds (CTCV 2003). Wind is also associated
with ageing, wear and loss of ceramic tiles’ glazing, and to scratches in window
frames, due to the transportation of dust and sand and to the subsequent abrasion.
For natural stone, the wind is also a relevant abrasion agent, as well as the means of
transportation of salts and contaminants that lodge on the stone plates’ surface and
interact with it. Dust and sand transported by wind may also deposit on wall renders
and architectural concrete surfaces.
In façades, the wind has a particular double effect associated with pressure differ-
ences: while exerting positive pressure on an exposed façade, wind simultaneously
causes negative pressure in adjacent façades (Camposinhos 2014). In natural stone
claddings, the expected effect of wind should be particularly taken into account when
indirect fastening systems are used. In these cases, stone plates and fastening ele-
ments should be designed according to local climate zoning (Chin 2000). In door and
window frames, wind may lead to deformations and to the detachment or fracture of
glazing. However, deformations are only to be expected in extreme situations, when
frames are poorly fastened or already degraded, and when wind is unusually strong.
In regions where strong wind is frequent, reinforcement systems for windows should
be put in place (Unanwa and McDonald 2000; Tamura 2009).
In roofs, rain is an obvious enemy, and their design and execution should always
aim at keeping rainwater from infiltrating the building envelope. However, the “pres-
ence of rainwater or snow” (C-D8) has some less obvious effects. For instance, acid
rain is one of the aggressive agents that play a part in the disaggregation of fibre-
cement tiles, contributing to the loss of cohesion between fibre-cement components
(Dias et al. 2008). In flat roofs, the design of the drainage system, including an ade-
quate slope, is crucial for the efficiency of the roofing system. In this context, when
it rains heavily, secondary scuppers/overflow pipes assume their part as emergency
drains, preventing water from accumulating for long periods if the main scuppers,
drains or gutters are clogged. Additionally, special attention should be paid to the
design and execution of singularities, like the top shape of parapet walls, which
should avoid water accumulation (slope required), and whose capping joints need to
assure watertightness (Douglas and Noy 2011).
The capping of parapet walls also assumes an import role for adjacent façades,
protecting a sensitive area from rainwater entry. To be adequate, capping should
have a drip detail and a slope to avoid water runoff over the façade surface. If a
cement-based mortar is used as the bedding or joint filling material of adhesive tiles,
a water-repellent additive should be used to improve the resistance to penetration
of rainwater. otherwise, efflorescence/carbonation stains, biological growth, wear of
the joint filling material and detachment of the tiles are more likely to occur.
Additionally, rainwater drags along dirt that may remain on the façade after the
water dries. This outcome is influenced by the texture of the façade cladding, affecting
the tendency to retain dirt particles (Chew and Tan 2003). If the cladding is smoother
and more compact, it will ease rinsing the facing by rainwater runoff, which will be
difficult in a more porous and rough cladding.
Rainwater has a dissolution effect on natural stone, namely on limestone, whose
surface loses mass and becomes rough. However, generally, the cohesion of lime-
stone is not affected (Douglas and Ransom 2007). In door and window frames,
besides leakages, rainwater may cause swelling, warpage and shrinkage if absorbed
by unprotected wood frames. These are also more prone to some biological agents
if damp, as unprotected metallic frames are to corrosion. In architectural concrete
surfaces, the dissolution of atmospheric carbon anhydride in rainwater favours its
reaction with the concrete’s alkalis (C-D19), originating white insoluble carbonates
(Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 2007).
The combination of rain and wind results in the direct incidence of rain on façades
causing: the direct penetration of water in cracks or poorly sealed joints, as a conse-
quence of the kinetic energy of drops; and the development of a water curtain (due
to gravity) that progressively penetrates the wall due to a capillarity phenomenon
and wind overpressure (Blocken et al. 2013). These effects contribute to the loss
of cohesion by granular disintegration of rendering mortars (Pereira et al. 2018),
which consists in the rinsing of the mortar’s fine particles and subsequent progres-
sive detachment of particles up to 2 mm with even lighter mechanical actions (Pavía
and Treacy 2006), due to the loss of bond between the rendering mortar components.
In the most severe cases, the substrate may be exposed. Mortars with a low cement
content are more susceptible to this phenomenon. The disaggregation of wall renders
is also facilitated if, first, some other defect exposes their underlying layers. There-
fore, the use of reinforcement mesh in ETICS, or in singularities of other types of
façade claddings, contributing to a lower cracking probability, is a preventive mea-
sure to avoid water from infiltrating the façade and cause further damages on the
surface.
218 3 Pathology
Rainwater also reaches façades indirectly through spatter. As rain falls down on
adjacent surfaces, drops rebound and splash the cladding, staining it. This is common
on adjacent horizontal surfaces, especially on ground floors, where, if water is not
drained on time and temporarily accumulates, the normal circulation of people or
traffic may enlarge the consequences, as does dirt on horizontal surfaces. In the
context of water spatter, if not only ponding occurs, but puddles in dusty or muddy
surfaces, then spatter will immediately cause dirt staining in adjacent claddings.
In summary, the effects of exposure to rainwater depend on: the amount of water;
the speed at which rain hits the façade; the angle between the surface and the rainwater
direction; exposure time; and drying conditions.
The cause “dampening of the cladding system” (C-D12) refers to humidity in a
broader sense and in the total thickness of the cladding. While cause C-D8 includes
the infiltration of rainwater through the building envelope, cause C-D12 includes
leakages from other sources. Moisture may result in blistering or in the development
of creases in waterproofing membranes in flat roofs, for instance. Blisters occur in
the presence of damp and a gaseous substance, which, in these cases, is water vapour
trapped between waterproofing layers or between the waterproofing system and its
substrate. If the entrapment occurs between waterproofing layers, the development
of blisters needs an extra supply of air and humidity (Paroli and Booth 1997) so that
the volume of incoming air is higher than the volume of expelled air. This supply
only occurs if the waterproofing system is not completely sealed, otherwise an initial
bulge would develop but the blistering process would recede. If the entrapment
takes place between the waterproofing system and its substrate, blistering occurs if
the substrate is only slightly permeable, stimulated by temperature increase during
the day, subsequent volume expansion of the gas and additional pressure on the
waterproofing membranes. ETICS claddings are also prone to bulge and blister due
to humidity between layers, and the system’s insulation layer is liable to volume
changes associated with damp (Daniotti and Paolini 2008). The state of conservation
of sealants and metal caps is crucial to avoid damp in an ETICS façade.
Adhesive ceramic tiles may expand if damp, depending on the porosity of the
cladding product. It is the case of tiles in groups AIII (rustic tiles) and BIII (dry-
pressed glazed tiles), as defined by EN 14411:2016 (European Committee for Stan-
dardization 2016), whose high porosity makes them more susceptible to volume
increases (water absorption1 higher than 10%). Natural stone also absorbs water, in
variable amounts, according to stone genesis and porosity. Water in stone may be
aggressive due to the chemical reactions that may occur and to the substances that may
be transported in water. Damp may simply result in staining or it may have an erod-
ing effect, depending on the type of stone (Bortz and Wonneberger 2000). In general
terms, porosity, capillarity, permeability and hygroscopicity are determinant proper-
ties of building materials, as they affect the behaviour of materials towards humid
environments or moisture (Neto and de Brito 2011). If a material is very porous, it
should be cautiously applied in regions with low winter/night temperatures, as water
can freeze and result in mechanical defects due to volume increase.
1 Percent by mass.
Dampening also plays an important role in biological growth, including vegetation

growth. For a fungus or a plant to develop, temperature and solar radiation conditions
are also important; nevertheless, a high water content is frequently associated with
mild temperatures and less sunlit areas. Some fungi prefer those areas, whereas
vegetation is more prone to develop in well-lit areas of claddings, also benefiting
from the accumulation of dirt in joints, cracks and tail-ends.
In metallic elements, damp is associated with corrosion. It may occur in fastening
elements, flashings, roof drains and door and window frames, whether unprotected
or with a degraded coating. Protruding elements in façades, supported by metallic
brackets, tubing and various fastening elements, often do not age well, tending to
oxidize and, in more serious cases, even corrode. The orange residue accumulated on
the surface of ferrous elements is then transported by rain and originates stains on the
cladding (Flores-Colen et al. 2008). The longer maintenance actions are postponed,
the longer and darker the stain gets.
In painted walls, the so-called construction moisture (Pereira et al. 2018), associ-
ated with the excessive water content of materials at the construction stage, affects
the integrity of a paint coat approximately for a year, possibly causing blisters, peel-
ing, mapped cracking and chalking. Painted façades may also be affected by damp
in terms of colour, efflorescence, craters and microbiological colonization.
“Temperature” (C-D7) is one of the factors that define comfort for a building’s
inhabitants, expecting that indoor target temperatures vary between 19 and 28 °C
(American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
2013). Extreme temperatures, too high or too low, may be damaging to building
materials, conditioning storing conditions of materials and the optimal application
period of claddings (e.g. walls should only be painted at 5–35 °C). Every material
has a range of optimal temperatures in which it keeps its original characteristics,
not causing damages to the building envelope. The temperature of each material
constituting the building envelope influences the behaviour of the whole system. For
instance, condensation on a cladding surface is influenced not only by ventilation, air
temperature and type of indoor activities, but also by the surface material’s temper-
ature—if it is below the dew point, water vapour (C-D11) will condensate. Because
temperature is associated with condensation phenomena, it is a factor that influences
the occurrence of corrosion (C-D16) in metallic elements. In rendered walls, par-
ticularly façade walls, thermophoresis phenomena are frequently observed, when
the cladding substrate is heterogeneous (e.g. concrete elements, masonry blocks and
mortar) and, consequently, differential superficial temperatures are observed (Ascher
2000). Thermophoresis implies the superficial accumulation of dirt in a surface due
to superficial condensation.
Temperature variations associated with damp claddings are also worrying if atmo-
spheric temperature usually goes below 0 °C. In these situations, “freeze-thaw cycles”
(C-D10) are prone to occur, as the cladding’s drying time is long, water is retained
in the material’s pores (according to its absorption capacity) and freezes. In the solid
state, the water volume increases, which may result in spalling or disaggregation of
the material’s outermost layer. “Thermal shock” (C-D14) may also be of concern in
natural stone claddings, whose resistance to thermal shock should be known ahead,
220 3 Pathology
as it is a durability property that should be tested by the manufacturer. Sudden tem-

perature changes, associated with humidity, may lead to appearance changes (e.g.
oxidation, loss of material, cracking, and staining). In cyclic temperatures environ-
ments, reaching temperatures below 0 °C instigates cracking and spalling due to
water-content variations. The same defects, as well as granular disintegration, may
also occur in the case of fire.
As mentioned, the “excessive, insufficient or differentiated incidence of solar
radiation” (C-D2) is an environmental factor that affects the degradation of claddings.
The use of photosensitive materials and materials affected by temperature variations
potentiates such degradation. In the building envelope, solar radiation cannot be
completely avoided, neither can it be constant nor reach every area equally. Instead,
materials need to have specific properties in order to age gracefully, even when
exposed to harsh light conditions. on the other hand, at the design stage, there are
two options if a material is known to decay or to discolour due to solar radiation: the
façade design may take advantage of that ageing sign (Mostafavi and Leatherbarrow
1993), or the maintenance plan should predict regular maintenance of that building
element. The latter is the case of plastic claddings, like those used in pitched roofs.
If non-opaque, plastic claddings may lose their translucent capacity, due to chemical
reactions of oxidation. Additionally, the low resistance to temperature variations,
associated with a prolonged exposure to sunlight, may be linked with the occurrence
of cracking, as plastic materials become brittle with higher temperatures (Domone
and Illston 2010).
In flat roofs, waterproofing membranes, if exposed, are also subjected to ultravio-
let radiation. The location of the building determines the level of ultraviolet exposure,
conditioning the cladding system ageing process—a higher level of exposure corre-
sponds to faster decay (Foley et al. 2002). Ultraviolet radiation acts combined with
high increases in temperature, which are also harmful to materials of waterproofing
systems (bituminous membranes and glues). The most frequent consequence for a
flat roof is the appearance of cracks, as a consequence of dimensional change due to
temperature variation. The phenomenon is also known as heat ageing (Mailvaganam
et al. 1998; Chew et al. 2000). In fact, dimensional changes due to temperature vari-
ation are phenomena that should be considered in every material, according to its
specific coefficient of thermal expansion. The tightness of fastening elements and
joints’ size should be prescribed according to that property of the cladding material.
In turn, PVC window frames are more prone to colour changes than other window
frames’ coloured materials. Still, great progress was accomplished by manufacturers
and, nowadays, new plastic frames are more dimensionally stable and resistant to
degradation, when compared to the first PVC door and window frames. Wood frames
are also susceptible to colour changes when exposed to sunlight, i.e. areas exposed to
sunlight tend to get yellowish as the wood surface’s lignin is decomposed (Andrady
et al. 1998). Sealants of door and window frames may also deteriorate if exposed
to solar radiation. Temperature variations may exert a shrinkage or stiffening effect
over mastics, as well as modify their deformation behaviour. Still, many mastics
tolerate temperatures between −20 °C and +70 °C, depending on their stiffening
and softening temperatures (Gehman et al. 1950; Hall 1985). The material of door and
window frames may also be susceptible to deformation associated with temperature

changes.
other materials may be damaged by solar radiation. Ceramic tiles may detach from
the substrate when, after a cold period, the sun reaches the surface intensively. That
kind of occurrence is associated with stress and sudden temperature rise. The wider
the surface of ceramic tiles, the more important the dimensional changes caused by
temperature variation. For the same reason, the coefficient of thermal expansion of
directly fastened natural stone claddings should also be compatible with that of the
substrate. otherwise, the bedding material and joints should absorb any dimensional
changes in order to avoid mechanical defects. As tiles may dimensionally vary with
temperature, bedding materials need to be deformable enough to adapt to those
changes and degrade stress between tiles and substrates. As the colour of the tile
affects the amount of absorbed radiation, in southeast and west-oriented façades
(in the North hemisphere), dark tiles2 should only be applied in confined areas,
preferably receding from the building’s perimeter (Comité d’Application CERTIFIE
CSTB CERTIFIED 2011). Additionally, joint filling materials are also sensitive to
solar radiation, particularly in terms of colour changes.
In rendered façades, whether with painted or pigmented renders, solar radiation
acts as an accelerating factor of the degradation process, even more in combination
with other atmospheric agents. Colour and general appearance changes, namely
blurred and fainted colours, loss of saturation of pigments, brightness changes and
yellowing, are common consequences of excessive exposure to sunlight and lack of
maintenance of renders. If the façade is south-oriented and the colours are vivid or
dark, the phenomenon is more severe and perceptible. In painted façades, mapped
cracking followed by peeling may also occur as a consequence of the paint pellicle
low resistance to dimensional variations associated with abrupt temperature changes
(Schoff 1999). Even the coating of painted frames is subject to degradation associated
with extreme temperatures and high thermal amplitude.
Combined with other atmospheric and degradation conditions, solar radiation
contributes to the development of vegetation as an energy source. In contrast, insuf-
ficient solar radiation is instrumental in the development of biological colonization.
Two thresholds should be taken into account: below 0 °C many organisms may be
killed, and above 40 °C the habitat for microorganisms is unfavourable (Camuffo
2014). Inside this range, up to 20 °C, many metabolic processes are favoured, and
from 20 to 35 °C microbiological activity is the most relevant. However, it should
be kept in mind that temperature is not the only relevant environmental factor for
biological growth.
“Vegetation growth, fungi and mould” (C-D4) also act as a cause of other defects.
For instance, in pitched roofs, the growth of some vegetation in the cladding system’s
singularities may result in the absence or deterioration of sealants (Garcez et al.
2012b), as roots may lead to mechanical defects. A similar phenomenon may occur in
the joints of adhesive ceramic tiling. Vegetation growth can also be an obstacle for the
regular water flow in the rainwater drainage system. In another context, the existence
2 In this context, dark colours are those with a solar radiation absorption coefficient above 0.7.
222 3 Pathology
of vegetation next to the façade may, in some cases, be harmful. Dense vegetation
interferes with sunlight, ventilation, and reduces the regular drying of claddings. As
an example, one can mention the shade some large bushes and trees project on a
façade, hence contributing to the growth of microorganisms, such as lichens. Fungi
and mould affect the façade visually, causing dirt and chemical reactions in some
claddings, like natural stone plates. In wood door and window frames, fungi may
have a more acute effect associated with rot.
“Atmospheric contamination/pollution” (C-D5) also acts as an environmental
action that often results in defects. In buildings, acid rain is one of its means of
action. Fibre-cement, for instance, is affected in its matrix, which tends to deteri-
orate as a consequence of chemical reactions (Dias et al. 2008). Clay slates may
develop anomalies due to sulphuric acid, weakening the plates as calcium sulphate is
formed (Douglas and Ransom 2007). Additionally, in highly polluted regions, iron
pyrites present in clay slates tend to oxidise, which, in turn, causes flaking.
Atmospheric pollution is one of the sources of salts that cause efflorescence on
the surface of a cladding (Morillas et al. 2015). Such type of efflorescence looks like
white powder and is water-soluble (Fig. 3.18). Pollution is also the source of some
deposition pellicles that develop dirt stains on façades (Ausset et al. 2000), which may
be conditioned by the cladding’s roughness. Water runoffs on façades are likely to be
more contrasting in more polluted regions, as particles accumulate on damp areas.
Natural stone is negatively affected by atmospheric pollution, not only by airborne
particles but also by polluting gases from industrial areas and combustion engines
(Matovic et al. 2000). Gases combined with rainwater, condensation, temperature,
humidity, aerosols, and meteorological agents direct the dispersion and deposition
of contaminants. Then, relative humidity controls the adsorption of substances and
their reaction with the stone’s components (Bede 2000). Changes in natural stone
claddings associated with pollution may not be merely visual. The physical structure
may also be altered, resulting in cracking, disaggregation or volume increase.
Fig. 3.18 Efflorescence in

an architectural concrete
surface
Façades and roofs may also have trouble with the “accumulation of dust dirt or
small solid particles” (C-D6). That accumulation may be uniform or differential. It
is common to detect issues with the water flow associated with dirt accumulation, for
instance, next to window sills and on stone anchoring areas. Additionally, in protected
areas, dust may not be washed away by rain or blown by the wind, adhering to the
wall face, and progressively making large and noticeable stains. The adhesion process
depends on the façade’s materials, texture, type of joints, other singularities, draining
elements, discontinuities, and atmospheric conditions. Particularly natural stone, and
natural stone-based materials, get partially covered by crusts (commonly black crusts)
when sulphates, salts, iron and carbon particles are deposited. More serious defects
may, then, arise from those deposits, like the detachment of an external layer (5–
20 mm) of stone (Douglas and Ransom 2007). In coastal regions, cause C-D6 may
correspond to the accumulation of wall-saltpetre. Dirt particles and dust may also be
a nutritious matter for the development of vegetation or other biological growth.
Finally, “natural ageing” (C-D13) should be mentioned. Ageing is a process
related with the sensitiveness to aggressive agents and to the damages and properties
alterations those agents may cause through time. Ageing may even be intentional,
to the point of putting materials through artificial ageing processes for aesthetical
purposes. For the building envelope claddings, the location of the building and the
corresponding environmental conditions are crucial for the ageing rate. The harsher
the surrounding conditions, the more perceptible the ageing process. Nevertheless,
the material’s properties also have a significant influence on this process. If the
material reacts better to damp, abrasion, solar radiation, temperature and dimen-
sional differences, biological agents, and impacts, then the passage of time will not
be as apparent. The ageing process of building elements may be visible by observing
stains, dirt patterns, wear, cracking, spalling, disintegration, corrosion and detach-
ment, among other defects. The possibility of being easily repaired and maintained
through simple routine actions works in favour of the building element weathering
well, in a pleasant manner.
3.4.5 Use and Maintenance Errors
Causes of defects considered “use and maintenance errors” (C-E) are those actions
over the building elements that are specifically associated with human activities
during the building service life. Inhabitants, users and passers-by may leave a mark
on a cladding, for instance, due to current use, inadequate cleaning or misguided
repairs. Table 3.8 lists use and maintenance errors that affect the building envelope.
When performing visual inspections, it is not clear that use or maintenance faults are
the only probable causes of a defect. However, when degradation is at an advanced
stage that may be the case.
A building has durability demands that should be fulfilled. Maintenance is one of
the actions that contribute to a longer service life if properly planned and executed,
as part of well-considered strategy. Hence, each building element and each material
224 3 Pathology
should undergo maintenance actions to preserve and extend its original performance.
Maintenance should also be a part of economic decisions from the earliest steps
of construction options up to the end of the building’s life cycle, as (known and
predicted) maintenance actions represent costs but also result on savings (Woodward
1997). Cause C-E1 refers to “inexistent or inadequate maintenance” and to how it
may hinder the building’s functioning. When no maintenance actions are carried
out, incipient pathological processes are free to progress and cause new defects,
contributing to a higher severity of deterioration phenomena (Aguiar et al. 2011).
According to Garcez et al. (2012a), the absence of maintenance or its inadequacy is
the second main cause of the occurrence of defects in pitched roofs’ claddings (linked
to 21% of detected defects). Particularly in pitched roofs, claddings may show signs
of lack of maintenance when deformation occurs due to the insufficient resistant
capacity of the roof’s structural elements. For instance, many pitched roofs still use a
wooden structure, which needs specific maintenance actions in order to preserve its
performance. If the pitched roof is ventilated, for instance, bi-annual maintenance is
required to ensure that vents are not obstructed (Morgado et al. 2017). The frequency
of this type of operation is particularly important for clay slates, ceramic and micro-
concrete roof tiles. Additionally, the application of mortar over cladding elements
in pitched roofs is an inadequate repair operation, as is the placement of asphalt
waterproofing membranes.
Some defects may also result from inadequate maintenance when a cladding
material is altered or new layers are added over an existing bearing structure. Biode-
terioration/biological growth is also a recurrent sign of lack of maintenance (CTCV
1998), not only because it may be associated with dirt accumulation but also because
it is a sign that protection products, like water repellent, antifungal or biocides, have
not been renewed as they should. Corrosion processes often occur due to lack of main-
tenance, when protective coatings are not reapplied, or to inadequate maintenance,
when repairs damage those protective coatings due to little care. Even when planned
maintenance operations are carried out on time and with adequate products, workers
should be careful not to affect building elements that do not need maintenance, as
unexpected or excessive loads may cause unwanted mechanical issues.
Joints between cladding elements, or between building elements, also need main-
tenance. otherwise, they will deteriorate as the filling materials get older and water
sees a pathway for infiltration. This may result in leaching of the bedding material, as
well as saline efflorescence. Fastening elements not substituted in time, due to their
corrosion or general deterioration, are also a consequence of poor maintenance. This
may be especially serious if it leads to falling cladding plates or protruding elements
installed on the façade.
In door and window frames, hinges, locks and handles are some of the elements
that may suffer the most from lack of maintenance. As they are intensively used
whenever a door or a window is opened or closed, these elements may show signs of
degradation before the door and window pane. A simple lubricating operation may
sometimes be enough to improve the performance of a frame.
In painted rendered walls, deficient maintenance may be associated with inade-
quate repainting frequency, which is detrimental to the paint’s protective role and
to the building surfaces’ appearance. Minor repairs poorly executed may also cause
damages in a façade cladding. For instance, more often than not, in wall renders, a
mortar gap may be filled without a finishing coat, the repair may not be levelled with
the pre-existing surface, or the new mortar may be incompatible with the existing
one, leading to the premature detachment of the repair layer.
In general, the repair of partial detachments of claddings may be undisguisable
(texture and colour differences, flatness issues, etc.). However, experienced labour,
a correct delimitation and the appropriate connection with the existing cladding may
avoid further defects. Prescribers and labour have to remember that repairing, reha-
bilitating, maintaining and restoring a building element requires specific materials
and techniques, or the results will not come as expected. In façades, repairs or tem-
porary equipment should also be forbidden from drilling claddings, as, in the future,
hiding those holes may be difficult or impossible and cause more severe defects.
Not doing or planning building inspections, or having faulty inspections, also
constitutes a maintenance failure. Any maintenance calendar should include regular
planned inspections, notwithstanding occasional inspections, in order to verify the
functionality, stability and appearance of building elements. When no inspections are
done, some defects are more likely to occur, as minor repairs and cleaning operation
tend to be scarcer.
Cleaning building elements is also a way of maintaining and extending their
service life. In the building envelope inspection system, cause C-E2 refers to “miss-
ing/inadequate cleaning of debris”. In this context, cleaning includes washing with
water and the use of several cleaning equipment (brushes, cloths, high-pressure water
jet), which if used inadequately may leave marks on building elements. Considering
the large span of probable causes of defects, it was preferred to define C-E2 as a very
comprehensive cause, instead of dividing it into three or four more detailed causes.
However, when developing a more specific inspection system, it is acceptable to con-
sider additional independent causes, for instance: (i) lack of cleaning/washing; (ii)
inadequate cleaning/washing technique; (iii) use of inadequate cleaning equipment;
(iv) use of inadequate washing products. For the current purposes, and applying a
general conciseness criterion, going into that level of detail would be redundant and
the source of some confusion for more inexperienced users of the inspection system.
Dirt may contribute to the deterioration of materials (e.g. it interferes in the per-
spiration of ceramic tiles), and debris may harm the normal operation of drainage
systems or door and window frames. Efflorescence, vegetation (Fig. 3.19), fungi,
algae, lichens, insects and other small animals may also affect claddings in a dam-
aging way and can be removed through cleaning techniques, even though further
action is needed for their reoccurrence to be avoided. If the design misses the detail-
ing of a specific system, like under-dimensioning a gutter, debris only emphasize
those issues. So, cleaning, including the occasional wash with advised products, is
paramount for a long service life of building elements, and, thus, of buildings. Clean-
ing adjacent elements to the one on focus is a step forward to the overall cleanliness
and avoidance of subsequent issues.
Each type of building element and material has an adequate cleaning periodicity.
It should consider the type of use of the building and environmental conditions, as
226 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.19 Vegetation growth

in a façade associated with
the lack of cleaning of debris
on horizontal surfaces
should other maintenance and repair actions. Additionally, every material has a set
of adequate cleaning products that should be used in specific cleaning operations,
and the application of other products may cause worse problems than dirt itself (e.g.
irreversible stains). The characteristics of materials should be known prior to estab-
lishing a maintenance plan, and, when doubts arise, the manufacturer should indicate
the best cleaning products’ options. If a specific material is no longer manufactured,
the composing raw materials should be analysed, and cleaning products for the most
similar building material can be used, provided they are previously tested in a small
secluded area.
It should be noticed that, in Sect. 3.2.1, dirt and accumulation of debris were
identified as defect A-A3. Here, as a cause, C-E2 refers to missing/inadequate clean-
ing of debris, attributing the causal relationship to the act of not removing foreign
substances or objects. In fact, visually, dirt is identified as part of the pathological
process both as the defect and as the cause of other defects. However, it is interpreted
that dirt and debris only result in other defects if not properly managed.
Vandalism was already approached in Sect. 3.2.3 due to the mechanical effects
of a type of vandalism. As a use error, “vandalism” (C-E5) represents illegal graf-
fiti, littering, and similar damages that delinquency causes in buildings, excluding
impacts, fractures, broken windows, which are all included in cause C-C7. Graffiti
on unprotected surfaces, and even on protected surfaces, may be very damaging,
according to the porosity of the cladding material. For instance, graffiti on a porous
natural stone plate may reach deeper layers and may need to be removed through
harshly abrasive techniques, implying a loss of stone thickness and damaging visual
effects (Carvalhão and Dionísio 2015). In some scenarios, graffiti are impossible to
be completely removed. Anti-graffiti protection is hindered by the large range of
paint that is used by graffiti makers.
The routine association of all the above-mentioned causes with defects may
provide a better understanding of building pathology.
3.5 Occurrence of Causes of Defects in Building Elements and Materials 227
3.5 Occurrence of Causes of Defects in Building Elements

and Materials
According to the building element or material, the origin of defects may differ, even if
some causes affect several elements the same way. Considering the global building
inspection system, and its development methodology, a probable causes–building
elements/materials matrix (Table 3.9) expresses the effect a cause may, or may not,
have in an element/material. The lack of relationship expressed in this matrix matches
columns filled with zeros in the defects–probable causes matrix.
In the probable causes–building elements/materials matrix, if a cause is consid-
ered not to affect a specific building element/material, it may not mean that other
researches, applying other methods, would also exclude that relationship. It means
that applying the methodology of this global building inspection system results in
excluding that relationship.
3.6 Defects–Causes Correlation
While inspecting a building, defects may be visually identified or detected/confirmed

through in situ and laboratory tests. Whatever the means used, the surveyor always
tries to determine causal relationships to diagnose the origin of an anomaly. In situ
and laboratory tests are often performed to help determine the exact causes of an
occurrence previously visually identified. However, through simple observation, a
more or less experienced surveyor is able to identify probable causes of a detected
defect. To expedite the determination of a causal relationship, and to make that
process less dependent on the surveyor’s professional experience, building inspection
systems should use correlation matrices (Branco and de Brito 2004). Correlation
matrices may be considered the backbone of building inspection systems (Silvestre
and de Brito 2009), including the correlation matrix between defects and probable
causes and the inter-defects correlation matrix. These type of matrices guide the
surveyor through the process of checking the contribution of listed probable causes
to a specific defect and determining the simultaneous occurrence of defects.
The development of the defects–probable causes and inter–defects correlation
matrices is the subject of the following sections. Examples of both matrices are
provided.
3.6.1 Defects–Probable Causes Correlation Matrix
The defects–probable causes correlation matrix is a schematisation of the most prob-

able relationship between a building defect and a cause. Figure 3.20 is a simplistic
representation of an empty correlation matrix. Each row corresponds to a defect,
Table 3.9 Probable causes–building elements/materials matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope
228
Probable causes External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
roofs
C-A Design errors C-A1 o •
C-A2 • • •
C-A3 • •
C-A4 • •
C-A5 • • • • •
C-A6 • •
C-A7 • • • •
C-A8 • • • • • • • •
C-A9 •
C-A10 • •
C-A11 • • •
C-A12 •
C-A13 • • • • • •
C-A14 • •
C-A15 • •
C-A16 • • • •
C-A17 • •
C-A18 • •
(continued)
3 Pathology
roofs
C-A19 • •
C-A20 • •
C-A21 • • •
C-A22 •
C-A23 •
C-A24 • •
C-A25 •
C-A26 •
C-A27 •
C-B Execution C-B1 • • • • •
errors C-B2 • • • • • •
C-B3 • •
C-B4 • • •
C-B5 •
C-B6 • • • • •
C-B7 • • • • • • • •
C-B8 • • • •
C-B9 • • • •
(continued)
229
230
roofs
C-B10 • •
C-B11 • • • • • •
C-B12 • • • • •
C-B13 •
C-B14 • • • •
C-B15 • •
C-B16 • •
C-B17 • •
C-B18 • •
C-B19 • • • • •
C-B20 • •
C-B21 • • • •
C-B22 • • • • •
C-B23 • • •
C-B24 • •
C-B25 •
C-B26 • •
C-B27 • • •
(continued)
3 Pathology
roofs
C-B28 • • •
C-B29 •
C-B30 •
C-B31 •
C-B32 •
C-B Execution C-B33 •
errors C-B34 •
C-B35 •
C-B36 •
C-B37 •
C-B38 •
C-C Mechanical C-C1 • • • • • • •
actions C-C2 • • • •
C-C3 • • • •
C-C4 • • • •
C-C5 • • •
C-C6 • • • • • • • •
C-C7 • • • • • • • •
(continued)
231
232
roofs
C-C8 • • • • • • •
C-C9 • • • •
C-C10 •
C-C11 • •
C-C12 • •
C-D Environmental C-D1 • • • • • • •
actions C-D2 • • • • • • • •
C-D3 • • •
C-D4 • • • • • • •
C-D5 • • • • • • •
C-D6 • • • • •
C-D7 • • • • •
C-D8 • • • • • • • • •
C-D9 • • •
C-D10 • • •
C-D11 • • • •
C-D12 • • • • • • •
C-D13 • • • • •
C-D14 • •
(continued)
3 Pathology
roofs
C-D Environmental C-D15 • •
actions C-D16 • • • •
C-D17 • • •
C-D18 •
C-D19 •
C-D20 •
C-E Use and C-E1 • • • • • • • •
maintenance C-E2 • • • • • • • • •
errors
C-E3 •
C-E4 • • •
C-E5 • • • • • • •
C-E6 • • •
C-E7 •
C-E8 •
C-E9 • • • •
C-E10 • • •
C-E11 •
• Indicates that the defect cause is considered in the specific building element/material
233
234 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.20 Two-dimensional

correlation matrix between
defects and causes of
defects, as defined by de
Brito et al. (1994)
whilst each column corresponds to a probable cause. In the intersection between the
rows and columns, a symbol or a number should identify the relationship between
defects and causes. This matrix should be read choosing the defect first (row) and
then reading the indexes (or symbols) that represent the association to each cause
(columns).
Several authors have already defined defects–probable causes correlation matri-
ces, namely: Branco and de Brito (2004); Walter et al. (2005); Garcia and de Brito
(2008); Silvestre and de Brito (2009); Gaião et al. (2011); Neto and de Brito (2011);
Pereira et al. (2011); Garcez et al. (2012b); Amaro et al. (2013); Delgado et al. (2013);
Sá et al. (2014); Pires et al. (2015); Conceição et al. (2017); Silva et al. (2017); Santos
et al. (2017); Carvalho et al. (2018).
3.6.1.1 Correlation Matrix
In a global building inspection system, correlation matrices should be three-

dimensional. A three-dimensional correlation matrix is similar to a two-dimensional
matrix (Fig. 3.20). In a plane, there are defects and causes of defects and, in a third
axis, there are building elements and materials (Fig. 3.21). The third axis is necessary
because pathological processes are likely to be different from building element to
building element, and from building material to building material.
A user of the inspection system should navigate through the three-dimensional
correlation matrix first identifying the building element or material with the detected
defect, next choosing the defect, and finally identifying the probable causes of that
defect in that building element or material. A diagram of this process is represented
in Fig. 3.22.
3.6 Defects–Causes Correlation 235
Fig. 3.21 Schematic

three-dimensional
defects–causes correlation
matrix
Fig. 3.22 Interpreting the

three-dimensional
correlation matrix
236 3 Pathology
Fig. 3.23 Possible analysis

sequences allowed by a
three-dimensional matrix
Additionally, the three-dimensionality of this matrix allows several interpreta-

tions. The suggested reading order is the best for using the matrix in fieldwork.
Still, when studying building pathology, it may be useful to understand whether a
specific cause tends to result in defects in a set of building materials. Reading the
defects–causes correlation matrix in different perspectives may help to understand
such behaviours, as suggested by the diagrams in Fig. 3.23.
3.6.1.2 Building a Defects–Probable Causes Correlation Matrix
Considering the non-structural building elements and materials of the building enve-
lope, the classification of defects and the classification of probable causes of the
global inspection system, the three-dimensional proportional representation of the
defects–probable causes correlation matrix should be similar to Fig. 3.24.
To fill this matrix, the set of probable causes should be divided into direct causes
(near) and indirect causes (far/first) (Branco and de Brito 2004). Direct causes are
those that result in defects in an immediate way. They are frequently associated
with physical, chemical and biological actions, natural and human-caused disasters.
Direct causes can usually be eliminated through adequate repair solutions.
Indirect causes are those that need the combination of a direct cause so that
the pathological process is actively initiated. Design and execution errors usually
fall into this category. To avoid indirect causes, it is possible to establish a set of
preventive measures that should be applied at each stage of the building’s service
life. To eliminate indirect causes, major corrective repairs are often needed.
Fig. 3.24 Proportions of the three-dimensional matrix between defects and probable causes of
defects within the building envelope inspection system
238 3 Pathology
Through the correlation matrix, the probable causes of each defect are identified,
and each one of them is classified according to the degree of correlation it has with
the defect (de Brito et al. 1994):
• 0—no correlation: no relation whatsoever (direct or indirect) between the defect
and the cause;
• 1—low correlation: indirect (far/first) cause of the defect, related only with the
early stages of the deterioration process; secondary cause of the deterioration
process and not necessary for its development, although it worsens its effects;
• 2—high correlation: direct (near) cause of the defect, associated with the final
stages of the deterioration process; one of the main causes of the deterioration
process and essential to its development.
It should be noted that, while developing the correlation matrix, no second-degree
causal relationships are considered. Remote causes only lead to the occurrence of a
particular defect in very specific cases. This methodological option is justified by the
matrix’s objectives: optimisation of the list of causes associated with each defect;
and optimisation of the diagnosis process itself. Thus, a 0 correlation index does not
imply the absolute impossibility of a particular cause influencing the occurrence of
a particular defect. A 0 correlation index establishes that there is a highly unlikely
probability that a particular cause results in a particular defect.
With the mentioned criteria in mind, the correlation matrix should also take the
third dimension of the issue into account, i.e. the occurrence of a defect and a cause
and their relationship in specific building elements and materials.
In Table 3.10, an excerpt of the defects–probable causes of defects correlation
matrix is shown. It represents the interception of the layer referring to natural stone
claddings, with the rows of defects (categories of defects of physical, chemical and
mechanical nature) and the columns of causes (category environmental actions). The
theoretical correlation matrix between defects and probable causes was built based
on the matrices of: Silvestre and de Brito 2009; Neto and de Brito 2011; Garcez
et al. 2012b; Amaro et al. 2013; Sá et al. 2014; Pires et al. 2015; Conceição et al.
2017; Silva et al. 2017; Santos et al. 2017; which were all validated in representative
samples in field surveys. In these fieldworks, the degree of contribution of each cause
for the occurrence of each defect was also defined. Then, those results were compared
with the theoretical correlation index previously defined based on literature. At the
validation stage, it was assumed that a 1 correlation index could correspond to:
(i) an unlikely direct cause; (ii) an unlikely indirect cause; (iii) a likely indirect
cause. Based on an algorithm, taking the relative frequency of occurrence of causes
into account, the theoretical matrix was validated. First, discrepancies between the
sample and the theoretical prediction were highlighted. Then, in the cases with a
gross discrepancy, the implications in the correlation matrix were analysed. In some
cases, the correlation index was changed and, in other cases, it was considered that
there were insufficient data to draw further conclusions and change the index (Garcia
and de Brito 2008). The global correlation matrix was also validated through further
literature review.
Table 3.10 Excerpt of the defects–probable causes correlation matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for natural stone claddings)
referring only to environmental actions
Defect C-D1 C-D2 C-D3 C-D4 C-D5 C-D6 C-D7 C-D8 C-D9 C-D10 C-D11 C-D12 C-D13 C-D14 C-D15 C-D16 C-D17 C-D18 C-D19 C-D20
A-A1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A3 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
A-A4 1 0 0 2 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0
A-A5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
A-A6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
A-B1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B3 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
A-B4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
A-C1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0
A-C2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0
A-C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
A-C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
A-C5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
A-C7 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
A-C9 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
A-C10 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
A-C11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
239
240 3 Pathology
Interpreting the correlation matrix in Table 3.10, and illustrating the relationships
it represents, the example of defect “A-A4 Colour changes” may have the following
probable direct and indirect causes associated with environmental actions, in natural
stone claddings:
• Near causes:
– C-D4 Action of vegetation growth, fungi or mould;
– C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt or small solid particles;
– C-D7 Temperature;
– C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow;
– C-D12 Dampening of the cladding system;
– C-D15 Action of ground materials’ chemical agents, cryptoflorescence and
leaching;
– C-D16 Corrosion of fastening metallic elements and reinforcement;
• Far/first causes:
– C-D1 Wind;
– C-D5 Atmospheric contamination/pollution;
– C-D13 Natural ageing.
Using this defects–causes correlation matrix, when surveyors detect defect A-A4
in a natural stone cladding, they are able to direct their observations to a limited set
of probable causes, checking in situ whether they might have some relationship with
the observed defect.
Some examples of the application of the defect–causes correlation matrix may
be mentioned. In external claddings of pitched roofs, defect “A-D1 Flaws in tail-end
elements” is associated with cause “C-A8 Specification of inadequate or incompatible
materials, or missing specification” with correlation index 2. That means that the
incorrect choice of materials may be the point of origin of defect A-D1. That may
be the case when unprotected strips of waterproofing membranes are used to poorly
seal the cladding where it meets a protruding element.
In flat roofs, two close defects have a different relationship with cause “C-A11
Deficient design/detailing of tail-end areas”. Defect “A-A1 Leakage damp” is directly
influenced by C-A11, as tail-ends are sensitive to degradation and may constitute a
preferential path for water to infiltrate a flat roof. The same cause, however, is not
related with defect “A-A2 Surface moisture”, which does not depend on the design
of tail-ends.
In adhesive ceramic tiling, defect “A-A5 Spalling/peeling/exfoliation and pop-
outs” is associated with cause “C-B24 Use of bedding material with high shrinkage
or expansion” through a correlation index 1. Yet, the same defect is not associated
with the cause “C-B16 Deficiencies in the filling of joints”. Even though there are
similarities between the causes, as both refer to auxiliary materials of the cladding
system, they objectively have different levels of contribution to the occurrence of
pop-outs in ceramic tiles.
In natural stone claddings, although defects “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening

or tail-end elements” and “A-C4 Cracking and/or splintering adjacent to joints/edges”
may occur in conjunction, they have different relationships with cause “C-A18 Poorly
designed or insufficient cladding joints”, and that is expressed in the defects–causes
correlation matrix. A-B6 does not occur in result of incorrect dimensioning or number
of joints (correlation index 0). However, cracking (A-C4) in stone plates may be
indirectly associated with the poor design of cladding joints (correlation index 1).
In door and window frames, defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth” is
not considered to be related with cause “C-D2 Excessive, insufficient or differenti-
ated solar radiation” (correlation index 0). In fact, Santos et al. (2017) consider that
biological growth in frames, as well as the accumulation of dirt and debris, is not
associated with the amount of sunlight that reaches the frame. Additionally, biode-
terioration of wood door and window frames is not also considered to be caused by
solar radiation. However, plastic door and window frames degradation may be caused
by excessive solar radiation. Hence, different materials may respond differently to
the same aggressive agent. Still, the correlation index between A-B1 and C-D2, in
door and window frames, should be zero.
In wall renders, defects “A-B4 Blistering/bulging” and “A-C9 Detachment” often
occur in a sequence. First, the renders go through a loss of adhesion process (blister-
ing/bulging) and then, if no repairs are made and degradation conditions progress, the
render may start to detach from the substrate, leaving gaps on the surface. Both defects
may be associated with cause “C-D12 Dampening of the cladding system”. However
the relationship is not direct, as dampening may contribute to the early development
of these defects, but usually it is not their near cause. Hence, the correlation index
of 1.
In ETICS façades, defect “A-C10 Loss of adhesion” may generally be indirectly
associated with lack of preventive repair. As this cladding system loses adhesion to
the substrate, it indicates that no preventive or corrective maintenance actions were
put in place to stop the degradation of the system and to eliminate the corresponding
causes. However, this association between defect A-C10 and maintenance does not
refer to the particular maintenance action “cleaning”, included in the cause “C-E2
Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris” (it is included in cause “C-E1 Inexistent or
inadequate maintenance”). For this reason, the correlation index between A-C10 and
C-E2 in ETICS is 0.
Defect “A-D4 Finishing colour flaws in painted façades” includes two phenom-
ena: lapping and bleeding. As for cause “C-A25 Missing/incorrect prescription of
the environmental conditions for application or substrate conditions and preparation
in painted surfaces”, it refers to a flawed prescription of both environmental and
substrate conditions for the application, as well as to an incorrect substrate prepara-
tion prescription. Analysing the relationship between these phenomena (Pires et al.
2015), the environmental conditions influence indirectly the occurrence of lapping,
as adverse conditions during the application process may cause a faster evaporation
of the paint’s solvent. With regard to bleeding, it has a direct relationship with the
incorrect preparation of the substrate, as it is precisely related to the diffusion of
242 3 Pathology
coloured substances from the substrate in the paint pellicle. Given the variable asso-
ciation of defect A-D4 and cause C-A25, it was considered that the correlation index
between this defect and this cause, in painted façades, should be 1, representing
uncommon direct causes and indirect causes.
In architectural concrete surfaces, defect “A-A4 Colour changes” may be asso-
ciated with cause C-D19, referring to alkali-silica reaction, sulphates and chlorides.
However, these three degradation agents have different relationships with A-A4.
Alkali-silica reaction is a direct cause of A-A4, as it may result in tonality variations
on the surface. Sulphates are a direct cause of the occurrence of colour changes.
However, as they are a less common direct cause, sulphates may be considered an
indirect cause of A-A4. As for chlorides, there is no known relationship with the
occurrence of colour changes. So, the correlation index between A-A4 and A-D19,
in architectural concrete surfaces, should be 1.
3.6.2 Inter-defects Correlation
Defects detected in the building envelope may occur isolated or in an area where
other defects may simultaneously be observed. The latter may result from the fact
that some defects are very common in some building elements; so common they
are almost always detected. That is the case of colour changes in the joints filling
material of ceramic tiling. Still, there is a set of less severe defects that, in an advanced
degradation state, cause other defects. The detachment of a cladding that stems from
cracking is a good example of an interrelationship between defects.
3.6.2.1 Inter-defects Correlation Matrix
Considering the possible interdependence of defects, it makes sense to build an inter-

defects correlation matrix. Such a matrix should be based on the probable causes of
defects, as one cause may simultaneously originate different defects.
To determine the inter-defects correlation index, in order to establish the inter-
defects correlation matrix, a method was defined based on the defects–probable
causes correlation matrix. The correlation index between defect k and defect j is
obtained as follows (de Brito et al. 1994):
• For each detected defect (defect k), the corresponding row in the defects–causes
correlation matrix is read;
• For each detected defect (defect j), the corresponding row in the defects–causes
correlation matrix is read;
• Per column, the product of the indexes of these two rows of the defects–causes
correlation matrix, corresponding to defects k and j, is calculated;
• The products are summed, obtaining the correlation index of each defect CI kj :

N
C Ik j = cki c ji (3.1)
i=1
where N is the total number of probable causes.

Table 3.11 shows an excerpt of the inter-defects correlation matrix in the global
inspection system for the building envelope. It only refers to part of the natural stone
claddings layer, namely to defects of physical and chemical nature.
However, observing Table 3.11, it is found that the inter-defects correlation index
obtained is not clear enough, because (de Brito et al. 1994):
• The index’s absolute value does not have a physical meaning;
• Analysing the correlation matrix, it is found that all defects detectable in natural
stone claddings are somehow related to each other, and the degree of correlation
is not clear;
• A lower absolute value index may, in fact, refer to a defect with a higher
simultaneous occurrence probability than another with a higher index.
Following these observations, the necessity for an inter-defects percentage
correlation matrix rose.
3.6.2.2 Inter-defects Percentage Correlation Matrix
The inter-defects percentage correlation matrix establishes a percentage correlation

between defects. It uses the determination of a real correlation index in relation
to a maximum theoretical correlation index. The physical meaning associated with
this concept is that of the probability of occurrence of a defect when another is
detected. The new correlation matrix is asymmetric, as observed in Table 3.12, as
the probability of occurrence of defect j when defect k is detected is not necessarily
identical to the probability of the inverse relationship.
The percentage theoretical correlation index is obtained as follows (Garcia and
de Brito 2008):
• For each detected defect k, the corresponding row in the defects – causes cor-
relation matrix is read, multiplying by two every correlation indexes of defect k
with the causes and summing those products, so that the maximum theoretical
correlation index between any defect and defect k is obtained, I Mk :

N
I Mk = (cki · 2) (3.2)
i=1
where N is the total number of probable causes;

244
Table 3.11 Excerpt of the inter-defects correlation matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for natural stone claddings) referring
only to defects of physical and chemical nature
Defect A-A1 A-A2 A-A3 A-A4 A-A5 A-A6 A-B1 A-B2 A-B3 A-B4 A-B5 A-B6
A-A1 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A2 0 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A3 0 0 – 32 12 12 16 9 29 0 0 19
A-A4 0 0 32 – 16 16 19 12 29 0 0 22
A-A5 0 0 12 16 – 14 6 3 11 0 0 11
A-A6 0 0 12 16 14 – 6 3 11 0 0 11
A-B1 0 0 16 19 6 6 – 10 15 0 0 11
A-B2 0 0 9 12 3 3 10 – 10 0 0 7
A-B3 0 0 29 29 11 11 15 10 – 0 0 19
A-B4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 0
A-B5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0
A-B6 0 0 19 22 11 11 11 7 19 0 0 –
3 Pathology
Table 3.12 Excerpt of the inter-defects percentage correlation matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for natural stone claddings)
referring only to defects of physical and chemical nature
Defect A-A1 A-A2 A-A3 A-A4 A-A5 A-A6 A-B1 A-B2 A-B3 A-B4 A-B5 A-B6
A-A1 – 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
A-A2 0% – 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
A-A3 0% 0% – 76% 29% 29% 38% 21% 69% 0% 0% 0%
A-A4 0% 0% 52% – 26% 26% 31% 19% 47% 0% 0% 0%
A-A5 0% 0% 50% 67% – 58% 25% 13% 46% 0% 0% 0%
A-A6 0% 0% 50% 67% 58% – 25% 13% 46% 0% 0% 0%
A-B1 0% 0% 67% 79% 25% 25% – 42% 63% 0% 0% 0%
A-B2 0% 0% 64% 86% 21% 21% 71% – 71% 0% 0% 0%
A-B3 0% 0% 85% 85% 32% 32% 44% 29% – 0% 0% 0%
A-B4 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% – 0% 0%
A-B5 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% – 0%
A-B6 0% 0% 63% 73% 37% 37% 37% 23% 63% 0% 0% –
245
246 3 Pathology
• To determine the percentage theoretical correlation index of defect k with defect

j, CI %kj , which corresponds to the probability of occurrence of defect j (column
j) when defect k (row k) is detected, the quotient between the correlation index
between defects (reference defect k and associated defect j) and the maximum
theoretical correlation index of defect k is calculated:
C Ik j
C I%k j = (3.3)
I Mk
As other correlation matrices in the global inspection system, the inter-defects

percentage correlation matrix is three-dimensional. Figure 3.25 schematically rep-
resents the method for creating such correlation matrix, through the analysis of
the defects–probable causes correlation matrix, layer by layer. Defects are related
through the correlation indexes established between the same causes. That process
leads to the creation of the inter-defects correlation matrix and, in further analy-
sis, the inter-defects percentage correlation matrix. Following that logic, Fig. 3.26.
Schematically represents the dimensions and layers of an inter-defects correlation
matrix.
Interpreting the excerpt of the correlation matrix in Table 3.12, and illustrating the
relationships it represents with defect A-A4, when “colour changes” (A-A4) occur
the following defects may have a higher probability of occurrence, in natural stone
claddings (descending probability):
• A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris (52%);
• A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation (47%);
Fig. 3.25 Associating

defects through causes to
build an inter-defects
correlation matrix
Fig. 3.26 Schematic

three-dimensional
inter-defects correlation
matrix
• A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth (31%);

• A-A5 Spalling/peeling/exfoliation and pop-outs (26%);
• A-A6 Cohesion loss/disaggregation and chalking (26%);
• A-B2 Vegetation growth (19%).
Given the inter-defects percentage correlation matrix built for the global inspec-
tion system, some examples of high correlation between defects may be described. In
external claddings of pitched roofs, when “vegetation growth” (A-B2) occurs, there
is a 90% probability of occurrence of “biodeterioration/biological growth” (A-B1).
A similar correlation occurs in adhesive ceramic tiling (75%) and ETICS (67%). In
fact, Silvestre and de Brito (2009), Garcez et al. (2012b) and Amaro et al. (2013)
even considered both A-B2 and A-B1 as a single type of defect. As “vegetation
growth” (A-B2) and “biodeterioration/biological growth” (A-B1) were separated in
the harmonised classification list of defects proposed for the global building inspec-
tion system, considering the individual classification of defects for adhesive ceramic
tiling (Silvestre and de Brito 2009), external claddings of pitched roofs (Garcez
et al. 2012b) and ETICS (Amaro et al. 2013), new correlation indexes between
defects and probable causes of defects had to be determined in the three-dimensional
defects–probable causes matrix. These new indexes were the basis to calculate the
percentage theoretical correlation indexes in the three-dimensional inter-defects cor-
relation matrix. A-B2 and A-B1 may result from a series of common causes, like
environmental actions associated with solar radiation, dirt and humidity conditions.
248 3 Pathology
If vegetation growth is detected, the surveyor should pay attention and check whether
other types of biological growth occur on the cladding surface.
The occurrence of “vegetation growth” (A-B2) in natural stone claddings corre-
sponds to a high probability of occurrence (86%) of “colour changes” (A-A4). Both
defects may result from various common causes, such as fungi and mould, damp,
the incorrect design of the water drainage system, inadequate maintenance, and the
specification of inadequate materials. Additionally, in fieldwork, it is often found that
natural stone claddings may present colour changes as a consequence of vegetation
growth.
In turn, the occurrence of “colour changes” (A-A4) in door and window frames is
associated with an 83% probability of occurrence of wear or scaling of the frame’s
finishing coat (A-C5). Such a high probability is related with causes that may orig-
inate both defects, like an insufficient functional classification of the frames for the
aggressiveness of the environment and solar radiation.
In flat roofs, there is a very high correlation between the detection of insufficient
or excessive overlap of the cladding elements (A-D9), within a cladding system,
including waterproofing materials, and the occurrence of “detachment” (A-C9) and
“loss of adhesion” (A-C10). These defects may be influenced by faulty prescrip-
tions and poor execution. Additionally, the loss of adhesion and the detachment of a
waterproofing material may be influenced by mechanical and environmental actions,
like a strong wind (if waterproofing is not protected). However, the high correlation
between defects is associated with the occurrence of the same design and execution
errors, namely deficient design/detailing of overlaps, the use of unspecialised labour,
a deficient application of layers, and the incorrect execution of cladding joints.
In wall renders, when scratches/grooves (A-C6) are detected, there is a high prob-
ability (90%) of detecting cohesion loss/disaggregation (A-A6) as well. In fact, for
an inattentive observer, it may sometimes be confusing to distinguish both defects.
The superposition of causes may be associated with that confusion. The impact of
heavy objects, accidental and intentional collisions/vandalism, abrasion, and acci-
dental actions inherent to the occupation, movement and normal use of users are all
causes associated with both defects.
In painted façades, the occurrence of finishing texture flaws (A-D5) is likely (79%)
to occur simultaneously with finishing colour flaws (A-D4). Both defects are associ-
ated with problems during the application process, such as using unspecialised labour,
incorrectly handling materials and tools, using flawed materials due to the manufac-
turing process, using materials deficiently stored or transported, and disregarding the
composition or recommendations of the manufacturer or prescription.
In architectural concrete surfaces, when “warpage, swelling, deformation and
other flatness deficiencies” (A-C7) occur, there is a high probability (71%) of
occurrence of finishing defects/discontinuities (A-D3). Those finishing defects
and discontinuities may be honeycombs, fastening marks, cement paste runoff,
crusts, formwork incrustation or bug holes. Anyway, they may be the result of
some of the causes of A-C7, like using unspecialised labour, incorrectly handling
materials and tools (specifically formwork), insufficient supervision, or deficient
casting/compaction/curing.
It is expected that the use of the inter-defects correlation matrix helps the surveyor
through the inspection process, drawing attention to the possible development of
defects simultaneously or in a sequence. It is expected that correlation matrices fill
knowledge gaps mainly for more inexperienced surveyors, and, combined with the
classification of defects and probable causes, standardise the process, as well as the
nomenclature used in the inspection activity and corresponding report.
The classification of defects and probable causes of defects is an instrument for a

surveyor using a building inspection system. These systematised lists are an easy
to check means with essential knowledge for fieldwork. The use of classification
lists makes the inspection process less dependable on each surveyor’s professional
experience.
In the context of a global inspection system, the classification of defects is grouped
in categories according to the type of degradation. Hence, defects can be of physical
nature, of chemical nature, of mechanical nature and other defects. Still, the thresh-
old between each category may be blurry at times. Categories are mainly used for
formal purposes. The categories that organise the classification of probable causes
of defects correspond to stages in the building’s life cycle. So, causes are grouped
into design errors (first stage), execution errors (second stage), mechanical actions,
environmental actions and use and maintenance errors (third stage).
As not all defect or probable causes are likely to occur in the same building
elements or materials, a defects–building elements/materials matrix and a probable
causes–building elements/materials matrix are presented. The specificity of degrada-
tion of each type of building element or building material is expressed in this matrix,
considering the context of the global inspection system of the building envelope.
Finally, the degradation process is further explored presenting three-dimensional
correlation matrices, namely a defects–probable causes correlation matrix and an
inter-defects correlation matrix. The former has information on the possibility of
a given cause contributing to the occurrence of a given defect, expressed through
the use of correlation indexes 0, 1 and 2 (from no correlation to high correla-
tion). The latter informs the surveyor about the probability of different defects being
detected/occurring simultaneously/in sequence.
In the next two chapters, the classification of diagnosis methods and repair tech-
niques is detailed. Correlation matrices between defects and diagnosis methods and
defects and repair techniques are also presented.
250 3 Pathology
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Chapter 4
Diagnosis Methods
Abstract Classification lists are a useful tool within building inspection systems.
Hence, in situ diagnosis methods are here arranged in a classification list to assist
surveyors’ recommendations. This list includes destructive and non-destructive diag-
nosis methods that can be performed on site, but excludes laboratory tests. Diagnosis
methods may complement visual observations to better assess the defects’ charac-
teristics, extent and causes. In the context of a global inspection system for the non-
structural building envelope, the classification of diagnosis methods is organised
in ten categories: assisted sensory analysis; electrical methods; thermo-hygrometric
methods; sound and acoustic methods; nuclear methods; hydric methods; mechani-
cal methods; pressure methods; colour methods; and chemical methods. Considering
this classification list and the classification list of defects, the adequacy of each diag-
nosis method to assess each defect is determined according to the type of results each
test can provide. That adequacy is expressed in the defects–diagnosis methods cor-
relation matrix, favouring the use of non-destructive, easier to use and less expensive
methods.
Following the methodology described in Chap. 3, in the scope of building pathology,

the use of objective classification lists, including those of diagnosis methods, is
useful to operationalise an inspection system (CIB W86 1993). The development
of a classification list of diagnosis methods follows the classification of defects and
their probable causes.
Likewise, a literature review is necessary to identify the best tests that a sur-
veyor may perform to adequately characterise a defect and identify its causes. In
the specific context of a building inspection system for the non-structural building
envelope, diagnosis methods are in situ tests that may be carried out by a surveyor
while inspecting a building or in further analyses, after the first inspection. These
tests may be necessary as a complement to characterise the severity, extent and pro-
gression of defects, as well as to confirm probable causes of defects, based on more

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_4
258 4 Diagnosis Methods
detailed information or quantitative data about the pathological processes. Addition-

ally, some diagnosis methods are also useful to assess the efficacy of repair actions.
However, any diagnosis method embodies some level of uncertainty, considering,
for instance, the representativeness of the sample; i.e. most tests do not reach the
whole area of a cladding surface, and they are usually performed only in the most
accessible zones. Still, each method has its own limitations, associated with its inher-
ent accuracy. Gehlen et al. (2006) and the RILEM Technical Committee 207-INR
(2012) identify the main limitations to the assessment of existing structures: the test-
ing methods’ accuracy, repeated interference of the testing methods’ environment,
random interference (associated with the variability of materials), human factors,
and data interpretation.
The proposed approach clearly privileges diagnosis methods performed on site
instead of laboratory tests. When compared, in situ diagnosis methods tend to be less
expensive, simpler, and provide faster results than laboratory tests. Thus, the diag-
nosis methods considered in the context of an inspection system should be simple,
quick, reliable, cheap, performed on site, require accessible and easy to use portable
instruments, and allow an easy interpretation of results (Branco and de Brito 2004).
Still, the usefulness of laboratory tests in several contexts of building inspection (e.g.
natural stone claddings) is not denied, but they are out of the scope of this book.
In situ diagnosis methods may be distinguished according to their intrusiveness.
So, they may be destructive or non-destructive (Bungey et al. 2006; Almeida Santos
et al. 2013). Although non-destructive methods are preferred, the use of destruc-
tive methods is occasionally necessary. A destructive method is a test that partially
damages the integrity of the building element, even if, sometimes, damage is cir-
cumscribed to a very small area. The destructive method characteristics do not refer
to the integrity of samples after testing, nor to the total destruction of the building
element. Non-destructive diagnosis methods are those that do not harm the building
element in any way.
When performing tests to improve the characterisation of a defect or to determine
its causes, results may improve if more than one diagnosis methods are combined,
taking each method’s virtues and limitations into account (Tuna et al. 2015).
4.2 Classification of Diagnosis Methods
During the literature review, information is likely to be organised according to specific

building elements or materials. However, many tests may be useful in diversified
contexts, such as assessing ceramic tiling or architectural concrete surfaces. So,
the segregated knowledge should be merged in a single list to be used in a global
inspection system. The merging process implies the combination of methods, in
order to obtain a universal classification list, applicable to any building material.
While combining diagnosis methods, some criteria should be applied, specifically:
destructive and non-destructive tests should not be grouped in a single diagnosis
method; the functioning principle of the test should be taken into account; the type
4.2 Classification of Diagnosis Methods 259
of results and object of the test should be considered; and the type of instruments
should not be very different (namely in size) The final classification list should
be simultaneously concise and complete, with the diagnosis methods grouped into
operative categories and each method identified according to its intrusiveness with
the acronyms D (for destructive) and ND (for non-destructive).
Diagnosis methods should be grouped into categories according to the testing
techniques. Hence, ten categories are defined in the context of a global inspection
system, namely: assisted sensory analysis; electrical methods; thermo-hygrometric
methods; sound and acoustic methods; nuclear methods; hydric methods; mechanical
methods; pressure methods; colour methods; and chemical methods.
As in the classification of defects and their causes, the classification of diagnosis
methods should have a coding system. In the case of diagnosis methods, each category
corresponds to a code composed of a capital D (for diagnosis), a hyphen and a
sequential capital letter (A to J). Within each category, each diagnosis method is
attributed a sequential number (D-A1, D-A2, D-A3, D-B1, D-B2, D-C1, and so on).
The list of diagnosis methods for a global inspection system for the non-structural
elements of the building envelope is defined in Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. It is
important to acknowledge that the present era involves constant innovation, including
new diagnosis methods for buildings, an area in which equipment is being constantly
upgraded by manufacturers. However, the authors consider that the presented list of
diagnosis methods is comprehensive and up-to-date.
4.2.1 Assisted Sensory Analysis
In general terms, the group of “assisted sensory analysis” (D-A) methods encom-
passes visual and tactile defect analysis that use simple observation or measurement
tools. The diagnosis methods in this category are defined in Table 4.1.
The “assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and alignments” (D-A3)
is a common diagnosis method used in situ. In pitched roofs, measuring the pitch
of sloping roofs is useful to check whether they comply with the minimum and
maximum established values according to local codes, the type of external cladding,
weather factors, extent of the roof and construction system. To measure the pitch
of a roof, an inclinometer (Fig. 4.1, part a), which is used to measure inclination
variations or distortion in a surface, or a digital spirit level may be used in small
areas, while a laser spirit level is advised for larger areas. Digital spirit levels have a
screen that immediately shows the pitch in several units. They are very resistant to
shock and falls and may be easily calibrated by users. Laser spirit levels have several
laser beams originating in the same point as orthogonal axes. This is advantageous
because it is a quick and practical method compared with traditional methods.
Likewise, diagnosis method D-A3 is also useful to assess the slope of a flat roof
and its adequacy to the drainage of water. A digital spirit level placed on the surface
of the flat roof shows the slope of the roof relative to the horizontal direction and the
direction of the slope. It is an easy to use method with good precision (according to
Table 4.1 Classification of diagnosis methods in the category assisted sensory analysis in a global
Code Denomination
D-A Assisted sensory analysis
D-A1 Endoscopy (ND)
D-A2 Analysis by touch (ND)
D-A3 Assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and alignments (ND)
D-A4 Tell-tale gauge and gypsum testimonies (ND)
D-A5 Crack width ruler and crack-measuring microscope (ND)
D-A6 Mechanical strain gauge (ND)
D-A7 Assessment of the cracking and blistering level (ND)
D-A8 Thickness measurement by depth gauging and difference in thickness (D)
D destructive diagnosis method
ND non-destructive diagnosis method
the equipment specifications). This method may also be useful to assess the slope of
pavements (Glover 2009; Douglas and Noy 2011).
The same type of equipment (digital spirit level or laser spirit level) and a plumb-
line may also be used to assess the flatness and verticality of façades (Douglas and
Ransom 2007; Glover 2009) and the joints between tiles or plates (Fig. 4.1, part b).
Specifically, for window sills, measuring its slope should help to determine whether
they are the cause of water accumulation and subsequent infiltration or degradation of
materials. In door and window frames, additional assessment may be useful if a faulty
behaviour of the frame is caused by an incorrect mitre joint. Using a spirit level and a
a b
Fig. 4.1 Example of assisted sensory analysis method “D-A3 Assessment of the slope, flatness,
orthogonality and alignments”: a inclinometer; b spirit level
measuring tape, mitre joints and alignments may be checked (Grew 1996). However,
measuring the frames’ diagonals is the most expeditious method of checking mitre
joints.
The use of a “tell-tale gauge and gypsum testimonies” (D-A4) is common in
several building envelope materials. Gypsum testimonies are plaster patches used
to monitor the occurrence of displacements in cracks. They allow determining the
stability level of a crack if there is direct access to it. A gypsum-based mortar (plaster
of Paris) is applied on the centre of the crack, fastened to both its sides, and then,
after curing, the plaster is regularly checked for rupture, hence showing whether the
crack is still active. This is an easy and inexpensive diagnosis method (Cornerstones
Community Partnerships and Contreras 2006), although it requires long-term moni-
toring. Still, monitoring the progression of cracks over time allows identifying some
phenomena that may indicate causality, determining whether the crack may worsen,
tend to stabilise, recover or have a cyclic variation. Testimonies in other materials,
such as paper (Fig. 4.2), cement, plastic and glass, are also available. Testimonies
have the disadvantage of poor accuracy, and they do not quantify the increments in
crack thickness.
Just like gypsum testimonies, a tell-tale crack monitor gauge is used to monitor
the occurrence of displacements in cracks over time, additionally measuring the
crack displacement (the opening variation). A tell-tale gauge is a two-piece tool in
flexible transparent plastic. The first piece has two orthogonal reference lines printed
on it (like a plus sign). The second piece has a 0.5 mm grid printed on it and has
two slots in which the first piece fits. This way the reference lines and the grid
should overlap and be centred. Each piece of the tell-tale gauge is fastened to a
Fig. 4.2 Example of assisted sensory analysis method “D-A4 Tell-tale gauge and gypsum
testimonies”: using a tell-tale gauge
different side of the crack, centring the reference lines with the opening. The tell-tale
gauge should be approximately transversal to the crack. As a piece slides over the
other (ACI Committee 224 2007), it is then possible to measure two components
of the displacement of the crack—along the crack and transversally to the crack.
Additionally, the tell-tale crack monitor allows measuring one rotation component
of the crack’s displacement, around an axis perpendicular to the instrument’s plane.
The tell-tale gauge is a relatively accurate instrument, but, as do gypsum testimonies,
it requires long-term monitoring of the crack. Analysing readings over time, the
stability and movement trends of cracks are assessed. Other than the standard tell-
tale crack monitor, other types of tell-tale crack monitor gauges are commercially
available, such as (Johnson 2002): corner crack monitors (hinged); displacement
crack monitors (measuring unlevelled displacements of each side of the crack); and
weather resistant crack monitors.
Additionally, while monitoring a crack, the tips of the crack at an initial stage
should be marked with a pencil or coloured pen, in order to keep track of the crack’s
length and subsequent increments (Bungey et al. 2006; Cornerstones Community
Partnerships and Contreras 2006).
The diagnosis method “crack width ruler and crack-measuring microscope” (D-
A5) is also commonly used (ACI Committee 224 2007). Unlike the “tell-tale gauge
and gypsum testimonies”, D-A5 measures the width of a crack immediately, if it
is accessible. Whether using a crack width ruler or a crack-measuring microscope,
the measurement locations should be planned, and the measured values should be
registered and mapped. The record should include width, direction, taper, frequency
and location (Johnson 2002). A crack width ruler is a simple and low-cost instrument
consisting of a transparent plastic rectangle showing several lines with different
known thicknesses (Fig. 4.3, part a). Those lines are visually compared with the
detected crack, thus estimating its width. The crack width ruler is placed over the
building element, matching the lines with the crack from thinner to thicker lines, until
Fig. 4.3 Examples assisted sensory analyses (method “D-A5 Crack width ruler and crack-
measuring microscope”): a use of a crack width ruler; b illustration of the use of a crack-measuring
microscope
Fig. 4.4 Example of assisted

sensory analysis method
“D-A6 Mechanical strain
gauge”: drawing of a digital
mechanical strain gauge and
a steel calibration bar
the best match is found. As the crack width ruler has a limited number of represented
thicknesses, the comparison scale is also limited. In door and window frames, the
crack width ruler may also be useful to assess gaps as it can be used as a measurement
instrument.
The crack-measuring microscope (Fig. 4.3, part b) is an optical instrument whose
image is focused by turning a knob and illuminated by an auxiliary adjustable light
bulb (Bungey et al. 2006). The crack-measuring microscope has a graduated lens that
allows measurements with an accuracy of 0.02 mm, simultaneously allowing enlarg-
ing the image up to 40 times (according to the instrument’s technical specifications).
For this reason, the crack-measuring microscope is more adequate to quantify the
opening of microcracks. The device should be placed over the crack and the crack-
opening should be directly measured on the lens graduation. Additionally, this type
of microscope may become useful to observe efflorescence and microorganisms.
It should be noted that the crack-measuring microscope has a very limited field of
vision, so the notion of the total extent of a defect may be lost.
The “mechanical strain gauge” (D-A6) is also used to monitor cracks (Fig. 4.4).
It is specifically useful to track small displacements, as the mechanical strain gauge
shows a very good accuracy level (0.001 mm resolution, depending on the equip-
ment’s technical specifications). This instrument consists of a digital (or standard)
gauge attached to an Invar bar with two conical points mounted at each end of the bar,
one fixed and another moving (Morice and Base 1953). After the choice and marking
of the measurement locations, reference discs should be glued symmetrically to each
side of the crack. The conical points of the mechanical strain gauge are then inserted
into holes in the reference discs (Hume 2007), and the length of the movement is
measured by the gauge.
4.2.2 Electrical Methods
“Electrical methods” (D-B), as the name says, are those using instruments that deter-
mine the degradation characteristics of a building element through electric current.
The electrical diagnosis methods are listed in Table 4.2.
“Eddy currents” (D-B1), also known as Foucault currents, consist on measuring
impedance changes of a coil, when subjected to a magnetic field (Bungey et al.
Table 4.2 Classification of diagnosis methods in the categories electrical methods and thermo-
hygrometric methods in a global inspection system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
D-B Electrical methods
D-B1 Eddy currents (ND)
D-B2 Leakage electrical detection (ND)
D-B3 Electrical capacitance test (ND)
D-B4 Magnetometry (ND)
D-B5 Conductivity meter (ND)
D-B6 Galvanic half-cell (D)
D-C Thermo-hygrometric methods
D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity (ND)
D-C2 Measurement of the in-depth humidity (D)
D-C3 Infrared thermography (ND)
2006). This diagnosis method is more adequate for metallic claddings. It works by
making an alternate electrical current go through the coil (Fig. 4.5, part a), which
creates a primary magnetic field that, in turn, induces an electrical current in an
electrically conductive object placed next to the coil. In response, the electrical current
induced in the object creates a secondary magnetic field that counteracts the primary
magnetic field and induces an electrical current in the coil (Carino 2008). This way,
the electrical current and the primary magnetic field are reduced, when compared with
those obtained when there is no conducting object. The test measures the restriction
Fig. 4.5 Examples of electrical methods: a diagram of “D-B1 Eddy currents”; b use of a
magnetometer in a reinforced concrete column (“D-B4 Magnetometry”)
to current propagation, allowing checking for defects, like voids, cracks, corrosion,
delamination and heat treatment faults (Urbanowicz 1987), dimensional changes in
thickness, and measuring the thickness of conductive and non-conductive protective
layers. So, the thickness of a corroded layer may be measured. For the D-B1 diagnosis
method to work, the type of material, electrical conductivity, heat treatment, and
temperature, for instance, should be previously known. The results may be influenced
by the material’s magnetic permeability, as in more permeable materials it is easier
to induce the magnetic flux. Results may also be affected by the effect of the objects’
edges. It occurs when the probe gets too close to the edge of an object, causing the
current to distort and masking the existence of possible defects. “Eddy currents”
require specific instruments and an experienced user, not only to perform the test
but also to interpret the results. Still, it is a clean, quick and relatively inexpensive
non-destructive method.
“Magnetometry” (D-B4) is a very simple diagnosis method. It is used to detect the
presence of ferrous materials, allowing to identify non-visible metallic elements, such
as reinforcement and metallic meshes. The method allows not only identifying the
location of such elements, but also the diameter of reinforcements and the thickness of
the concrete cover in architectural concrete surfaces (Urbanowicz 1987; Douglas and
Ransom 2007). Magnetometry is based on principles of electromagnetic induction,
i.e. on a magnetic field’s capacity to induce electrical current (Connor and Scott 1998).
A magnetic field is produced, and the steel reaction is quantified. The intensity of the
response is associated with the location and dimension of the metallic element. In this
type of diagnosis, the metal detector magnetometer is the most common instrument
(Fig. 4.5, part b), helping to identify the causes of rust stains, loss of cohesion,
spalling and some types of cracking. The D-B4 method enables quick in situ results,
with relatively high reliability, requiring access to one of the sides of the building
element. The intended area is swept with the magnetometer, and the presence of
ferrous materials is signalled by a beep. Then, the surveyor uses chalk or coloured
markers to register the places where metallic elements were identified. A printed grid
may also be used to guide the path of the instrument while sweeping the inspected
surface.
4.2.3 Thermo-Hygrometric Methods
“Thermo-hygrometric methods” (D-C) refer to the measurement of temperature and

moisture levels of materials or of the environment. The thermo-hygrometric methods
are also listed in Table 4.2.
One of the most common thermo-hygrometric methods is the “measurement of the
ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity” (D-C1). A large span of defects
may be associated with temperature loading, whose effects may be more severe
if combined with ambient humidity. Thus, measuring these two factors helps to
understand several pathological phenomena, such as condensation.
The air is composed of a gas mixture, including water vapour. Yet, air has an
equilibrium vapour pressure corresponding to the maximum amount of water vapour
it can contain. The relative humidity is given by the ratio between the partial pres-
sure of water vapour (the amount of water vapour in the air) and the equilibrium
vapour pressure at a given temperature. There is a linear relationship between tem-
perature and the equilibrium vapour pressure. So, with a constant partial pressure
of water vapour, when the temperature increases, the equilibrium vapour pressure
increases and the relative humidity decreases, and, when the temperature decreases,
the equilibrium vapour pressure decreases, and the relative humidity increases. For
this reason, when the ambient humidity reaches the equilibrium water pressure, any
water vapour over that limit condensates. Condensation occurs on surfaces whose
temperature is lower than the dew point corresponding to the air’s water vapour con-
centration. This phenomenon mainly occurs on building envelope elements, such as
roofs, and mostly on poorly insulated areas, such as glazing.
Knowing thermo-hygrometric conditions is of great importance to explain and
avoid the occurrence of condensation and subsequent defects, such as the degrada-
tion of materials, staining and biological growth. The importance of these conditions
is higher when materials are very sensitive to the presence of water, as wood frames.
It is ideal to keep the temperature of building elements above the dew point. Ambi-
ent temperature and humidity may be monitored with digital thermo-hygrometers
(Douglas and Ransom 2007). If only temperature is to be measured, a digital ther-
mometer may be used. For surface temperature, a contact thermometer or an infrared
thermometer may be used. The use of diagnosis method D-C1 in preventive actions
allows adopting timely measures to eliminate the causes of future defects. In curative
actions, it allows a quick and easy diagnosis.
To measure the water content of a material, a moisture meter is used (Fig. 4.6, part
a). A moisture meter may also be used in the context of repair actions to determine
whether the surface has the optimal conditions for paint application, for instance.
The water content is usually expressed as a percentage of dry weight of the material.
An electrical moisture meter is a portable instrument with two pin-type electrodes,
which are placed on the building element. To better assess the water content of the
building element, several points should be measured over a previously planned grid,
in vertical series of readings, and considering the building element orientation and
light incidence. A moisture meter measures the electric resistance of the material
and relates it with the amount of water in its pores (Kenchington 1992). An electric
current goes through the pin-type electrodes and is measured. The higher the electric
current intensity, the lower the material’s resistance (James 1988). As the electric
resistance varies in inverse ratio to the water content, knowing the former makes it
possible to deduce the latter (Duarte et al. 2011).
Although moisture meters are easy to use, their accuracy is limited and readings
may have the interference of several errors, such as those due to the existence of
hygroscopic salts, which increase the materials’ water content limit and lower their
electric resistance (Kenchington 1992; Burkinshaw 2006). To increase accuracy,
some correction parameters should be considered, such as the material’s emissivity.
Additionally, the results obtained with a moisture meter are only valid in comparative
Fig. 4.6 Examples of thermo-hygrometric methods: a use of a surface moisture meter (“D-C1
Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity”); b moisture meter with
long probes (“D-C2 Measurement of in-depth humidity”)
terms, as they are not valid in terms of absolute value. Any conclusions should always
consider the measurement context.
Another thermo-hygrometric diagnosis method, although less popular, is the
“measurement of in-depth humidity” (D-C2). It is used when a defect on a cladding
is presumedly related to the substrate humidification, as when detachment occurs.
Measurements use a deep wall moisture probe placed in specific areas (James 1988),
and the readings are continuously registered through the cladding’s layers. A mois-
ture meter can also be used if associated with deep wall probes (Fig. 4.6, part b).
This method requires drilling the building element and uses costly equipment, so it
is not very advantageous. On the other hand, readings from this equipment are very
reliable.
“Infrared thermography” (D-C3) is an effective and economical thermo-
hygrometric diagnosis method. It is advantageous as a non-destructive method that
analyses areas instead of measurement points or lines on the building element. The
technology of infrared thermography is based on the fact that objects and materials
with a temperature above the absolute zero (−273 °C) emit heat or infrared radiation.
The radiation intensity depends on the object’s temperature and on its capacity to
radiate heat. Infrared energy is not visible to the human eye. So, it has to be captured
by thermographic cameras (a portable instrument) (Fig. 4.7, part a), which convert
Fig. 4.7 Examples of use of the thermo-hygrometric method “D-C3 Infrared thermography”:
a thermographic camera; b thermogram
infrared energy into an electrical signal and, by temperature calculations, produce

heat images, called thermograms (Kylili et al. 2014) (Fig. 4.7, part b). Thermograms
are essentially portraits of temperature differences (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration [NASA] 2008), showing the whole inspected surface. Defects are
detected as they are associated with non-uniform heat fluxes.
The use of infrared thermography in buildings may aim at the detection of causes
of visible defects, as part of a corrective maintenance strategy, or it may act as an
investigation method to assess incipient defects, such as to detect leakages, as part
of a preventive maintenance strategy.
In buildings, infrared thermography technology allows detecting areas with sig-
nificant heat losses and lack of thermal insulation, or its insufficient quality, when
the thickness is not adequate or the joints between insulation plates are not airtight
(Kylili et al. 2014). As thermograms allow observing the temperature distribution on
a surface, it is possible to detect cooler areas, which are critical for the occurrence
of water vapour condensations.
Infrared thermography also allows assessing a roof’s or a façade’s watertightness
by detecting water leakages (Kylili et al. 2014). This assessment is only possible
due to the water’s higher heat capacity, when compared with materials used in roofs
and façades, and, consequently, to the water’s longer retention of solar radiation. In
other words, wet surfaces emit and receive energy at different rates compared with
dry surfaces. A wet surface emits energy at a lower rate, thus gaining and losing
energy more slowly than a dry surface (Capolino 2004). So, the surveyor can detect
areas where watertightness is compromised, in a preventive perspective, and timely
propose local repair actions at a lower cost when compared with curative repair
actions.
D-C3 may be additionally used to check the integrity of materials used in façades.
It may be an useful instrument to detect cracking or the occurrence of voids in under-
lying layers (Kylili et al. 2014). In these situations, it is not the colour/temperature
per se that should alert the surveyor, but the sudden colour difference on the thermo-
gram without a visual correspondence or a causal explanation. The configuration of
the analysed area may also contribute to the analysis of the results. It should be noted
that a thermographic camera does not emit any kind of radiation, only recording the
radiation emitted by materials.
Infrared thermography allows inspecting a roof from a distance, thus not entail-
ing any damages. Still, the inspection is limited to line of sight (NASA 2008). For
better results, the camera should be positioned from a minimum 5° angle to a max-
imum 50° angle (from the thermographic camera to the target object) (Kylili et al.
2014), as the distance and measurement angle influence the captured images. Infrared
thermography also allows estimating the extent of defects, through the analysis of
thermograms. However, the interpretation of thermograms requires an experienced
user and knowledge on the thermal behaviour of materials. Moreover, thermographic
observations may imply further local tests to confirm deductions.
Efficiency and accuracy in thermographic inspections are associated with (Edis
et al. 2013, 2014, 2015): the specific technology used in each type of camera; the
integration of real images and thermograms (most cameras collect both simultane-
ously); and the available software. Still, an instrument sensitive to within 0.2 °C over
a range of temperatures varying from −10 °C to +300 °C is recommended, with an
accuracy within ±3% (NASA 2008). The thermographic camera should also be able
to store the images captured during the inspection.
In the buildings’ inspection context, infrared thermography inspection is generally
qualitative. This type of inspection investigates relative differences and deviations
from normal or expected temperature ranges (NASA 2008). Quantitative infrared
thermography inspections would require detailed knowledge on temperature and
radiant power, reflection, emittance, environmental factors, and on the instrument’s
limitations. These kinds of quantitative inspections have very little applicability in
buildings. Both qualitative and quantitative infrared inspections may have an active or
passive approach (Kylili et al. 2014). The passive approach, more common, detects
temperature differences under normal conditions. The active approach generates
temperature differences using external stimulus (heat sources, such as lamps) to
create images with better differentiation.
For an infrared thermography, a thermographic camera is necessary, as well as
a tripod. Temperature conditions at inspection time should be recorded, including
ambient temperature and relative humidity (Kylili et al. 2014). Then, a series of
pictures are taken and stored. From the observation and analysis of these pictures, an
experienced surveyor may determine the temperature distribution on the inspected
surface. For instance, in adhesive ceramic tiling, faulty bedding material (with voids)
is shown as a warmer area than the surrounding surface, if the picture is taken during
daytime. The surveyor may use chalk to highlight the areas where voids, cracking,
leakages and other non-visible defects are detected.
The choice of daytime period to conduct an infrared thermography inspection is

of paramount importance (Rocha et al. 2018), as an incorrect choice may hinder the
results. Some authors (Capolino 2004) advocate that infrared thermography should
be carried out at the end of the day, when the building envelope is exposed to solar
radiation, i.e. warmer than the surrounding air temperature. This temperature differ-
ence has a direct impact on the colours shown in the thermogram, creating clearer
results. If the thermographic inspection is performed in the winter, the superficial
moisture shows a higher temperature than the surrounding air, and, in the summer,
the opposite scenario occurs (Edis et al. 2011). In periods of higher rainfall, surface
temperatures are also lower, associated with damp that is not present in drier and
warmer periods. As wet areas will absorb more energy than dry areas, those differ-
ences will be visible in the camera’s image. Additionally, the indoor temperature of
buildings is also reflected on the results of infrared thermography. It is expected that
the difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures is at least 10 °C (according
to the daytime period and season chosen) (Kylili et al. 2014). The thermographic
camera maybe calibrated in a lab, based on the analysis of samples.
The use of infrared thermography in natural stone claddings is not consensual.
However, in claddings using an indirect fastening system, it may be useful, for
instance, to identify the location of metallic fastening elements. In claddings using a
direct fastening system, D-C3 may help to identify the location and homogeneity of
the bedding material more clearly (Cerdeira et al. 2011). As stone is a material with
a low thermal conductivity, previously heating the stone surface may be necessary
(active approach), using light projectors with adequate power, or wisely choosing
the daytime period for the inspection to use solar radiation (passive approach).
In façades, infrared thermography may also be useful to inspect window frames.
As in other building elements, this diagnosis method allows detecting frames with
poor thermal insulation, which may occur because of: lack of airtightness in the air
gap of double (or multiple) glazing; cracking or gaps in the frame; and detachment of
sealants. In this case, high-speed wind conditions favour the detection of heat losses
(Kylili et al. 2014).
The use of infrared thermography in ETICS façades allows immediately iden-
tifying areas where the cladding is not performing well, whether due to insulation
plates inadequately applied, or to anomalous materials that interfere with the system’s
thermal performance (Daniotti et al. 2013).
Using infrared thermography in architectural concrete surfaces highlights degra-
dation phenomena such as spalling, disaggregation, voids, cracking, as well as damp
stains and thermal bridges. However, the detection of defects may be more difficult
in warmer days, as concrete surfaces may reach about 50 °C (Aggelis et al. 2010).
Method D-C3 may also be used to determine the level of rising damp on
façades (Barreira et al. 2012). Such determination is possible due to the variation
of water content throughout a façade’s height, which may be detected analysing the
thermogram.
4.2.4 Sound and Acoustic Methods
“Sound and acoustic methods” (D-D) use sound propagation modes to assess build-
ing elements. The sound and acoustic methods are listed in Table 4.3. Within this
group of diagnosis methods, “ultrasound” (D-D1); and “percussion” (D-D2) will be
highlighted.
“Ultrasound” (D-D1) has multiple applications. It can be used to (Flores-Colen
2013): detect non-visible defects, such as gaps, detachments, voids and cracking;
determine the homogeneity level of a cladding; detect corrosion phenomena through
the propagation of acoustic waves; determine the thickness of materials; estimate the
material’s Young’s modulus and compressive strength, using empirical correlations
with the propagation speed of acoustic waves; and detect the presence and number
of underlying layers of a cladding. The test consists in transmitting high-frequency
acoustic waves (1–25 MHz) on the inspected building element and in receiving
the reflected waves. The reflection of waves may occur due to (i) obstacles that
hinder their propagation or to (ii) their transmission on means with different acoustic
characteristics (González et al. 2000; Aggelis et al. 2010). Acoustic waves are short
high voltage electric pulses that are transformed into vibrations, reflected and, when
captured by a receiving probe, are converted back to electrical signal, which may be
read on the equipment screen. Knowing the amount of time waves take to propagate,
sound propagation speed and the emission angle of the waves, it is possible to detect
defects or causes of defects.
D-D1 is an advantageous method (Galvão et al. 2011) as it is not intrusive, and
is inexpensive, quick to execute and able to be used in many types of materials with
varied thicknesses. It only needs access to one of the sides of a building element
(indirect or semi-direct transmission) and instruments are easy to transport. Still, the

Code Denomination
diagnosis methods in the
categories sound and acoustic D-D Sound and acoustic methods
methods, nuclear methods D-D1 Ultrasound (ND)
and hydric methods in a
D-D2 Percussion (ND)
global inspection system for
the building envelope D-D3 Assessment of acoustic insulation (ND)
D-E Nuclear methods
D-E1 Nuclear method (ND)
D-F Hydric methods
D-F1 Watertightness test (ND)
D-F2 Water jet (ND)
D-F3 Submersion of the base of window frames (ND)
D-F4 Initial surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube
(ND)
Fig. 4.8 Examples of sound and acoustic methods: a illustration of the use of ultrasound probes in
a wall cladding (“D-D1 Ultrasound”); b use of a rubber hammer (“D-D2 Percussion”)
main advantage is the ability to accurately locate, and determine the size and shape
of invisible gaps.
To perform an ultrasound test in a building element, a pair of standard probes
(Fig. 4.8, part a), an electric pulses generator, an amplifier, an electronic circuit of
time measure, and a calibration bar are needed (Santos et al. 2003; RILEM Technical
Committee 207-INR 2012). First, the equipment has to be calibrated (Galvão et al.
2011). Then, the probes are placed in direct contact with the inspected surface, over
a thin layer of coupling paste. The adequate pressure level should be applied to avoid
the presence of an air flow between contact surfaces. An electric pulse is then applied,
using the specific generator. The propagation speed of reflected waves is read on the
equipment screen. The interpretation of results uses relationships with the physical
(thickness) and mechanical (degradation state and the existence of gaps) properties of
materials. These results should be compared with those obtained in apparently sound
areas of the building element. Degraded materials, with weaker cohesion, voids or
cracks show lower propagation speed (Flores-Colen 2013).
Ultrasound testing may be done using three types of measurement, according to
the position of the probes (RILEM Technical Committee 207-INR 2012): measure-
ment on a surface (indirect transmission), which allows detecting surface changes;
radiation measurement (semi-direct transmission), which allows assessing the mate-
rial’s homogeneity, and may be used on protruding corners, with the probes placed at
a 90° angle; and transparency measurement (direct transmission), which assesses the
complete thickness of the material, but requires access to both sides of the building
element, as the electric pulse is perpendicularly transmitted and the path length is
more precise.
Although versatile, method D-D1 has some limitations. It is hard to perform
on very thin building elements or with a complex geometry, or on elements built in
materials with great acoustic attenuation. To be effective, the use of an ultrasound test
should track the complete area of the inspected surface, which may not be bearable
in extensive areas or tall façades, requiring a sampling analysis. An ultrasound test
may be influenced by external factors, such as the surface texture and environmental
factors. Additionally, the test requires an experienced user to interpret the results and
perform a correct use of the instruments (Galvão et al. 2011).
In door and window frames made of wood, D-D1 may be used to detect and
assess non-visible degraded fragile areas, such as void galleries due to the action
of xylophages. In ETICS façades, the use of ultrasound may require some previous
knowledge of the cladding system, as the insulation material and the thin coating will
lead to a low propagation speed. Thus, knowing ahead the properties of materials
allows knowing the range of values to expect as result of the test, if the cladding
is sound. In this context, the comparison between degraded and sound areas may
be very useful. Among others, the ultrasound method is a good test to measure the
thickness of paint pellicles. The test may also provide a thicknesses’ profile of a wall,
with the determined thickness for each of its layers.
For many façade claddings, performing diagnosis method “percussion” (D-D2)
is an easy and practical way to assess the building element integrity. Performing this
test allows checking for tiles with adhesion loss, although they have not detached
yet. Voids in the substrate or on the bedding material may also be detected, as well as
gaps, cracking, and disaggregation. D-D2 is inexpensive and does not need special
instruments, merely using a rubber hammer and duct tape. The surveyor can imme-
diately interpret the results. However, this test only provides qualitative results that
help to understand whether a suspected defect exists. With only diagnosis method
D-D2 the surveyor is not able to accurately quantify the extent of a detected defect.
Still, after a visual inspection, the percussion test is often used to confirm provisional
diagnosis, as it is a very easy and inexpensive method.
To perform a percussion test, the surveyor hits the cladding with the hammer
throughout the inspected surface, paying attention to the emitted sounds (Fig. 4.8,
part b). A hollow, reverberant and low-frequency (bass) sound corresponds to an
area with adhesion loss between the substrate and the cladding. A clear, solid, high-
frequency sound corresponds to a surface without easily detectable integrity issues.
While performing the test, duct tape is used to indicate the locations where the
cladding shows detachment issues.
A percussion test requires complete and direct access to the building element, as
the whole surface needs to be checked. To interpret the type of emitted sound, the
surveyor must have fieldwork experience. In natural stone claddings, the percussion
test is particularly effective to check for detachments on thin stone plates (up to
30 mm).
4.2.5 Nuclear Methods
The group of “nuclear methods” (D-E) includes those that detect areas with different
moisture content through measurements with a fast neutron flux (Table 4.3). The
“nuclear method” (D-E1) is only used in flat roofs. It uses a hand-held isotopic
source (Douglas and Ransom 2007; Ricks 2010) that emits a stream of high-velocity
neutrons which collide with hydrogen ions (indicating water), losing some energy,
and get back to the measuring device at lower speed (Fig. 4.9). The isotopic source
Fig. 4.9 Diagram of “D-E1 Nuclear method”
records the speed of the neutrons upon reception and provides results according to
a calibrated scale. A measurement generally lasts for 60 min maximum, for a 3 m
radius.
The equipment used in the nuclear method should be properly calibrated accord-
ing to the different roofing systems, considering the thickness of their different layers.
This method’s limitations are associated with the transportation of radioactive mate-
rial, which requires a specific license. After the test, leakages should be visually
detected. Additionally, the method should be conditioned if any of the roofing sys-
tem’s components has hydrogen atoms in their composition (Busching et al. 1978).
But, in those cases, the method could still be validated, due to the significant variation
of values if any leakage is detected. Still, the small radius of the test is its biggest
limitation.
4.2.6 Hydric Methods
“Hydric methods” (D-F) are those tests using water projection or submersion to detect
leakages or absorption (Table 4.3). This type of methods is used in flat roofs and in
window frames. In flat roofs, the “watertightness test” (D-F1) may be performed.
It is a very simple test, although with some associated risks. Results provided do
not give any information on the quality of the roof or the durability of its materials.
The D-F1 method only provides information on the existence of leakages (Canadian
Roofing Contractors’ Association 2007). To perform the test, the drainage system
is sealed, typically for 24–72 h, while the roof is filled with water (Ricks 2010). A
water surface about 2.5 cm thick is formed. Simultaneously and also during the next
days, the ceiling below the roof is inspected, to detect any leakage (Fig. 4.10).
To perform the watertightness test, the correct interpretation of the roof’s bearing
structure is mandatory, so that the load capacity is not exceeded, considering that
both vertical loads on the slab and horizontal impulses on the parapet walls must
be accounted for. Considering the latter, it is possible to divide the roof in smaller
Fig. 4.10 Example of the hydric method “D-F1 Watertightness test”: schematic view of both the
flat roof with a water surface 2.5 cm thick and a top floor room, whose ceiling shows subsequent
signs of leakage
isolated areas and test them separately. During the test, delays in filling the roof with
water, and then draining it after the test, are to be expected. The amount of water
needed depends on the roof slope. Still, the watertightness test must consider that
the waterproofing membrane may not be completely watertight, and the infiltrated
water may lodge between the membrane and the substrate (Schwetz 2014).
In window frames, methods “water jet” (D-F2) and “submersion of the base of
window frames” (D-F3) may be applied. The water jet is often used after applying a
window frame as a quality control test. It consists in projecting water over the external
joints of the frame (Fig. 4.11, part a). This test tries to recreate rain conditions (wind-
rain conditions) that may affect the window frame, thus testing its watertightness. No
special equipment or experienced users are needed, as it is a simple and inexpensive
test.
As for the “submersion of the base of window frames” (D-F3), it is another method
to assess watertightness, simulating the accumulation of water. This way, the frame’s
conditions when there is a flood in a balcony or water accumulation on the window-
sill are recreated. D-F3 consists in creating a waterway with waterproof duct tape on
the external face of the frame, to be filled with water (Fig. 4.11, part b). Once filled
and the water level registered, any leakage and its cause may be detected by visual
observation. No specialised labour is needed, and the test is inexpensive.
The method “initial surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube” (D-F4)
includes two types of tests used to assess a cladding’s permeability at low-pressure
levels and to determine its porosity (Henriques and Azevedo 2018). These tests
are also useful to assess the efficiency and durability of water-repellent treatments.
Combining the results indicators, method D-F4 helps to find causes of damp issues
visible on the inspected cladding, such as staining or biological growth suspected
Fig. 4.11 Examples of hydric methods: a schematic view of performing “D-F2 Water jet”;
b schematic view of performing “D-F3 submersion of the base of window frames”
of being associated with moisture and capillarity or rising damp (Flores-Colen et al.
2008). Both tests are quick, inexpensive, easy to apply, and do not need specific
knowledge from the surveyor, nor an energy source or the collection of samples.
This type of in situ tests can only assess the behaviour of the set substrate-cladding,
not just the cladding. However, they are affected by weather conditions. Even though,
in the present context, the focus is on in situ diagnosis methods, both the ISAT and
the Karsten-tube test may be performed in situ or in a laboratory (British Standards
Institution 1996; Duarte et al. 2011). Specifically, the ISAT may be used on textured
finishes or on a cladding with exposed aggregates.
The ISAT, used to determine the initial surface absorption of concrete, uses a
chronometer, a thermometer to measure the water and concrete temperatures, and a
watertight cap sealed to the concrete surface. The latter is connected through flexible
tubes with a glass or plastic reservoir (about 100 mm diameter) and a capillary
tube with a scale (at least 200 mm long and with a bore between 0.4 and 1.0 mm
radius). Between the reservoir and the cap, a control tap is installed (British Standards
Institution 1996). The cap, in clear acrylic, polyester or epoxy resin, should provide a
minimum area of 5000 m2 of water contact with the inspected surface. Inlet and outlet
tubes should be fixed to the cap. The inlet tube connects the cap to the reservoir and
the outlet tube connects the cap to the capillary tube (Fig. 4.12, part a). The outlet
should be placed at the highest part of the cap to let trapped air escape. The cap
should have a soft elastomeric gasket to seal its connection to the concrete surface
and provide watertightness.
Fig. 4.12 Examples of hydric method “D-F4 Initial surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-
tube”: a scheme of the typical assembly of the ISAT; b Karsten-tube apparatus
The ISAT should test at least three separate locations to be representative of the
concrete surface under examination. Areas showing signs of cracking should be
avoided, as well as areas with concrete mould oil. The surface to be tested should
be protected from water for at least 48 h and from direct sunlight for at least 12 h
prior to the test and during the test (British Standards Institution 1996). After fixing
the cap to the concrete, the remaining apparatus should be assembled. The position
of the reservoir should allow the application of a head of 180–220 mm of water to
the surface of concrete when the reservoir is filled. The capillary tube should be
placed horizontally just below the water level in the reservoir. With the tap from the
reservoir to the cap closed, the reservoir is filled with water and, then, the test starts
by opening the tap. The starting time should be recorded (time t = 0). The air in the
cap should be flushed through the capillary tube. The reservoir is refilled to maintain
the desired head of water while raising one end of the capillary tube just above the
water level to avoid further outflow. The reservoir should not be empty at any time.
Readings should be taken at predefined intervals, namely: at t = 10 min; t = 30 min;
and t = 60 min. The moisture content of the concrete surface will progressively
increase and capillary pores adjacent to the test area become filled with water. The
absorption rate diminishes as the test progresses. Before each specified interval, the
capillary tube should be lowered in order to be filled with water. Then, the tube is
fixed horizontally at the same level of the water in the reservoir. The tap should also
be closed during readings. Readings should register the number of scale divisions
the meniscus has moved. Between test intervals, the tap is to be open and the water
level in the reservoir is to be maintained. As for the capillary tube, it may be tilted
or raised to prevent overflow (British Standards Institution 1996). During the test,
special attention should be paid to the connection between the cap and the surface
and to the respective watertightness.
As for the Karsten-tube test, it requires a surface with homogeneous finishing and
texture. To perform the test (Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil 2002; Duarte
et al. 2011), a chronometer, three Karsten-tubes (glass tubes with a scale from 0 to
4 cm3 in the shape of a pipe), silicone (or mastic, or plasticine), a reservoir and a wash
bottle are needed (Fig. 4.12, part b). First, the surface to be tested is cleaned. Then,
the edge of the Karsten-tube is covered with adhesive material (silicone, or other
material) to fix it to the tested surface, avoiding adhesive material residue. Slight
pressure should be applied to fix the tubes on the surface. The adhesive material
should be left to dry for about 20 min, at room temperature. Afterwards, the Karsten-
tubes are filled with water up to the maximum level (4 cm3 ) at time t = 0 (Hendrickx
2013). After waiting for 5 min, the first reading (at t = 5 min) is made on the three
tubes, recording the observed level of water, which should be lower at every reading.
Readings are taken at times t = 10 min, t = 15 min, t = 30 min and t = 60 min.
For each reading period, the lowering average should be registered, considered the
three tubes. With those values, a chart is plotted considering the amount of lowering
vs. time. The slope of the plotted line is the absorption coefficient of the cladding
(kg/cm2 ).
4.2.7 Mechanical Methods
As for “mechanical methods” (D-G), they imply the interaction of forces between
a tool and the material to diagnose. Diagnosis methods in this group are listed in
Table 4.4.
The method “sphere impact, grid cutting, scratching and abrasion tests (Martinet
Baronnie)” (D-G1) groups four tests that may be used in façade claddings. The sphere
impact test is used to assess whether the cladding has voids on the substrate layer,
although no bulging is apparent. Using this test, some defects and/or their progression
may be avoided. In floorings, a 19 mm steel sphere is used, which is dropped from
a 1 m height. The restitution height is measured. If it is much lower than the falling
Table 4.4 Classification of diagnosis methods in the category mechanical methods in a global
Code Denomination
D-G Mechanical methods
D-G1 Sphere impact, grid cutting, scratching and abrasion tests (Martinet Baronnie) (D)
D-G2 Pencil method (D)
D-G3 Surface hardness and pendulum rebound hammer (ND)
D-G4 Micro-perforation (D)
D-G5 Controlled penetration and perforation test (D)
D-G6 Pull-off test (D)
D-G7 Coring (D)
D-G8 Adhesion assessment by grid and knife tests (D)
D-G9 Adhesive tape method (ND)
Fig. 4.13 Examples of use of the mechanical method “D-G1 Sphere impact, grid cutting, scratching
and abrasion tests (Martinet Baronnie)”: a sphere impact test; b grid cutting test
height, it is a sign of issues on the bedding material. An experienced surveyor should

perform the test, as it is qualitative and may be conditioned by flatness defects. In
façades (Flores-Colen 2013; Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015; Carasek et al. 2018),
the sphere impact test allows assessing the cladding’s deformability. The Martinet
Baronnie instrument may be used in these cases (for 3 J impacts) (Fig. 4.13, part
a). The test consists in applying a hard-body impact of 3–10 J with a steel sphere
of about 50 mm diameter. A 3 J impact corresponds to a sphere of 0.5 kg dropped
from a 0.61 m height, and, in a 10 J impact, the sphere should weight 1 kg and be
dropped from a 1.02 m height. The impact resistance is assessed according to the
diameter of the dent on the cladding and to the type of resulting degradation (cracking,
detachment, holes). Theoretically, the smaller the dent’s diameter, the more resistant
the cladding. The more flexible the cladding, the less cracking will be visible.
The grid cutting test (Flores-Colen 2013; Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015) is
very similar to the sphere impact test. It may also be performed with the Martinet
Baronnie instrument (Fig. 4.13, part b). In this instance, the impact is performed with
a cutting hard-body, i.e. a jagged metal block (250, 500 and 1000 g). With this test, it
is possible to collect information on the superficial cohesion of the cladding material
and, eventually, on the adhesion of the superficial layer. In this test, the resistance is
assessed as a function of the percentage of area of detached mortar, considering the
area hit by the cutting hard-body.
The scratching test consists (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015; Carasek et al. 2018)
in checking the occurrence or absence of degradation (scratches or detachments) of a
cladding, when submitted to the action of the edge of a metal disc in rectilinear motion
(throughout 15 cm). The disc is progressively loaded with masses (in a predefined
range of 250, 500 and 1000 g). In this test, the Martinet Baronnie may be used, once
more. The resistance is assessed according to the value of the mass to which the
cladding resists, not showing scratches or detachment. A resistance to scratches may
be defined.
The abrasion test (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015; Carasek et al. 2018) also
uses the Martinet Baronnie instrument. It consists in checking the cladding when
submitted to a friction-type action with carborundum sandpaper nr. 150 (200 mm
× 200 mm) compressed over the cladding with a series of masses (increasingly
higher in a predefined range—250, 500 and 1000 g). The resistance to abrasion is
assessed through the value of the mass that does not cause damage on the cladding.
It is considered that the cladding resists an abrasion action if the sandpaper does not
cause a significant groove on the cladding surface. An abrasion resistance may be
defined.
After performing any of the tests of the D-G1 method, the surface should be
repaired with appropriate materials.
The diagnosis method “pull-off test” (D-G6) aims at observing the bond strength
between the substrate, spatter-dash, bedding, and the cladding/finishing layer. To
perform the test, a core drilling machine (Fig. 4.14, part a), an hydraulic pull-off
equipment (Fig. 4.14, parts b, c and d), epoxy resin adhesive, a dynamometer and
pull-head plates are needed (RILEM TC 177-MDT 2004). The cladding is bored with
the core drilling machine up to the substrate in the shape of 50 mm diameter discs.
Then, the surface is sanded and cleaned with acetone. Apull-head plate is glued to
the cladding with the epoxy glue. After the bond is complete, the hydraulic pull-off
Fig. 4.14 Examples of the mechanical method “D-G6 Pull-off test”: a core drilling machine;
b illustration of an hydraulic pull-off equipment; and c and d two other different types of hydraulic
pull-off equipment
equipment is attached to the pull-head plate. A load perpendicular to the cladding

surface is applied on the cladding plane by the test equipment on the plate. The
load is measured with a dynamometer. The strength (N/mm2 ) needed to pull-off the
cladding, or the cladding and the bedding material is compared with standard values
(RILEM TC 177-MDT 2004; Flores-Colen 2013). The sample is analysed to check
the layer that broke (Goldberg 2011).
The pull-off test needs full access to the cladding surface. At least five or six tests
in different areas of the surface are advised (RILEM TC 177-MDT 2004; European
Organisation for Technical Approvals 2013), but the number of samples must be
planned according to the previous knowledge on the surface features. The bond
strength final value should be the mean of the results of the performed tests. In
ETICS, a normal result is a bond strength above 0.08 N/mm2 (after effect of water
and 2 h after removal from water), or 0.25 N/mm2 in dry conditions, or the break
of the insulation material, which is the most fragile material in this cladding system
(European Organisation for Technical Approvals 2013). Although frequently used,
the results of the pull-off test usually present a very high variability (Ramos et al.
2012).
4.2.8 Pressure Methods
“Pressure methods” (D-H) subject the material to specific differential pressure levels
(Table 4.5). The “ventilator test” (D-H1) refers to the blower-door test (or fan pres-
sure test), which is based on the creation of a pressure gradient between indoors and
outdoors using a ventilator installed on a door or window (Fig. 4.15). Method D-H1 is
used to: quantify a building’s permeability (Environmental Protection Agency 2013;

Code Denomination
diagnosis methods in the
categories pressurization D-H Pressure methods
methods, colour methods and D-H1 Ventilator test (ND)
chemical methods in a global
D-I Colour methods
inspection system for the
building envelope D-I1 Colour-meter (ND)
D-I2 Munsell system or NCS scale colour specification
(ND)
D-J Chemical methods
D-J1 Speedy moisture test (D)
D-J2 Test strips and field kit (ND)
D-J3 Phenolphthalein indicator (ND)
Fig. 4.15 Example of pressure method “D-H1 Ventilator test”: schematic view of the assembly
Boettcher et al. 2017); measure the air flow between different areas; test the water-
tightness of plumbing; and help locating air leakages through the building envelope,
such as through gaps in door and window frames. Once the pressure gradient is cre-
ated, air leakages may be easily detected using smoke next to joints. The ventilator
test is currently often used in the USA to assess the energy performance of small
buildings (Grimmer et al. 2011; Salehi et al. 2016).
4.2.9 Colour Methods
The group of “colour methods” (D-I) includes colour comparison methods between
the material colour and standard colour scales. The diagnosis methods under this
category are listed in Table 4.5.
Colour is an optical property technically perceptible and measurable. It works as
a quality index in many materials, including natural stone. When used as a cladding,
natural stone should keep the same colour as time goes by, even if exposed to aggres-
sive environmental agents. The “colour-meter” (D-I1) is an instrument (Fig. 4.16,
part a) used to characterise colour samples to provide an objective measurement of
the colour. This instrument expresses colour numerically, according to international
Fig. 4.16 Examples of colour methods: a drawing of a generic colour meter (“D-I1 Colour meter”);
b use of the NCS colour scale (“D-I2 Munsell system or NCS scale colour specification”)
standards. The colour-meter sensor is a set of three sensors filtered to have approxi-
mately the same colour sensibility as the human eye. The sensor receives light from
an object and transmits information to a microcomputer, which, in turn, determines
the numerical values based on the sensor information. Method D-I1 is used to detect
building defects in natural stone claddings, but it may also be used as a monitoring
tool in laser cleaning actions, especially in heritage buildings.
The method “Munsell system or NCS scale colour specification” (D-I2) uses inter-
national reference systems for colour specification (Chastre and Ludovico-Marques
2018) in order to assess colour variations. The Munsell system sorts colour uniformly,
allowing a three-dimensional arrangement of colours in a three-axis space in which
colours are specified. The axes correspond to hue, chrome and value, respectively a
circular, radial and vertical axis. Hue is defined by properties that tell colours apart,
consisting in five primary colours (red, yellow, green, blue and purple) and five sec-
ondary colours (yellow-red, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-purple and red-purple).
The value is defined by brightness, varying from 0 to 10, in which 10 is white. The
chrome corresponds to the differences between a totally saturated colour and a grey-
ish tone, varying from 0 to 12. The Munsell books of colour (colour swatch books)
are the reference instruments to monitor the colours of a cladding.
The natural colour system (NCS) scale is a logical interpretation of colour based
on how the human eye perceives colour (Hård et al. 1996). It builds on six elementary
colours, namely yellow (Y), red, (R), blue (B), green (G), white (W) and black (S).
Other colours are described according to their similarities to this set of colours.
The NCS colour space is a three-dimensional model normally presented as two
projections—the colour circle and the colour triangle. The hue (or colour family)
is represented in the colour circle, which includes the four chromatic elementary
colours (yellow, red, blue and green) as the points of a compass, with quadrants
divided into 100 equal steps. Colour nuances are represented in the colour triangle,
like a vertical section of the colour space. The base of the triangle is a scale from
white to black, and its apex corresponds to maximum chromaticity within each colour
family. Referring to this representation, each colour may be represented by a code,
such as “S 2030-Y50R” (Fig. 4.16, part b). The S refers to the use of the natural
colour system, and code 2030 refers to the nuance of colour Y50R, which lies in the
middle of the quadrant between yellow and red.
4.2.10 Chemical Methods
“Chemical methods” (D-J) are those that determine the characteristics of a material
or defects according to simple standardized chemical reactions. In the context of a
global building inspection system, the methods is category D-J are listed in Table 4.5.
Method “test strips and field kit” (D-J2) is used to identify soluble salts. Such
identification is essential to determine the origin of the salts and the probable causes
of the defect, and to define an intervention strategy. Test strips are a very simple
procedure. They consist in paper strips (Fig. 4.17, part a) with areas impregnated with
indicating substances which, when in contact with a saline solution, change colour
(Bungey et al. 2006). Test strips allow measuring the salt concentration in an aqueous
solution, through a comparative scale. Results are given in concentration intervals
(mg/l) for each ion, hence allowing fast identification of high content of a specific
salt (Siedel and Siegesmund 2014). Comparison colour scales are included in the test
strips’ kit. Still, the interpretation of results and reliability may be compromised by
the scarce accuracy of the test, as other substances or the solution pH may interfere.
The field kit includes titrimetric and colour analysis. They both use laboratory field
equipment (Fig. 4.17, part b), specifically a portable spectrophotometer, which easily
shows the concentration of salts, according to the specific test (Flores-Colen and de
Brito 2015). For the titrimetric analysis, a specific titrant solution is used, which is
progressively added to the salts up to a turning point, generally corresponding to a
Fig. 4.17 Examples of use of the chemical method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit”: a test strip and
comparison scale; b field kit
colour or conductivity change. For the colour analysis, a specific reagent is added to
the salts, and a coloured product is formed. The colour intensity is proportional to
the concentration of salt the reagent indicates. The field kit is not very accurate for
sulphate analysis.
4.3 Application of Diagnosis Methods in Building Elements

and Materials
Not all diagnosis methods are suited for all building elements and materials, although
some may be used in most. Considering the global building inspection system, and
the method used to create it, a diagnosis methods–building elements/materials matrix
was necessary to establish the most suitable tests for each case. The lack of corre-
spondence registered in such matrix will then match columns filled with zeros in
the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix. However, in the diagnosis meth-
ods–building elements/materials matrix, if a method does not match a specific mate-
rial, it does not mean it cannot be useful in some (few) instances. It only means
that it is not the best test to assess that material. The diagnosis methods–building
elements/materials matrix is shown in Table 4.6.
4.4 Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation
During a visual inspection of a building, the surveyor determines probable causal

relationships in the diagnosis process, as mentioned in Sect. 3.6. However, obser-
vation of the building elements is not always enough to confirm those causal rela-
tionships. Additionally, the defect itself may not be completely characterised with a
mere visual inspection. It may require the use of auxiliary methods to determine its
extent, severity and confirm its origin. Auxiliary methods assume greater importance
in hard to reach areas and have the advantage of providing more detailed and quan-
tified information. Still, those methods are not always mandatory, but, when they
are useful, the surveyor could use a predetermined set of in situ diagnosis methods
that are helpful in similar situations. With such set, the surveyor’s work would be
simplified, and the inspection outcome would be less dependent on the surveyor’s
professional experience.
That set of predetermined in situ diagnosis methods comes from the use of cor-
relation matrices (Branco and de Brito 2004). As part of the backbone of building
inspection systems (Silvestre and de Brito 2009), a defects–diagnosis methods cor-
relation matrix is a very practical tool. In fieldwork, the surveyor is guided to check
the utility of listed diagnosis methods to characterise a specific defect.
The defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix is a schematic representation
of the applicability of a method to a defect. In simple terms, a correlation matrix is
constituted by a set of rows (defects) and columns (diagnosis methods) that intersect
Table 4.6 Diagnosis methods–building elements/materials matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope
286
Diagnosis methods External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
roofs
D-A Assisted sensory D-A1 •
analysis D-A2 •
D-A3 • • • • •
D-A4 • • • • • •
D-A5 • • • • • •
D-A6 • •
D-A7 •
D-A8 •
D-B Electrical methods D-B1 • •
D-B2 •
D-B3 •
D-B4 • •
D-B5 •
D-B6 •
D-C Thermo-hygrometric D-C1 • • • • • •
methods D-C2 • • •
D-C3 • • • • • • • • •
D-D Sound and acoustic D-D1 • • • • • • •
methods D-D2 • • • •
D-D3 •
4 Diagnosis Methods
D-E Nuclear methods D-E1 •

(continued)
Diagnosis methods External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
roofs
D-F Hydric methods D-F1 •
D-F2 •
D-F3 •
D-F4 • • •
D-G Mechanical methods D-G1 • • •
D-G2 •
D-G3 •
4.4 Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation
D-G4 •
D-G5 • •
D-G6 • • • • •
D-G7 •
D-G8 •
D-G9 •
D-H Pressure methods D-H1 •
D-I Colour methods D-I1 •
D-I2 •
D-J Chemical methods D-J1 •
D-J2 • • • •
D-J3 • •
• indicates that the diagnosis method is used in the specific building element/material
287

defects and diagnosis
methods as defined by de
Brito (1992) and Branco and
de Brito (2004)
(Fig. 4.18). In the intersection, an index (0, 1 or 2) represents the level of applicability
of a diagnosis method in a specific defect. The matrix is read choosing the defect
first, and then reading the indexes corresponding to each diagnosis method.
Several authors have already defined defects–diagnosis methods correlation matri-
ces, namely: Branco and de Brito (2004), Walter et al. (2005), Garcia and de Brito
(2008), Silvestre and de Brito (2010), Gaião et al. (2011), Neto and de Brito (2011),
Pereira et al. (2011), Garcez et al. (2012), Amaro et al. (2013), Delgado et al. (2013),
Sá et al. (2014), Pires et al. (2015), Conceição et al. (2017), da Silva et al. (2017),
Santos et al. (2017), Carvalho et al. (2018).
4.4.1 Correlation Matrix
As mentioned in Sect. 3.6.1.1, in a global inspection system, correlation matrices are

three-dimensional (Fig. 4.19). As in the two-dimensional matrix, rows are defects and
columns are diagnosis methods, but, in this instance, layers corresponding to building
elements and materials are added. Layers are necessary as pathological processes are
often different from building element/material to building element/material.
To navigate the three-dimensional correlation matrix, first, the building element
or material is identified. Then, the detected defect is chosen, and finally, the diagnosis
methods are identified (Fig. 4.20).
As in the defects–causes correlation matrix, the defects–diagnosis methods matrix
allows several interpretations. One may select a building element/material, then
a diagnosis method and search for all defects in which it can be useful. Or the
defect may be selected first, then a diagnosis method and all the building ele-
ments/materials in which the situation applies are highlighted. Several other reading
orders may come from this correlation matrix. However, in fieldwork, using the
building element/material–defect–diagnosis method order is advised.
4.4 Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation 289
Fig. 4.19 Schematic

three-dimensional
defects–diagnosis methods
correlation matrix

three-dimensional
correlation matrix
4.4.2 Building a Defects–Diagnosis Methods Correlation

Matrix
Considering the non-structural building elements and materials of the building enve-
lope, the classification of defects and the classification of diagnosis methods of
the global inspection system, Fig. 4.21 shows the three-dimensional proportional
representation of the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix.
Fig. 4.21 Proportions of the

three-dimensional
correlation matrix within the
building envelope inspection
system
To fill this matrix, the applicability of diagnosis methods on each defect is consid-
ered. Through literature review and experience, the high or low relationship between
a defect and a diagnosis method must be expressed in the intersection of rows and
columns through a correlation index, as follows (de Brito et al. 1994):
• 0—no correlation: no relationship between the defect and the diagnosis method;
• 1—low correlation: diagnosis method adequate to characterise the defect,
although with some limitations, in terms of technical execution or cost, which
shorten the applicability range;
• 2—high correlation: diagnosis method adequate to characterise the defect, whose
execution requires minimal technical knowledge and whose needed equipment is
accessible, broadening the applicability range.
Furthermore, correlation indexes should be attributed according to the third
dimension of the correlation matrix; i.e. the occurrence of the defect in a spe-
cific building element/material and the use of the diagnosis method in that building
element/material.
In Table 4.7, an excerpt of the defects–diagnosis method correlation matrix is

shown. It represents the interception of the layer referring to wall renders, with the
rows of the defects of physical, chemical and mechanical nature, and the columns
of diagnosis methods (categories thermo-hygrometric, sound and acoustic, nuclear,
hydric and mechanical methods). The theoretical correlation matrix between defects
and diagnosis methods was built based on the matrices of: Silvestre and de Brito
(2010), Neto and de Brito (2011), Garcez et al. (2012), Amaro et al. (2013), Sá et al.
(2014), Pires et al. (2015), Conceição et al. (2017), da Silva et al. (2017), Santos et al.
(2017), which were all validated in representative samples in field surveys. In these
field surveys, the most adequate diagnosis methods for each defect were recorded.
To compare those results with theoretical indexes based on literature, the latter were
analysed side by side with the percentage of cases in the sample in which a specific
method was associated with each defect. Discrepancies between the sample and the
theoretical prediction were highlighted. The cases with a gross discrepancy were
analysed, checking the implications of eventually changing the correlation index. In
some cases, the change occurred and, in others, it was considered that there were
insufficient data to draw further conclusions and change the index (Silvestre and de
Brito 2011). As for the global correlation matrix, it was validated through further
literature review.
Interpreting the correlation matrix in Table 4.7, and illustrating the relationships it
represents, in the example of defect “A-A6 Cohesion loss/disaggregation and chalk-
ing” may be adequate to use the following diagnosis methods (in categories thermo-
hygrometric, sound and acoustic, nuclear, hydric and mechanical methods), when it
occurs in wall renders:
• High correlation:
– D-G1 Sphere impact, grid cutting, scratching and abrasion tests (Martinet
Baronnie);
– D-G5 Controlled penetration and perforation test;
• Low correlation:
– D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity;
– D-C3 Infrared thermography;
– D-G3 Surface hardness and pendulum sclerometer;
– D-G4 Micro-perforation.
Using this defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix, when surveyors detects

defect A-A6 in a wall render, they immediately have a list of possible methods that
may help characterise the detected defect.
Some additional examples of the use of the defects–diagnosis methods correla-
tion matrix may be mentioned. In external claddings of pitched roofs, defect “A-B6
Corrosion in metallic fastening or tail-end elements” may be better characterised
with the use of diagnosis method “D-C3 Infrared thermography”, even if infrared
thermography is only helpful to detect leakages resulting from defects on tail-end
292
Table 4.7 Excerpt of the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for wall renders) referring
only to thermo-hygrometric, sound and acoustic, nuclear, hydric and mechanical methods
Defect D-C1 D-C2 D-C3 D-D1 D-D2 D-D3 D-E1 D-F1 D-F2 D-F3 D-F4 D-G1 D-G2 D-G3 D-G4 D-G5 D-G6 D-G7 D-G8 D-G9
A-A1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A3 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A6 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0
A-B1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B3 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B4 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
A-B5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C2 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
A-C7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C9 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
A-C10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 Diagnosis Methods
elements (Garcez et al. 2012). In the global inspection system, the method is consid-
ered to have a low correlation with defect A-B6 (correlation index 1), as it is suited
only for specific cases, namely when the causes of the defect, like dampening, are
not perceived by the naked eye.
In flat roofs, the defect “fracture or splintering on the current surface” (A-C3)
may be diagnosed with the help of “D-B2 Leakage electrical detection”, hence being
associated by correlation index 2. As D-B2 detects leakages, implicitly it detects
fractures in the roof’s waterproofing or cladding system. The high voltage method is
used in dry conditions and specifically aims at detecting ruptures in waterproofing
membranes.
In adhesive ceramic tiling, diagnosis method “D-A3 Assessment of the slope,
flatness, orthogonality and alignments” may be very useful for defect “D-B3 Efflo-
rescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation” (correlation index 2). Applying method
D-A3, it is possible to determine the tilt of the cladding, assessing whether the pro-
gression of defects may be favoured by that property, or even whether it is a direct
cause of the occurrence of the defect. The drainage of water is very important and
may be hindered by an inadequate slope.
Defect “dirt and accumulation of debris” (A-A3) and diagnosis method “en-
doscopy” (D-A1), in natural stone claddings, are associated with correlation index
1. Although an endoscopy may not be useful to assess the presence of foreign ele-
ments on the surface of the stone plate, it may be used in some cases of deposition
when indirect fastening systems are used. Using method D-A1, the surveyor may
look at inaccessible layers of the cladding. However, applying this method may be
expensive, leading to careful weighing on the need to recommend it.
In door and window frames, “A-A2 Surface moisture” may be better assessed
using “D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity”.
Surface moisture may refer to condensation on glazing or in the air-gap of double
glazing. Knowing the temperature and the moisture levels is useful in both cases.
The surface and ambient temperatures determine whether there are conditions for
condensation to occur on the cold surface of materials. Knowing the relative humidity
is useful to check whether levels are unusually high or additional measures need to
be put in action. The correlation index between A-A2 and D-C1 is 2.
In wall renders, “oriented cracking on the current surface” (A-C2) is associated
with “tell-tale gauge and gypsum testimonies” (D-A4) by correlation index 1. The use
of D-A4 in wall renders is an easy way to check the progression and cyclic behaviour
of cracks. Still, it does not provide immediate results, as it requires monitoring over
a long period of time.
Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth” may be better diagnosed using
method “D-A5 Crack width ruler and crack-measuring microscope”, but, in ETICS,
the determined correlation index is 1. It may be strange to assess biological growth
with method D-A5, but in this case the association between the diagnosis method
and the defect refers to the crack-measuring microscope, which can also be used as a
regular portable microscope to look at specific fungi, algae or lichens and determine
the better repair action to eliminate them.
A “tactile analysis” (D-A2) may help determine “finishing colour flaws in painted
façades” (A-D4) (correlation index 1), as some colour flaws may be confused with
texture flaws or occur with chalking, for instance, and, through a tactile analysis,
differences may be determined.
In architectural concrete surfaces, defect “A-A2 Colour changes” is associated
with method “D-B6 Galvanic half-cell” (correlation index 1). Method D-B6 is useful
to check whether damp may be causing corrosion in the concrete’s reinforcement.
As, in concrete, colour changes are often caused by oxidation stains and runoffs, this
may be a good method to further investigate the causes of such stains. However, the
method implies partial destruction of the concrete’s surface, because it requires a
physical connection to the reinforcement.
As an operative tool within building inspection systems, the classification of diagnosis

methods allows surveyors to have knowledge in systematised lists that can be used
during fieldwork. These lists have the advantage of turning inspection systems less
dependable on the surveyors’ experience.
In the context of a global building inspection system, the classification of diag-
nosis methods is grouped in categories according to the functioning principle of the
instruments that can be used. Only in situ diagnosis methods are considered, as they
are quicker and, usually, less expensive. Additionally, many in situ diagnosis methods
do not need specialised labour to be performed. Methods can be electrical, thermo-
hygrometric, sound and acoustic, nuclear, hydric, mechanical, pressure, colour and
chemical, as well as simple assisted sensory analyses.
Not all methods are suited for all building elements and materials. In fact, some
diagnosis methods are specific of a building element (such as flat roofs) or building
material (such as paint). That specificity is shown in a diagnosis methods–building
elements/materials correlation matrix, in the context of the global inspection system.
A three-dimensional correlation matrix between defects and diagnosis methods
also expresses that specificity. But it contains additional information on the adequacy
of diagnosis methods to specific defects in specific building elements and materials.
In this correlation matrix, that adequacy is expressed in 0, 1 and 2, correlation indexes
that represent no correlation, low correlation and high correlation, respectively.
In the next chapter, the classification of repair techniques and the defects–repair
techniques correlation matrix are described, as part of building inspection systems.
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Icons Credits Licensed as Creative Commons CCBY
AC supply by Arthur Shlain from the Noun Project
Drop water by ruliani from the Noun Project
Fan by Ricardo Moreira from the Noun Project
References 299
Hand by Nick Abrams from the Noun Project

Lawn mower by Chanut is Industries from the Noun Project
Speedometer by kiddo from the Noun Project
Steel spring by ProSymbols from the Noun Project
Tachometer by kiddo from the Noun Project
Water drop by Deanna Low from the Noun Project
Water pressure by Yazmin Alanis from the Noun Project
Chapter 5
Repair Techniques
Abstract Since the use of classification lists is advantageous when using building
inspection systems, including a classification list of repair techniques in those sys-
tems assists the surveyor during inspection procedures. Such list, for the building
envelope’s inspection, should include techniques for repairs on the surface of the
cladding or in the cladding system, as well as procedures to make changes in the
bearing structure or in the substrate and in singular points of the building envelope.
Repair techniques should be used within maintenance plans as corrective or preven-
tive work, including regular maintenance procedures. According to the classification
of repair techniques and that of defects, the most adequate repair techniques should
be defined in a correlation matrix associating defects with repair techniques taking
the affected building element or material into account. Some techniques may be used
to repair a specific defect or eliminate its causes without any restrictions (correlation
index 2), but others may have some constraints (correlation index 1).
According to the methodology described in Chaps. 3 and 4, in the context of building

pathology, an inspection system benefits from the use of objective classification lists
(CIB W86 1993), classification of repair techniques included, as pragmatic tools for
surveyors. In this scope, the development of a classification list of repair techniques
follows the classification of defects, their probable causes and diagnosis methods.
Similarly, a literature review is an essential step to gather information on the
best practices in maintenance and repair actions to mend defects and eliminate their
causes. In the specific context of repair techniques, the literature review should be
complemented with an analysis of the most current, recent and proven procedures,
already accepted and put in place in the market. In this sense, getting in contact with
the construction industry may be a good option.
As a result of building inspection, a surveyor is expected to present a final report,
including the description of the most adequate techniques to repair the detected
defects and eliminate the respective causes (Glover 2009; Douglas and Noy 2011).
The identification of the detected defects (according to the classification of defects)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_5
302 5 Repair Techniques
and their causes (according to the classification of causes) is the first step for pin-
pointing the adequate repair techniques Those techniques may refer to curative repair
techniques, preventive repair techniques, and other maintenance works (Seeley 1987;
Van Balen 2015). Curative repair techniques are those composed of reactive actions
that allow to directly repair a detected defect, removing it, or at times only hiding
it. They may be used as emergency remedial actions in seriously degraded building
elements, as curative action provides fast results. Curative repair techniques may also
correspond to rehabilitation actions, which change the building element’s character-
istics and geometry, and allow performance improvements, eventually substituting
parts of the building element.
Preventive repair techniques meet the advised practice of intervening not only to
immediately repair a defect, as it may lead to recurring defects. Preventive repair
techniques are needed to eliminate the causes of defects, in order to completely
remove a pathological phenomenon, avoiding its repetition and interrupting the fail-
ure mechanism (Houghton-Evans 2005). A preventive approach helps to conserve
authenticity, avoiding or minimising the progression of damages thanks to timely
action (Van Balen 2015). Sometimes, preventive repair actions may also correspond
to rehabilitation actions, as do curative repair techniques.
Planned maintenance works, including cleaning, are those actions that do not
directly affect the behaviour of a building element, as they are not directed at specific
defects or causes. Without maintenance works, the degradation process of building
materials is accelerated, consequently lowering performance levels and decreasing
the expected service life (Seeley 1987). Performing regular maintenance works low-
ers the probability of occurrence of defects, avoiding expensive reactive actions,
keeping performance levels steady and maintaining, or even improving, the expected
service life of building elements, hence appreciating buildings as assets.
Frequently, the same repair technique may constitute a curative and preventive
technique, or even maintenance work, according to the application context. This
means the technique may be curative if it is applied as a reaction to a well-known
and evident defect, it may be preventive if it is applied to avoid the reoccurrence or
progression of a defect, and the intervention technique may constitute maintenance
work if it is part of a set of regular actions set in place to preserve the building
element’s condition. Cleaning, for instance, may easily be framed in one of the three
scenarios. Curative repair techniques are generally part of a reactive maintenance
strategy, in which degradation mechanisms act freely and one only intervenes after
the defects manifest themselves. Preventive repair techniques and maintenance works
are commonly associated with a proactive maintenance strategy, which aims at acting
before failure, degradation and significant loss of performance occur (Flores-Colen
and de Brito 2010; de Brito and Flores-Colen 2015).
5.2 Classification of Repair Techniques 303
5.2 Classification of Repair Techniques
Repair techniques are usually associated with specific building materials. In fact,
in a literature review, one is likely to find information directed at definite building
materials and elements. Still, repair techniques in different building elements may
be comparable or equivalent to each other. For instance, a new finishing coat may
be applied in rendered walls and in wood window frames, although using specific
repair materials and procedures. The disperse knowledge may be harmonised and
merged in a classification list to be used in a global inspection system. The harmon-
isation process implies combining some similar techniques, thus obtaining a unified
classification list, applicable to several building materials. That process requires the
fulfilment of criteria to obtain a coherent result. Such criteria are: to avoid repeti-
tion, aiming at conciseness; to group individual repair techniques in broader ones,
according to their procedure, applicability, similarity of the defects, and use of similar
materials; and to include a wide variety of repair techniques, even if some only apply
to specific cases. Organising the classification list in categories of repair techniques
is also a good practice, to ease the consulting process.
The classification of repair techniques is arranged in categories according to the
location and intrusiveness of the repair techniques. In the context of a global inspec-
tion system for non-structural elements of the building envelope, four categories are
defined, namely: the surface of the cladding; the cladding system itself; change in
the bearing structure/substrate; and singularities.
Like in the classification of defects, causes of defects and diagnosis methods,
a coding system is used in the classification of repair techniques. Each category
corresponds to a code composed of a capital R (for repair), a hyphen and a sequential
capital letter (A to D). Within each category, a sequential number (R-A1, R-A2,
R-A3, R-B1, R-B2, R-C1, and so on) is attributed to each repair technique.
The list of repair techniques for a global inspection system for the non-structural
elements of the building envelope is presented in Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. This list
includes the best presently known procedures to repair building elements. However,
constant product development and innovation should lead to new and innovative
techniques, which should be included in future versions of such list, if proven efficient
and cost-effective.
5.2.1 Surface of the Cladding
The group “surface of the cladding” (R-A) includes repair techniques generally less
intrusive, which may be applied without completely removing the cladding. This
type of repair techniques is listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Classification of repair techniques in the category “surface of the cladding” in a global
Code Denomination
R-A Surface of the cladding
R-A1 Cleaning (cr, pr, pmw)
R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)
(cr, pr, pmw)
R-A3 Corrosion removal and re-establishment of the anticorrosion protection in metallic
elements (cr)
R-A4 Surface rehabilitation of the plastic external claddings of pitched roofs (cr)
R-A5 Repair/execution of supplementary watertightness measures in pitched roofs (cr, pr)
R-A6 Creation of pathways (pr)
R-A7 Application of ventilation systems/accessories (cr, pr)
R-A8 Encapsulation of asbestos-cement external claddings of pitched roofs (pr)
R-A9 Application of spray polyurethane foam (SPF) on the external surface of pitched roofs
(cr, pr)
R-A10 Glazing repair in door and window frames (cr)
R-A11 Replacement or reapplication of the cladding/glazing (partially or completely) (cr, pr)
R-A12 Application of a new (adequate) cladding/finishing coat over the existent/replacement
(cr, pr, pmw)
R-A13 Treatment of cracks or other holes in the cladding (cr)
R-A14 Complete/partial removal of the existing coat in painted façades (cr)
R-A15 Correction of surface irregularities or evening an architectural concrete surface with
mortar (cr)
Notation cr—curative repair; pr—preventive repair; pmw—planned maintenance works
5.2.1.1 Cleaning and Protective Coats
“Cleaning” (R-A1) is one of the least intrusive repair techniques and is useful in
any material, with specific adaptations. The regular maintenance of surfaces usually
includes cleaning accumulated dirt stains and debris, corrosion stains and remov-
ing biological and vegetation growth, as well as accumulated salts. This type of
action avoids further degradation caused by these agents, which would affect the
building element’s performance. For instance, the accumulation of dirt stimulates
the pernicious crystallisation of salts on subjacent layers of claddings, as well as
the development of acid deposits (Verhoef 1988). Additionally, the accumulation of
debris may also hinder the normal operation of drainage systems.
So, cleaning may be performed as a purely aesthetic means or to remove potentially
aggressive substances. Additionally, it is often the first step of further repair actions,
as it is essential to completely expose damages and to prepare surfaces to receive
treatment agents/products (Verhoef 1988).
Several physical and chemical methods, with varied intensity, may be used in
cleaning actions (Campanella and Mateus 2003), which may be generally grouped
into washing, chemical and mechanical cleaning methods. The cleaning technique
is frequently a combination of these three types of methods (Grimmer 1988). While
deciding on whether to clean, the main purposes of the cleaning action should be
weighted beforehand, in combination with possible side-effects. In cleaning activi-
ties, there is always some wear (Campanella and Mateus 2003), even if the selected
method is only very slightly abrasive. Still, to some degree, the soiling process
has already damaged the building element’s surface, which often will no longer
correspond to its original state (Verhoef 1988).
The decision process should consider (Verhoef 1988; Flores-Colen et al. 2008):
(i) the aspect of the building element before cleaning and its expected aspect after
cleaning; (ii) possible damage to the building, people or environment; (iii) effects
on the durability (positive or negative) of the building element; and (iv) economic
aspects.
On the other hand, before cleaning, and in order to choose the best method, it is
advisable to know (Verhoef 1988; Campanella and Mateus 2003): (i) the character-
istics of the building element, namely the building element’s material properties and
detailing; (ii) the characteristics of the surrounding atmospheric conditions and preva-
lence of pollution; (iii) the soiling process, including extent of the dirt phenomenon;
and (iv) the type of available cleaning methods and corresponding costs.
Before starting cleaning operations, some preventive measures should be put in
place to safeguard the building and people. A system to collect the debris generated by
the cleaning process should be planned ahead, thus avoiding pollution and damages
in the surroundings. The excessive dust that may be caused by cleaning activities
should be avoided through the preliminary sprinkling of the site with water, if possible
(Fig. 5.1 part a). Additionally, the area should be limited by a protection net (in high-
density polyethylene or polyethylene) (Ashurst and Ashurst 1988a) (Fig. 5.1 part
b). Liquid residues may be collected by applying boards of coated plywood below
the building element or in its perimeter. Then, liquids should be collected and stored
for future treatment. Noise may also be minimised if some simple measures are
planned. For instance, if a power generator or a compressor is necessary, it may be
sound-proofed or placed in a protected location (Ashurst and Ashurst 1988a).
The cleaning team’s safety should also be considered, especially when the building
elements are in sensitive areas for the worker. For instance, while cleaning window
frames, there is a tendency to hang on the window-sill. Cleaning roofs, façades,
and tall buildings in general should always put safety first. Additionally, adequate
individual protection should be used, according to the applied cleaning techniques
and products. Special attention should be paid when using chemical products, like
acids or alkaline cleaners (Verhoef 1988).
Cleaning procedures may act at three different levels (Campanella and Mateus
2003), according to the type of dirt and its encrustation degree. The first level (from
lighter to stronger encrustation) refers to the simple removal of loose debris whose
accumulation is caused by gravity or water transportation. The second level refers
Fig. 5.1 Examples of: a dust caused by repair works in the narrow streets of a city’s historical
centre; and b a building’s scaffolding covered with protection net
to eliminating substances that have settled on the building element’s surface with-
out chemically reacting with it (stains or airborne particles). Finally, the third level
refers to the removal of pellicles that have developed due to a chemical interac-
tion between aggressive agents and the building element’s surface materials. Every
cleaning method should be tested first in secluded areas of the building elements
(Campanella and Mateus 2003). These test areas will guide cleaning procedures as
they will define, for instance, the needed amount of applications of a specific chemi-
cal product, as well as the dwell time, or the adequate pressure of water jet (Grimmer
1988). An adequate cleaning policy should always start with gentler methods (first
level) and progress to harsher ones if the former are not effective enough (Grimmer
1988; Campanella and Mateus 2003).
In most types of materials, a final rinse is advised at the end of cleaning procedures,
especially for those involving washing, to prevent any residue or substances from
damaging the building element.
Grouping information according to the type of material, metallic claddings may
be cleaned with a water jet if debris are loose. If dirt presents some level of encrus-
tation, manual brushing (with adequate brushes or sponges) or the use of harsher
mechanical equipment are advised. In anodised aluminium claddings (or window
frames), the cleaning procedure should make use of a wet sponge (Bureau Veritas
1993). If a harsher means is needed, washing with a neutral detergent or a chloroethy-
lene solution is advised (Seeley 1987). For galvanised steel claddings, washing with
water and a neutral solvent (6 < pH < 11.5) is more adequate. Galvanised steel and
lacquered claddings are incompatible with acid or basic washing, excessive solvent,
as well as with abrasive products or techniques (Bureau Veritas 1993). In lacquered
aluminium, washing with water and a neutral solvent is advised, but more encrusted
dirt may be removed with a cloth soaked in mineral solvent, at the expense of some
thickness loss in the coating. Galvanised steel with a plastic coating may be washed
with neutral solvents, provided that the manufacturer approves the product, due to
this cladding material’s specificity. Stainless steel may be cleaned with a wet sponge
and, if the dirt is difficult to remove, a neutral solvent. Under no circumstance should
coarse or acidic abrasive techniques be used to clean stainless steel, especially those
with chlorine (Bureau Veritas 1993). If abrasives need to be used, they must be of
fine particles and only applied by qualified labour. The service life of stainless-steel
elements may decrease drastically if a non-suitable cleaning technique is used.
In some types of metallic (steel) claddings or window frames, due to condensation
or inadequate transportation and storage, white efflorescence may appear. It is an
oxidation phenomenon that does not affect the material’s durability but only its
appearance. The removal of such efflorescence symptoms is not advised, as the
cleaning process usually affects the corrosion protection, causing further damages
(progression of corrosion) due to exposing the metal to aggressive agents.
The best way to clean plastic building materials varies widely according to the type
of plastic. Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) elements, opaque and translucent,
may be cleaned with a wet sponge, water and a neutral solvent. Ingrained stains,
difficult to remove, may be cleaned locally with a cloth soaked in turpentine or
white spirit. GFRP building elements may be irreversibly damaged by the use of
acid or basic products, chlorine detergents, ammonia or abrasive cleaners (Bureau
Veritas 1993). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) building elements may be cleaned with
running water and, if staining is persistent, liquid detergent. If cement mortar residue
needs to be removed, the use of a damp sponge is enough to clean the surface.
If the previous procedures are not enough, the use of a cloth soaked in turpentine
is recommended. In PVC elements, the use of chlorine-based detergents, ketone,
aromatic and hydrochloric solvents, mineral or abrasive oils is not advised (Bureau
Veritas 1993). Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polycarbonate (PC) building
elements should be cleaned with a water jet and, in the case of ingrained dirt, with a
cloth soaked in detergent, according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
In flat roofs, if the cladding system is not protected (exposed waterproofing mem-
branes, for instance), it is necessary to check whether the chemical products used
in cleaning operations will not affect the chemical stability of the waterproofing or
thermal insulation.
Cleaning artificial and natural stone building elements may often be done resorting
to the same techniques. It is the case of cleaning biological and vegetation growth,
such as lichens, algae and moss, using chemical or mechanical processes. Biological
agents may be responsible for colour changes and cracking, highlighting the impor-
tance of dealing with these types of aggression. In roofs, biological and vegetation
growth may also cause faulty drainage. These defects may be eliminated with man-
ual brushing, high-pressure water or air jet or applying chemical products. Manual
brushing is a local and little aggressive method, as it does not use chemical prod-
ucts, provided no metallic brushes are used (Bureau Veritas 1993). Still, it is not
very efficient, hence, being only recommended for areas with ingrained vegetation
or localised defects. Previously soaking the stone cladding, by spraying the surface
(5–10 kg/cm2 pressure), for instance, will soften dirt and make brushing an easier
and more effective task (Richardson 1980). Spraying should be done in short periods
of time, repeatedly.
The use of a high-pressure water jet implies selecting the adequate pressure level,
size and type of nozzle, type of abrasive (if that is the case) and the adequate amount
of water to be used. These decisions will affect the efficiency and speed of cleaning
procedures. In pitched roofs, high-pressure water jet cleaning should be performed
from the top to the bottom of the roof, to avoid water and dirt infiltration. Using a damp
method, like the high-pressure water jet, decreases the development of dust and the
aggressiveness to the building element’s surface, as water acts as a lubricant. Still, this
method generates too much waste. Thus, only the strictly necessary amount of water
should be used. The water jet should be applied at about 300 mm from the surface,
avoiding water dispersion. Brushing may be used in combination with the water jet
to take care of more difficult-to-remove dirt. Additionally, as the use of excessive
water may cause further biological and vegetation growth, these operations should
not be performed at the end of the day, to allow drying. To avoid freezing, high-
pressure water jet cleaning should not be performed at low air temperatures. This
cleaning method is highly dependent on labour’s experience. They are responsible
for regulating pressure and continuously assessing the results in order to adjust the
adequate parameters. Speeding up the process using excessively high pressures may
cause serious damages to the building element, compromising its performance. For
instance, in natural stone claddings, low pressure should be applied when cleaning
softer stones, whilst higher pressure may be applied in harder stones, varying from
5 to 20 MPa (water consumption from 5 to 40 l/min)(State Heritage Office 2012).
When preparing to use a high-pressure water jet, unclogging of gutters, secondary
scuppers/overflow pipes, and drainage systems in general is advised.
Using an abrasive high-pressure water jet is an aggressive technique, requiring
specialised labour, due to the technique’s specificity. It is only recommended if dirt
or biological and vegetation growth are too ingrained on the surface and previous
methods have proven to be inefficient. Calibrated fine sand may be used as the abra-
sive element, combined with a small water flow. The jet nozzle should be adequately
set so that the jet is dispersed, not too focused. Still, alternatively, an abrasive particle
precision micro jet may be used (air jet), using low pressure. This type of jet usually
uses alumina powder or glass beads as abrasive agents and is known for its precision.
Thus, it is only advised for limited areas (Campanella and Mateus 2003).
Cleaning with a high-pressure air jet (dry) is an option when debris are not very
encrusted to the substrate (Fig. 5.2). The procedures are like those of the high-
pressure water jet. With specific instruments, both methods can even be combined
(Ashurst and Ashurst 1988a). That combination may be advantageous to decrease
water consumption or the amount of dust. In those cases, the user may control when
to switch from water to air jet and vice-versa. A similar procedure, commonly used
Fig. 5.2 Example of use of repair technique “R-A1 Cleaning”: high-pressure air jet to clean natural
stone
in roofs, uses leaf blowers to clean debris that may hinder the regular drainage of
rainwater.
As for the use of chemical products, the market has a large range of products
that can eliminate moss, lichens, algae and other plants. Careful analysis is needed
to assess which product to use, to avoid excessively harmful substances. The option
should favour the least toxic products and those specific to the identified species.
The use of chemical products may be more effective than manual brushing, but
environmental effects should also be considered. As an example, to remove algae,
cupritetramine sulphate, copper and hydrazine sulphate, dimethylthiocarbamic acid
sodium salts and mercaptobenzothiazole may be used. To remove moss and lichens,
the use of lithium hypochlorite is adequate. Specifically in slate claddings, brushing
with a 10–20% anthracene oil (crystalline tricyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) solution is
recommended (Bureau Veritas 1993). On the other hand, bleach should not be used,
as it may damage bearing structures, destroy the surrounding vegetation and degrade
micro-concrete claddings. Sodium hydroxide is very effective to remove biologi-
cal agents, but it is also highly toxic for mankind and plants. In granite claddings,
diluted hydrofluoric acid or ammonium difluoride solutions may be used to clean dirt
(Ashurst and Ashurst 1988a). Hydrofluoric acid must never be used on limestone or
carbonaceous sandstone. Ammonium difluoride must never be used on any porous
stone (Richardson 1980). Chemical products should be applied with a spray gun
and allowed to settle, according to the manufacturer’s directions. Afterwards, the
cladding should be rinsed to remove any trace. Vegetation will die, and residue will
naturally be removed by rainwater and wind. This measure expires approximately
after a year. After that, the chemical product should be reapplied.
In pitched roofs, the application of a fit copper ridge may help prevent further
vegetation growth as the contact of rainwater with copper releases a residue that
inhibits vegetation growth (Rottmann and Höfer 1989). A strip of copper with about
10 cm may be placed on the ridge. As the rainwater runs over that strip, it removes
small copper particles that cross the roof cladding and act like a poison, inhibiting
biological and vegetation growth. Still, this simple procedure may not always be
effective. Copper particles may attack zinc drainage accessories and be harmful to
all living beings (Bureau Veritas 1993).
In tiled claddings, special attention should be paid to the effect of cleaning products
on the tiles’ joint filling materials. In ceramic tiling, cleaning products for non-
biological dirt may be specific for rust stains removal, or more generic products,
like commercial solvents, neutral detergents (non-ionic surfactant) or a solution of
diluted hydrochloric acid (5–10%). The ceramic tiling surface should be previously
soaked (Grimmer and Konrad 1996), and then the cleaning product should be applied,
according to the manufacturer’s specifications, letting it settle for a few minutes.
Then, the tiling is washed with clean water and soap.
In natural and artificial stone claddings, over time, a patina layer progressively
develops, just due to oxidation. That layer may act as a protection layer for the
underlying surface, as well as defining its aesthetical characteristics. However, most
current urban environments hinder the development of the patina layer. If possible,
the natural patina of stone claddings should be preserved (Campanella and Mateus
2003).
The use of muriatic, hydrochloric and sulphuric acid is not advised to clean ren-
dered façades, as these acids may react with the mortar’s materials. The use of basic
substances is not advised either, because they will probably lead to the development
of soluble salts. Instead, in rendered façades, several other cleaning methods may
be used, according to the type of defect—of biological origin or vegetation, carbon-
ate and efflorescence salts, corrosion stains, various colour changes, dirt stains and
graffiti. Some of these defects may be associated with dampness and require preven-
tive measures before correcting the visible defect. Condensation (a common cause
of biological growth), in façades, may be avoided improving thermal insulation. If
indoor areas were being analysed, improving ventilation and increasing indoor tem-
peratures could be implemented. If the defects are associated with damp caused by
leakage, its source must be identified and corrected. In some cases of dirt accumula-
tion, geometrical changes or adequate drainage systems should be implemented as
preventive measures.
Biological growth in rendered façades may be eliminated by washing with an
aqueous solution of 10% bleach, or, alternatively, 5% sodium hypochlorite. Then,
rinsing with plain water is advised and the facing should be left to dry. Afterwards,
biocides should be applied and settle for three days minimum. Later, they should
be removed through dry brushing. The elimination of vegetation is very similar,
but also requires the adequate cautious mechanical removal of any plants and the
likely repair/consolidation of local cohesion loss/disaggregation caused by roots
(Campanella and Mateus 2003). In these cases, instead of biocides, herbicides should
be applied.
Carbonate salts, which are water insoluble, such as calcium carbonate, appear as
white stains on rendered façades, as do efflorescence salts, but the latter are solu-
ble. Both types of salts have similar cleaning processes. To eliminate those white
stains, the façade should be dry. Then, the cleaning process itself may use dry or
wet means. The dry process consists of consecutive brushing operations, with a
soft brush, eliminating the salts’ deposits that have accumulated (Stahl 1984). Only
when new deposits stop flourishing should the brushing operations stop. Alterna-
tively, for carbonate salts, chemical products (solution of 5% hydrochloric acid) or
water vapour (at 4 atm) may be used, followed by scrubbing with nylon or vegetable
fibres brushes. For persistent efflorescence salts, a damp sponge may complement
the cleaning procedures, and, in old or heritage buildings, the use of absorbing paste
(of special clay or ammonium and sodium salts) or gel is advised, to preserve the
cladding’s integrity.
To remove corrosion stains in rendered façades, a water jet may be used, whether
with plain water or neutral liquid detergent. Absorbing paste or gel chemical products
may also be used. However, as these methods may be insufficient to completely
remove the corrosion stains, they may need to be combined with the use of abrasive
cleaning methods. Preventive measures for this issue include substituting or treating
corroded metallic elements. Other colour changes in the render’s mortar may be
solved by cleaning with neutral detergents or soaps.
As for dirt stains in rendered façades, associated with the accumulation of dust,
soot and other polluting particles on the façade surface, they may be removed with
manual washing with water and a sponge or a brush (nylon or natural fibres). If dirt
particles are difficult to remove, water vapour (at 4 atm) or low-pressure water jet
(up to 17 atm), with plain water or neutral liquid detergent, may be used (Bureau
Veritas 1993).
Unauthorised graffiti on rendered façades should be removed with high-pressure
water jet combined with specific chemical products, or, in harsher cases, with abrasive
cleaning techniques. Persistent graffiti damage may be removed with water-rinsing
paint strippers, solutions of trisodium phosphate (1:5 proportion in water) or pastes
of sodium hydroxide, but not always successfully. Techniques using an air abrasive
pistol or pencil and a fine abrasive (aluminium oxide crystals) are also available for
specific cases. Laser removal may also be used with good results, but preferably
in high-value or heritage claddings, as it is a very expensive technique (Chapman
2000; Campanella and Mateus 2003). After removing the graffiti, an anti-graffiti
product should be applied to the façade, to facilitate future cleaning operations. The
application of these products should use a sponge or cloth and they should be left to
settle for 5–10 min.
For the paint coating of rendered façades, similar cleaning procedures may be put
in place, as well as others more specific. To remove dust, manual brushing is advised,
with nylon or natural fibres brushes. Additionally, in high-value or heritage painted
façades, where high-pressure water jet or other damaging cleaning techniques cannot
be used, nebulised (deionised) water may be an option to remove dirt (Campanella
and Mateus 2003). It is a very expensive method, hence only to be used in specific
occasions. Manual washing with water and a sponge is also an option to remove dust
and non-adherent contaminants in limited areas of the coating. Using warm water
may be more effective than cold water. The use of a low-pressure water jet is advised
for large areas of the coating, as high-pressure may tear the paint pellicle. According
to ASTM E1857-97(ASTM International 2013), pressure should be between 0.7 and

21 MPa. The jet nozzle (jet angles from 15° to 40°) and the distance from the façade
(from 15 to 90 cm) also influence the cleaning efficiency and possible damages.
As for the use of chemical products in painted façades, neutral (non-ionic), acid or
weak basic detergents may be used. Still, bleach (10% solution) is the most common
chemical product to be used, as it acts on several types of dirt. The application of
chemical products with pressurised equipment should be avoided, as it may force
the product’s penetration in the substrate and make it difficult to be removed.
In painted rendered façades, even with cautious action, the paint coating often gets
degraded after cleaning procedures, requiring the application of a new paint coating
on the façade.
In general terms, architectural concrete surfaces may be cleaned using the same
procedures used in rendered façades. Colour changes may be cleaned with a water
jet, neutral detergent or abrasive products. Biological growth may be removed with
diluted bleach, 2% formalin solution mixed with alcohol, and sodium hypochlorite
combined with rinse, biocides (commercial or 1% solution of dichlorophene) and
brushing (Bureau Veritas 1993). Efflorescence should be cleaned by brushing with
acidulated water (Bureau Veritas 1993) and water jet (for soluble salts) or chemical
products. Absorbing paste may also be used (CCAA T57 2006; National Precast Con-
crete Association 2013). Corrosion stains (and not their cause) may be removed by
soaking the surface with a water solution of oxalic acid (100 g per litre of water), fol-
lowed by brushing and rinsing. Persistent corrosion stains may be removed brushing
the surface with a sodium citrate solution (1:6 sodium citrate to water proportion, in
weight), sprinkling with sodium hyposulphite powder followed by brushing, apply-
ing a water and chalk paste, and rinsing thoroughly (Bureau Veritas 1993). Finally,
dirt stains may be removed with water and a nylon brush, or, as an alternative,
high-pressure water jet. In both cases, a neutral detergent may also be used.
Cleaning external thermal insulation composite systems’ (ETICS) façades
requires similar procedures to those used in rendered façades, but, to clean ETICS,
extra caution is required when deciding on the tools to use. They should be soft,
considering the mechanical susceptibility of this type of cladding (Auel 2005).
Some chemical products may be used, but others should be kept away from ETICS,
namely: acetone, esters, ether, gasoline, ketones, mineral oil, naphtha and turpentine
(Thomas 1993). Non-caustic, non-acidic phosphate-free, solvent-free and biodegrad-
able cleaners may be used to remove mud, algae, grease, oil stains, atmospheric
soiling and oxidation stains. When chemical products are combined with a water
jet, the pressure should be kept between 200 and 350 kPa, to prevent damages in
subjacent layers of the cladding. Without chemical products, the water jet pressure
should be kept below 600 kPa (ideally below 500 kPa). In ETICS, the use of abrasive
or acid products with a water jet is not advised to avoid damages on the coating
and underlying layers. The use of steam cleaning is not advised either, as the steam
temperature exceeds the insulation’s service temperature (Thomas 1993).
To remove biological growth from ETICS, in addition to the methods mentioned
for rendered façades, a trisodium phosphate solution (0.25–0.50 l in 4 l of water) may
be used. It should be applied with a brush, paint roller, sprinkler or spray gun, and
settle for 15–20 min, not letting it dry. Then, the facing should be softly brushed and
rinsed. If needed, the procedure may have to be repeated. After drying, fungicides
should be applied, following the procedure for rendered façades.
Efflorescence in ETICS may be cleaned as in rendered façades (except for the
use of steam cleaning). Additionally, in ETICS, the use of vinegar is reported to be
effective in salts removal. It should be used diluted in water (1 part of water to 1
part of vinegar) and combined with the brushing process (Exterior Insulation Finish
Systems Council of Canada 2007). As for corrosion stains in ETICS, on top of the
use of low-pressure water jet, they may be removed through scrubbing with soft
brushes.
Finally, wood building elements should not be cleaned with water, as it would
cause wood to absorb water, hindering the building element’s regular functioning. A
neutral soap and a slightly wet sponge (with tepid water) should be used to wash the
wooden element and, then, a slightly soaked cloth (with cold water) should be used
to remove the soap. Next, the wood element should be dried with a dry cloth.
Specifically, in door and window frames, hard to reach points may be cleaned
using soft toothbrushes or cotton swabs, in order to correctly clean all accessories
and sealants.
Repair technique “application of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent,
antifungal, biocide)” (R-A2) is another maintenance procedure that acts on the sur-
face of the cladding. In pitched roofs’ claddings, this technique essentially consists
on the application of water-repellent products. This type of products is known for
its capacity to increase the material’s watertightness, without forming a continuous
pellicle, impregnating the material’s pores in order to invert the common contact
angle; i.e. instead of a concavity, pores are transformed into convexities (not to the
naked eye) (Richardson 1980). With the application of water-repellent products,
rainwater freely runs off claddings, significantly decreasing the tendency to set-
tle. Water-repellent application procedures are particularly advantageous in ceramic
tiles’ claddings of pitched roofs. Water-repellents are also recommended in masonry
close to the sea or exposed to aggressive environments with driving rain (Ashurst
and Ashurst 1988a). They increase protection from biological agents and salts on
maritime environments (Esteves et al. 2019), with no aesthetical downside, as water-
repellent products are colourless. Still, test patches are advised to assess the definite
impact on appearance (Stahl 1984). Water-repellent products are recommended for
wood and metal door and window frames with an irregular texture, in case of slight
damages to paint coatings, protruding welding, or impact damages.
Water-repellent products only slightly condition the breathing of materials
(Matziaris et al. 2011), not causing condensations on underlying layers of the
cladding. But, as water-repellents are permeable to water vapour, salt crystals may
be left behind the treatment when water containing soluble salts evaporates (Ashurst
and Ashurst 1988a; Newman and Choo 2003). Water-repellent products decrease
the free area of the material’s pores, stopping water from entering. However, the
small amount of damp that still goes in the pores has more obstacles preventing
its exit (Stahl 1984). So, in regions with high incidence of frost, claddings with
water-repellent protection may be damaged by crystallisation (Richardson 1980). If
water-repellent’s penetration depth increases, the risk for damage decreases. Still,
water-repellent treatments should not be applied on surfaces liable to internal wetting
(e.g. rising dampness) (Richardson 1980). A different disadvantage of these products
is associated with the possibility of being inflammable.
As drier materials are better thermal insulators, the application of water-repellents
improves the thermal behaviour of claddings. Drier claddings also have a decreased
tendency to accumulate dirt, and the easy runoff of rainwater improves its washing
effect. Biological growth is also delayed and, if the product is also an algicide-
fungicide, the result is more effective. In damp environments, with shadows from
trees or low slope roofs, water-repellent and fungicide measures on pitched roofs’
claddings should be combined with improved ventilation of the roof space and the
application of underlayment.
Water-repellent products should be regularly reapplied, as their effectiveness pro-
gressively decreases. In fact, these products have the disadvantage of having a short
service life, as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, rain and wind affect their durability (Esteves
et al. 2019). Water-based water-repellent products last between six months and a year,
but those solvent-based, although more expensive, can last for ten years, approxi-
mately, due to increased infiltration in the cladding (Stahl 1984; Campanella and
Mateus 2003). Aged water-repellents may become opaque, thus visible, especially
on darker claddings.
The most effective water-repellent products are siloxane and silane-based
(Emmons 1994; Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 2007) or a combination of
acrylic, silicone and acryl-silicone resins with fluoride products (Campanella and
Mateus 2003). In metallic elements, metal soaps and microcrystalline waxes are
used. Wood elements are treated with transparent resin varnishes or silicone-based
solvents. Water-repellent products should be applied on clean, non-friable, dry and
grease and demoulding products-free surfaces with the use of a spray gun, paint roller
or paintbrush (Campanella and Mateus 2003; Janz et al. 2004). Adjacent building
elements should be previously protected. During application, atmospheric tempera-
tures should, ideally, be around 20 °C, and never below 5 °C, even during the drying
period. The application should be uniform, and the procedure consists of repeated
horizontal movements, from top to bottom (Fig. 5.3). On less absorbent materials,
one coat may be enough, but, generally, two coats of the product should be applied,
approximately totalling 1 mm thickness. The water-repellent content is of 1 dm3
for 20 dm3 , 15 dm3 or 10 dm3 of water, in gentle, moderately aggressive or harsh
environments, respectively (Stahl 1984; Campanella and Mateus 2003). Some manu-
facturers advise washing the treated surface after a few hours, with a sponge or cloth.
Then, the facing should dry for 24–48 h. Water-repellents should only be applied on
new stone claddings or on stone claddings already treated with a biocide (Richardson
1980).
Anti-graffiti products are a protection remedy that does not avoid the defect itself
(unauthorised graffiti), but instead favours future graffiti removal operations. Anti-
graffiti products are usually transparent, although pigmented products are also avail-
able. They prevent the adhesion of graffiti paint to the surface, not significantly affect-
ing its permeability to water vapour. Anti-graffiti products are generally acrylic or
Fig. 5.3 Example of “R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, anti-
fungal, biocide)”: illustration of application of a hydrophobic product on a cladding surface and its
effect
polyethylene-based or constituted by micro-permeable silicone emulsions (Weaver

1995). Two kinds of products may be specified (Moura et al. 2016, 2017): temporary
(sacrificial) and permanent. Temporary anti-graffiti treatments are removed with the
graffiti removal and need to be reapplied next (Weaver 1995). Temporary products
do not have a consensual aesthetical effect on claddings. Despite their designation,
anti-graffiti permanent products also need to be renewed, but in larger intervals. For
this type of treatment, the surface must be clean, free of friable materials, dust, oils,
and previous anti-graffiti pellicles. The product is applied with a paintbrush, paint
roller, compressed air gun (at low pressure), or a combination of these procedures.
Specifically in concrete surfaces, a primer should be applied prior to the application
of an anti-graffiti permanent product.
In pitched roofs cladded with ceramic tiles, additional superficial protection
should be applied to prevent mortar debris’ adhesion. That protection is advised
in ridge and valley lines. Other types of surface protective coats may also be applied
on adhesive ceramic tiling, namely: anti-staining repellent oil (based on fluorinated
copolymers); bi-component varnishes; and anti-wear wax or floor polish (emulsion
of resins and hard waxes to protect smooth and polished surfaces), if applicable. The
latter are expected to favour daily cleaning operations. Before any of the treatments,
according to the manufacturer’s directions, the surface should be cleaned with a damp
cloth.
Specifically on architectural concrete surfaces, in extreme situations, the protec-
tive coating may be a paint or mixed binders coat. Instead of impregnating, those
products deposit on the surface of concrete, thus not filling the surface pores. Sur-
faces may be painted in one or two coats of paint or varnish. To fight carbonation,
acrylic paint is more adequate and, to prevent chlorides attack, epoxy paint is more
advantageous (Emmons 1994). Whichever paint is used, it should be applied on a
homogeneous, oil, dust, oxidation and dirt-free surface, without friable materials. An
adequate primer coat is needed, according to the type of final coating. Then, the paint
or varnish is applied with a paintbrush, paint roller or spray gun. A mixed binders’
coat, in turn, is thicker than a paint coat and includes a high amount of aggregates
and polymers. If the coat is liquid, the application procedure is identical to that of
paint and varnish. If not, the mixed binders coat is spread with a trowel or putty knife
in only one direction and considering recommended dwell time between different
coats.
5.2.1.2 Replacement of the Cladding and Finishes
For the surface of the cladding, repair technique “replacement or reapplication of

the cladding/glazing (partially or completely)” (R-A11) should also be considered,
although it is an extreme measure, only to be used when anything else cannot reinstate
the claddings’ properties needed to comply with functional requirements or when
the building element reaches the end of its service life (Rauf and Crawford 2015).
In the case of external claddings of pitched roofs, the complete replacement of
the cladding is advised when a general lack of quality of the materials is detected,
or when it is not sufficient to withstand the exposure to environmental aggressive
agents. The latter frequently occurs in metal claddings, whose protective layer may
be inadequate for specific exposure conditions. If a specific defect determines the
replacement of more than one-fifth of the cladding, instead of partial replacement,
it is recommended that the whole cladding is replaced (Austin-Smith: Lord LLP
2007). In the case of partial replacement, there should be special care to avoid exces-
sively moving the remaining elements and subsequent damages. Additionally, the
replacement elements should be identical to the original cladding elements in terms
of shape, dimensions, colour and finishing. Any replacement decision should also
include the assessment of the causes of defects, in order to eliminate or mitigate
them, restraining the reoccurrence of defects.
In pitched roofs cladded with ceramic, micro-concrete or slate tiles, replacement
may be the best option when they present cracking, fractures, spalling, peeling, exfo-
liation or severe ageing, as those elements have reached the end of their service life.
In pitched roofs with metallic claddings, replacement is advised when the cladding
elements are deeply corroded or present this defect in an extensive area, not allow-
ing cleaning and protection operations. If bimetallic corrosion occurs, incompatible
elements should also be replaced by compatible ones. The excessive deformation of
metallic elements should also be corrected with replacement operations. Replacement
is also the usual procedure to correct severe UV radiation-related defects in plastic
claddings of pitched roofs, as they cannot be rehabilitated (Andrady et al. 1998).
Those replacement elements should preferably be more resistant to the effects of
UV radiation, promoting a longer service life of the cladding. As for fibre-cement
claddings of pitched roofs, they should be replaced when showing cracking, frac-
tures, peeling, exfoliation, or severe deformation, degradation or ageing. Although
durable, in environments with a high concentration of sulphates, fibre-cement devel-
ops nitrates that speed up its degradation. If that is the case, fibre-cement elements
should be replaced with other materials’ elements, resistant to that aggressive envi-
ronment (Richardson 1980). The replacement of fibre-cement sheets with asbestos
fibres should be the object of a risk assessment. The emission of these fibres is
assessed through checking: the presence of powdery material in water drainage areas;
the condition of the surface (cracking, fractures, chipping); the matrix integrity or
disaggregation; the protective layer; and the presence of mould or lichens. If fibres
are being emitted, a qualified company should ensure replacement procedures. In
pitched roofs cladded with asphalt shingles, replacement is needed when cracking
and severe ageing occur. If another material is to be chosen, the strength of the bear-
ing structure should be carefully considered. The replacement of metallic elements
should be done with other metallic, plastic or fibre-cement elements, or sandwich
panels, according to the behaviour towards atmospheric agents. In other situations,
instead of plastic, metallic or fibre-cement elements or sandwich panels may be ade-
quate. Instead of fibre-cement, metallic elements or sandwich panels may be used.
Instead of fibre-cement elements with asbestos fibres, fibre-cement elements with
synthetic fibres, or aluminium, copper, zinc or steel plates, or sandwich panels may
be adequate, as natural or artificial stone elements are probably too heavy, despite
their good behaviour on harsh environments. If artificial or natural stone elements
are the only replacement option, then, the bearing structure should be reinforced.
If the replacement of cladding elements is associated with the insufficient slope of
the roof, ceramic tiles with double fittings or metallic elements with higher ribs may
be used instead, without the need of changing the substrate/bearing structure (Bureau
Veritas 1993). In pitched roofs cladded with ceramic tiles, the application of under-
layment may also improve the roof’s watertightness when the slope is insufficient.
Changing the slope of the roof implies alterations in the roof’s bearing structure.
In sunnier regions, darker cladding elements may need to be replaced by lighter
ones, as the former cause a higher solar radiation absorption, generating high volu-
metric changes in the cladding elements and subsequent defects (California Energy
Commission 2005).
Adhesive ceramic tiling façades may also need replacement operations (Bureau
Veritas 1993; Campanella and Mateus 2003), requiring the use of a grinding wheel,
hammers and chisels, a putty knife, trowels and notched trowels, a compressed air
gun, sponges and paint rollers. To replace ceramic tiles, compatible bedding material
is needed, as well as two-component (cement and resin mixture) adhesive, joint filling
material, glass-fibre mesh and tiles. Procedures start with the removal of cracked,
chipped, partially detached or stained tiles, using the grinding wheel, a hammer and
a chisel. Then, the substrate should be repaired locally, if degraded. If some of the
bedding material was detached with the tiles, it should be completely scraped away.
Then, a new bedding material layer is applied. If the original bedding material is
intact, new tiles may be laid over that layer, provided new layers are connected with
the original bedding layer. For that purpose, a two-component adhesive should be
applied with a notched trowel. The replacement tiles should be similar to the original
but must also be chosen according to use and exposure conditions. Replacement tiles
should be applied using peripheral joints between the renewed area and the remaining
cladding. In areas subject to stress concentration within the substrate (Fig. 5.4), a
fibreglass mesh should be applied, degrading tensions between the substrate and the
tiles, avoiding further defects.
Fig. 5.4 Example of locations where fibreglass mesh should be used when applying repair technique
“R-A11 Replacement or reapplication of the cladding/glazing (partially or completely)”
Natural stone claddings should be replaced as needed (Campanella and Mateus

2003). Replacement procedures require replacement stone plates (identical to the
original ones), fastening accessories, if applicable, or bedding material (stone adhe-
sive compatible with the cladding and with improved properties, preferably). Pro-
cedures start with the assessment of the degradation pattern of the cladding and the
removal of faulty or detached plates. If necessary, suction cups and other mechanical
means should be used. Then, in indirect fastening systems, original fastening acces-
sories should be removed, and the substrate surface should be cleaned. Fastening
accessories should be reapplied or replaced and, finally, the stone plate is applied.
If needed, the fastening system should be improved. In direct fastening systems, if
the bedding material is adhesive to the plates, detaching from the substrate, all the
plates should be removed and reapplied again. If the bedding material is adhesive
to the substrate, loose and sound plates may be reapplied, and those damaged are
replaced, ensuring good adhesion between the original bedding material and the new
stone adhesive. According to the preliminary diagnosis of the defect, in direct fasten-
ing systems, the use of additional mechanical fastening (e.g. screws with expansion
sleeve and waterproofed holes) may be needed. Before applying or reapplying stone
plates, their condition should be checked, as well as the substrate’s stability.
In the case of door and window frames, despite changes in the frame itself, the
glazing may also need to be replaced, mainly when it is pricked, perforated or cracked.
That procedure varies according to the frame’s material, as it conditions the type of
glazing fastening accessories used (glass clips, glass stops (wooden bars or metallic
profiles), rubber stops or glazing nails) and, consequently, the replacement method.
Still, the replacement method consists of five general steps (Ashurst and Ashurst
1988b; Bureau Veritas 1993): removal of the original glazing; repair of the surface;
preparation of the sealant; instalment of the new glazing; and finishes.
While replacing glazing, safety is very important. Installers must use thick work-
ing gloves, covering wrists, and safety shoes. Correct handling and transportation of
the glass pane means that it should never be put in an unstable position, it should be
leaned against smooth surfaces, if necessary, and fractures should be avoided.
To ensure that the adequate type of glazing is bought, the original glass pane
should be taken to the supplier. The remaining instruments needed for replacement
depend on the fastening system, but, usually, a rubber hammer, a putty knife, a wire
or soft fibres brush, a knife or blade, a tape-measure and a silicone gun are needed.
If the fastening system uses putty, a hot air gun may also be needed.
The removal of the original glazing should start with disassembling the operating
leaf from the frame, if possible, and placing it on a workbench with the indoors’ side
facing up. Then, all the glass is removed. If putty is used, it should be completely
removed using a putty knife, as well as the glazing nails, using pincers or pliers.
If metallic or wooden glass stops and rubber stops are used, the rubber glass stop
should first be removed from its tip, and then the metallic, or wooden, glass stop
is also removed, with soft taps with the rubber hammer, or loosening the existing
mechanical fastening. Each part of the frame that is removed should be properly
identified. The second step, repairing the surface, consists of removing all mastics,
using a chisel. If glass stops are used, the strip of butyl rubber or silicone debris
must be removed. A wire or soft fibres brush (according to the frame’s finishing) is
used to remove dust, rust and other debris accumulated in the joint. A damp cloth is
used to remove remaining dust. After the surface is dry, a primer coat or linseed oil
should be spread where the glazing is to be applied, using a paintbrush, depending
on the manufacturers’ directions and on the material of the frame. The preparation
of the sealant, next, consists of preparing the putty paste and applying it in the glass
notches, for temporary support of the glass pane. This operation is followed by the
temporary placement of the glazing. If glass stops are used, a new strip of butyl
rubber or a new silicone layer should be applied. If the fastening system includes any
shims, they are also reapplied. The permanent placement of the glazing, provided
it has been temporarily placed, starts with nailing the glazing nails (15 mm long,
of which 10 mm are left out of the wood sash), spaced 15–20 cm from each other.
Then, they are bent touching the glass pane, to hold it. Putty is applied afterwards.
If glass stops are used, the glazing is fastened placing those glass stops and, then,
the sealants (rubber stops). Any remaining length of sealants may be cut, keeping in
mind that it tends to shrink progressively. Finally, finishes consist of smoothing the
putty surface, holding the putty knife at a 15° angle and making it slide firmly on the
putty layer. The glass pane should be cleaned with a damp sponge and detergent. If
the window frame is to be painted, mastics should dry first, at least for two to three
weeks.
If glazing needs to be replaced for energetic or acoustic performance reasons,
usually implying thicker glazing, frames may have to be adapted case by case. It is
a typical situation found in wooden or aluminium frames from the 1960s or 1970s,
often leading to the complete replacement of the door or window frame.
As for replacement of wall renders, it is recommended when the cladding’s degra-
dation does not allow repairing, which generally occurs when defects require deeper
intervention. So, the prescription of wall renders replacement is common in adhesion
or cohesion loss cases. Again, the elimination of the defects’ causes is essential to
prevent future occurrences. The cladding’s partial replacement process (Stahl 1984;
Campanella and Mateus 2003) starts with delimiting and separating affected areas
from the remaining surface, removing the degraded rendering with caution so that
adjacent areas are not affected. Next, the exposed borders of the original render should
be chamfered or cut orthogonally. The exposed surface is treated. Then, an adhesion
primer is applied and, next, the area is filled with a rendering mortar identical to the
original one.
When complete replacement of the wall render is needed (Stahl 1984; Campanella
and Mateus 2003), generally in situations of poor application or quality of the render,
the original render should be removed, completely exposing the substrate. Then, the
substrate is cleaned and prepared, carefully removing all loose or friable particles that
may compromise the adhesion process. Next, a new wall render is applied, following
all best practice rules and using good quality products. Whether a current, traditional
or monolayer render is applied, it is advised to use fibreglass mesh in stress concen-
tration areas of the surface. Additionally, when the substrate demands it, a fibreglass
(or galvanized steel) mesh should be used in the whole render (Fig. 5.5), to promote
a more stable cladding-substrate connection. For better results, the intervention area
should be extended up to protruding elements of the façade (like columns or beams),
expansion joints or, as an alternative, up to the edges of the façade.
The replacement of ETICS’ façades areas occurs when the extent and severity
of the defect are very high, making replacement the most economically sustainable
option (Arditi and Nawakorawit 1999). Complete replacement is advised in adhesion
loss cases, severe cracks due to structural movements, and in cases of geometrically
faulty claddings or with extensive damp issues. If repairs must be done in the substrate
and there is unsatisfying thermal performance, the cladding system needs to be
removed and replaced with one with a higher thermal performance. The base coat
and insulation plates may be removed using a circular blade saw to make cuts up
to the substrate layer. If any mechanical fastening is used, it needs to be removed
before removing the whole cladding.
When architectural concrete surfaces are highly damaged or with general patho-
logical manifestations, it is advisable to replace (part of) the cladding, provided the
defects’ causes are eliminated. It is recommended to delimit the affected area to avoid
differences between adjacent surfaces. If the repair is needed in the first months of
the cladding’s service life, the composition of the new concrete layer should be the
Fig. 5.5 Example of using fibreglass mesh in the whole surface of a rehabilitated render while
applying repair technique “R-A11 Replacement or reapplication of the clad-ding/glazing (partially
or completely)”
same as in the original concrete. As architectural concrete changes colour progres-

sively, the composition of the new concrete layer must be assessed, to aesthetically
integrate it with the adjacent surfaces. So, some test samples should be developed in
terms of pigments and binder content. Kenney et al. (2008) highlights that, to reach
an adequate formulation, the constituents of the original concrete layer should be
used, in the same proportions, but changing 5–50% of grey cement for white cement
and, if necessary, adding some pigments to the repair concrete. The concrete used
in repairs must be shrinkage-free and of superior quality, to control internal stresses
and for better adhesion.
The partial replacement of architectural concrete surfaces starts by removing the
damaged concrete using an electrical chipping hammer or hydro-demolition. The
surface gets rough and the reinforcement is exposed. Next, the substrate concrete
should be clean of dust and loose particles, using an air jet. It is advised to improve the
resistance of the connection substrate-new concrete layer with the use of an adequate
primer or saturating the substrate with water. The new concrete layer is projected or
cast in moulding and, lastly, the new superficial finish is applied, according to the
original finishing coat (Emmons 1994).
As for the “application of a new (adequate) cladding/finishing coat over the exis-
tent/replacement” (R-A12), it may refer to laying a new adhesive ceramic tiling
cladding over the existing one (Bureau Veritas 1993). To do so, tile adhesive, joint
grout and tiles are necessary and a hammer and chisel, trowel, notched trowel, com-
pressed air gun, sponge and paint roller are used. The existent tiled surface is cleaned
and areas with detached or cracked tiles are filled. Then, the new bedding layer is
spread, embedding fibreglass mesh, and the tiles are applied (simple or double but-
tered) over the existing cladding, ending the procedure with joint filling with grout.
Throughout the technique, adequate pauses between execution stages need to be

followed.
R-A12 may also refer to repairing finishes in door and window frames or repaint-
ing those surfaces (Ashurst and Ashurst 1988b; Bureau Veritas 1993; Campanella
and Mateus 2003). Regularly surveying door and window frames and assessing fin-
ishes should help to determine whether repairs are needed in order to avoid further
degradation. Repairing damages in coating layers varies according to the type of
finish. In anodised frames, repairs may be done in the case of slight scratches or pit-
ting, if the damage has not surpassed the anodised coat depth. Moderately abrasive
products, recommended by manufacturers, should be used as an additional protective
layer, which should be able to repair the existing anodised coat. For lacquered door
and window frames, the same slight scratches and pitting are repaired in two stages.
First, the affected areas should be sanded with fine sandpaper, to guarantee a homo-
geneous and slightly rough surface. Then, paint recommended by the manufacturer
is applied. However, repairs on lacquered surfaces are hard and not always satisfy-
ing. If steel or iron frames are painted and show signs of scratching, wear or pitting,
paint identical to the original coat should be used, provided it has anti-corrosion
properties and high content of zinc. The new coating should be as thick as needed to
have a homogeneous surface covering of the detected damages. If door and window
frames are varnished, staining or scratches may be repaired sanding the surface to
eliminate the damage and, then, sanding the adjacent area with fine sandpaper, to
increase the surface’s roughness. Finally, the sanded areas are freshly varnished with
recommended products.
When door and window frames show a generally degraded finish coat, partial
repairs are not the best course of action, as the complete surface should be repainted,
in lacquered or painted cases. In wood frames, the technique goes through three or five
stages, whether a varnished or lacquered surface is required. A lacquered coat better
protects wood elements. Both types of surface repainting start with the application of
a stripper, although mechanical processes may also be used. If a stripper is used, the
remaining residue should be scrapped afterwards. If a mechanical process is used, a
blowtorch is used to soften the existing coat, which, then, is also scrapped away. After
stripping the frame, an impregnating immuniser solution should be applied in wood
frames, for damp and aggressive agents’ protection. It may be applied using a spray
gun or flow-coating. The varnish may be applied using the same methods, in one or
two coats, according to the required protection level. In the case of lacquered surfaces,
an adhesion primer and lacquer paint coats should also be applied. In aluminium
frames, if the damages affect a large area, good results are not guaranteed. In iron
and steel frames, the new paint layer may be applied over the existing one, but the
thickness of the final finishing coat should be carefully considered so that it does not
hinder opening and closing the operating leaves.
Façade renders may also need to replace their coating (Stahl 1984; Campanella
and Mateus 2003). In façades, thin finishes of renders, such as paint, are subjected
to the constant aggression of atmospheric and environmental agents. Coats are thus
submitted to gradual degradation, which is expected, and to unforeseen design and
execution-caused defects. The viability of the partial or complete replacement of
the finishing coat depends on the degradation level of the facing or on the type of
finish. The repainting process requires previous treatment of the rendered surface,
which must be clean, dry and free of any other types of defects or irregularities. A
smoothing mortar may be used. A similar paint to the original coat should be used,
except when the detected defect occurs due to a bad paint choice, whether due to
its quality or to incompatibility with the rendered surface. When choosing paint for
older buildings, no plastic paint should be considered, as the render’s porosity is not
compatible with that paint schemes, requiring paint permeable to water vapour.
The replacement process begins with cleaning the surface, including from the
previous finishing coat. Then, a primer is applied, especially when the rendered
surface is very porous, has a heterogeneous porosity or when it is not possible to
remove all the render’s pulverulence. The primer should have the same colour as the
paint to be applied, and it may be applied using a paintbrush, paint roller or vaporiser.
After the primer, the paint scheme is applied (Fig. 5.6). It should be chosen based
on the functional and aesthetical requirements, namely: good resistance to weather;
good adhesion to the rendered surface; chemical neutrality in relation to the base;
good resistance to microorganisms; easy maintainability; and harmonious aesthetical
combination. In case of partial replacement, the replaced area should extend up to
edges or joints of the coating.
If cracking is repaired in the rendered layer, an elastomeric paint coating may
be applied. However, this process should only be advised to correct micro-cracking
up to 2.0 mm thick, provided the decrease in water vapour permeability does not
hinder the substrate’s behaviour. It is possible to apply multiple layers of elastomeric
paint of various thicknesses, with a mesh, or not, according to the intervention.
This process also starts with the removal of degraded finishing coat and cleaning.
The rendered surface should also be smoothed with an adequate mortar. The elastic
Fig. 5.6 Example of repair technique “R-A12 Application of a new (adequate) cladding/finishing
coat over the existent/replacement”: application of one of the new coats of paint in a façade
membrane/paint is applied with a paint roller, paintbrush or spray gun. Normally,

two coats are applied in sequence, respecting drying pauses between coats. This
finish cannot be applied over wet or damp surfaces, in wind or UV radiation exposed
façades. The application cannot be done on very warm (>35 °C) or cold weather
(<5 °C).
Another option for rendered façades is applying the new finishing coat over the
previous coating. That is only possible when the previous coating is firmly adhe-
sive to the rendered surface and there is chemical compatibility between those two
materials. This technique should not be applied over cracked paint coats. Application
procedures are like the ones previously described. In these cases, it is essential to
test adhesion conditions first, for instance using a grid test.
Specific defects in painted façades require special care. Chalking requires an
aggregating primer and formulation with a lower volumetric concentration of pig-
ments. Lapping requires the use of solvents with low evaporation power, higher
application control, namely technical and drying time. If biological growth occurs,
fungicide and algicide additives should be included in the paint scheme. Efflores-
cence and cryptoflorescence require the use of a sealant or water-repellent before
painting. In areas usually affected by graffiti, a preventive anti-graffiti system should
be applied.
Additionally, in wall renders, another cladding may be applied over the existing
surface, without any cladding removal procedures. Still, it demands a sound layer
of façade render, without indents over 1/3 of the final cladding thickness. Friable or
powdery surfaces are not eligible for this type of repair. The original cladding should
not be thicker than 20 mm. Using a pull-off test on the existing render, the average
of results should be 0.3 MPa with a minimum of 0.2 MPa, in current buildings. First,
the surface is cleaned, and the finishing coat is removed. Then, an adhesion primer
is applied. Finally, a thin render with fibreglass mesh embedded or a monolayer
smoothing render may be applied.
In ETICS, the complete replacement of the finishing coat is advised when degra-
dation conditions do not allow repairs—generally, when deeper defects occur. Partial
replacement is an option when defects do not harm subjacent layers of the cladding
system nor the reinforcing mesh (Künzel et al. 2006). So, this type of repair is advised
for superficial detachment situations, thin localised cracking or superficial material
gaps. Although the technique is not challenging, it is hard to reach a homogeneous
surface with identical characteristics to the surrounding area. Furthermore, sunlight-
exposed surfaces tend to lose colour, as north oriented façades tend to darken. Besides
colour, the texture may also be an issue. For these reasons, sometimes the complete
replacement of the finishing coat may present better results without many financial
differences (Ximenes et al. 2015; Fernandes et al. 2016).
Partial replacement of ETICS finishes starts with cleaning the surface, removing
any dirt, mould or debris. Then, the surface is assessed, and any minor repairs are
made. After delimiting the intervention area, it is cut out using a knife or a circular
blade saw, not damaging the reinforcement mesh. The cut should be made in a
slightly larger area than the affected area. The finishing layer may be removed with
an abrasive disc, or with aspecific abrasive trowel, exposing the reinforced layer,
about 100 mm around the affected area. Before filling the area with new material,
the adhesive tape should be placed around the gap, to protect the sound coating. The
new layer of finishing material is applied and smoothed.
Another valid method uses a pressure water jet to remove the damaged finishing
coat. If any area is more persistent, it is saturated with warm water to soften the
surface, and then the material is removed with a trowel or putty knife.
Still, in ETICS a new finishing coat may be applied over the existing one. It may
be advantageous in cases of superficial cracking or defects affecting large areas of
the façade or many local areas. This technique avoids the removal stage but it does
not solve deep cracking. Flatness, stability and cleanness are conditioning for the
application of the new finish. The whole area must have the same finishing coat,
whether paint or a pigmented thicker layer.
5.2.1.3 Repairing Superficial Cracks
Cracking in claddings may be confined to the cladding’s surface or not, but those
that are may be repaired with technique “treatment of cracks or other holes in the
cladding” (R-A13). In natural stone claddings (Fig. 5.7), quick-hardening and low-
viscosity epoxy-based products are used (Ashurst 1998). Consolidating materials
may be organic or inorganic. In terms of equipment, a blowtorch and putty knife
(plastic if epoxy products are used) or syringe are needed. The stone surface is
cleaned from foreign, degraded or loose materials. With the blowtorch, the stone is
heated to ease the entrance of the filling material, using the putty knife or syringes. If
stone dust is used, it should be from a stone similar to the original one, transformed
in a ball mill. Stone dust is mixed with epoxy materials, mastic or resin and rosin.
Fig. 5.7 Example of an attempt to repair a cracked stone plate with repair technique “R-A13
Treatment of cracks or other holes in the cladding”
In wooden door and window frames, cracking that does not imply the replacement
of elements may be filled with acrylic or aqueous bitumen. This type of repair is
applied before repairing any finishing coat, but, in specific cases, it is advised to
immediately repair cracking, even without repair of finishes, to prevent further defects
from arising, like rot (Ashurst and Ashurst 1988b).
In rendered façades, before deciding whether to repair cracking and choosing the
techniques to do so, the type of cracks must be assessed (Campanella and Mateus
2003). If cracks do not compromise the render’s performance, it is better not to
intervene. If, on the other hand, they do compromise the render’s performance, the
best option is to repair the cracks, according to their thickness, depth, location and
associated defects. Six intervention procedures may be considered for different cases,
namely: cracks in joints between different substrate materials; cracking affecting only
the cladding combined with loss of adhesion; cracking affecting only the cladding
no thicker than 0.2 mm; cracking affecting only the cladding thicker than 0.2 mm;
cracks affecting the substrate no thicker than 6 mm; and cracks affecting the substrate
thicker than 6 mm. Besides procedures/techniques according to the specific case, all
procedures include removing friable materials, cleaning the crack and filling with
adequate material. Afterwards, a protective and/or finishing coat should be applied.
Some types of cracking also require reinforcement, like fibreglass mesh or stapling.
As in rendered façades, ETICS façades require the prior assessment of cracking
before deciding on repairs. Once again, cracks that do not compromise the ETICS’
performance should not be repaired. The remaining cracks are divided in six cate-
gories (Amaro et al. 2014): (i) cracks next to windows, doors, air conditioning, etc.;
(ii) cracks in joints between different materials; (iii) deep cracks that affect various
layers of the system with a defined orientation; (iv) deep cracks that affect various
layers of the system without a defined orientation; (v) superficial cracks affecting
only the finishing coat with a defined orientation; and (vi) and superficial cracks
affecting only the finishing coat without a defined orientation. Repair works should
be performed according to the type of crack detected on the cladding. Still, all tech-
niques include cleaning, removing all loose materials, delimiting the affected area,
filling the crack or the cut-out materials and applying overlaying layers or only a
finishing coat.
Cracking in architectural concrete surfaces may also be classified in different
categories, in view of the most adequate repair. Accordingly, in terms of stabilisation,
a crack may be active or passive. Active cracks may be divided according to the
range of motion, small or large. Small active cracks should be repaired with flexible
epoxy resins, with higher tensile strength than concrete. Large motion active cracks
should be repaired with a notch-filling technique using an elastic or plastic filling.
Alternatively, if considered structurally logic and necessary, a new expansion joint
may be created in those cases. Passive cracks are classified according to thickness
(Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 2007; National Precast Concrete Association
2013): below 0.3 mm; between 0.3 and 6.0 mm; and above 6.0 mm. To repair passive
cracks, different types of materials may be used:
• Below 0.3 mm thick: epoxy or polyurethane resins;

• Between 0.3 and 6.0 mm: epoxy or polyurethane resins with fillers;
• Above 6.0 mm: cement or lime grout.
As for the repair procedures, small passive cracks should be repaired using only a
slight thickening of the crack and sealing. In any cracking repairs, the surface must
be sealed with adequate materials, using the available colours to disguise the repair.
Wider passive cracks are repaired starting with assessing the adjacent materials and
opening the crack if concrete is degraded. The crack is opened in a V section, 10 mm
deep and 30 mm wide. Then, the surface is cleaned, and the crack surface is sealed
with a polyurethane sealant and duct tape, to delimit the repair area. Afterwards,
a finishing coat is applied. In active small cracks and wider passive cracks, the V
section should be 15 mm deep and 30 mm wide. Two layers of sealant are applied,
the first one recessed 7 mm from the finished surface. Next, injection and purge tubes
are applied, to fill the crack. 24 h after filling, purge tubes are removed and a second
sealant layer is applied, levelled with the surface (ACI Committee 224 2007).
5.2.2 Cladding System
“Cladding system” (R-B) repair techniques are those whose application implies
changes in various layers of the cladding. Repair techniques belonging to this
category are listed in Table 5.2.
A good example of such type of intervention is the “application/repair/replacement
of the vapour barrier” (R-B4). In pitched roofs, applying this technique implies inter-
vening on the lower face of the cladding. If indoor condensations are not totally elim-
inated, water vapour goes through ceilings and reaches the pitched roof cladding,
being able to cause condensations and other associated defects (wood rot, biologi-
cal growth, corrosion of metallic claddings, degradation of concrete associated with
freeze-thaw cycles, degradation of the thermal insulation, spalling of artificial stone
claddings) (Glover 2009). So, a vapour barrier is important to avoid the early degra-
dation of the cladding system, mainly in cold roofs (Richardson 1980; Stahl 1984;
Harrison et al. 2009). As the vapour barrier degrades over time in contact with some
substances and extreme temperatures, when condensations occur in the elements
over it, the vapour barrier may have reached the end of its service life. On the other
hand, those condensations may also be associated with a faulty application of the
vapour barrier, or, alternatively, its inadequate prescription.
In a non-ventilated roofing space, the whole cladding must be removed to execute
R-B4. The removal process should be careful, so not to damage materials, which are
kept in a dry and protected location. Then, the thermal insulation is removed, also
with great care, as materials are very sensitive, and kept with the cladding elements.
The vapour barrier is applied, repaired or replaced. When the repairs are done, the
amendment should be perfectly adhesive to the existing material and it should be
mechanically fastened and, then, sealed with self-adhesive tape. Afterwards, the
Table 5.2 Classification of repair techniques in the category “cladding system” in a global
Code Denomination
R-B Cladding system
R-B1 Application of underlayment in pitched roofs (pr)
R-B2 Flocage in metallic claddings of pitched roofs (pr)
R-B3 Application of spray polyurethane foam (SPF) on the interior surface of pitched roofs
(cr, pr)
R-B4 Application/repair/replacement of the vapour barrier (cr, pr, pmw)
R-B5 Application/repair/replacement of the thermal insulation (cr, pr)
R-B6 Application/repair/replacement of the waterproofing system or separation layer in flat
roofs (cr, pr)
R-B7 Injection of filling resins (bedding material) in adhesive ceramic tiling (cr)
R-B8 Reinforcement of the bedding layer in localised areas in adhesive ceramic tiling (cr, pr)
R-B9 Execution of prostheses or application of reinforcement profiles in door and window
frames (cr, pr)
R-B10 Deformation repair (distortion/shrinkage/warpage/expansion) in door and window
frames (cr)
R-B11 Change/replacement/repair of the fastening system or correction of holes in plates or
substrate (cr, pr)
R-B12 Application of a higher performance render (cr, pr)
R-B13 Perforation/gap filling in ETICS (cr)
R-B14 Repair of corroded reinforcement/concrete cover spalling in architectural concrete
surfaces (cr)
R-B15 Application of an additional concrete layer in architectural concrete surfaces (cr, pr)
thermal insulation is reinstated, as well as the cladding (Fig. 5.8). If the roofing
space is ventilated (Bureau Veritas 1993), the vapour barrier should be applied over
the horizontal ceiling slab. Procedures only require the removal of thermal insulation
to apply the vapour barrier, and, then, its reapplication. If the bearing structure is not
continuous, without thermal insulation and the cladding visible from indoors, the
application of a vapour barrier is not advised.
In flat roofs, in inverted solutions, the waterproofing also functions as a vapour
barrier, as it is below the thermal insulation layer (Seeley 1987). In those situations, no
interstitial condensations occur. In other cases, the application, repair or replacement
of the vapour barrier should be done considering: a homogeneous application of
products; avoiding perforation, even if minor; a continuous layer. While applying
blankets, membranes or films, joints should overlap for at least 5 cm.
Another repair technique affecting the cladding system is the
“change/replacement/repair of the fastening system or correction of the holes
in the plates or substrate” (R-B11). It may be the case in pitched or flat roofs. In
plastic, metallic or fibre-cement claddings of pitched roofs, fastening is done with
Fig. 5.8 Example of “R-B4 Application/repair/replacement of the vapour barrier”: scheme of a

non-ventilated pitched roof
common screws and washers, self-tapping screws or tubular rivets. Degradation

comes from natural ageing or inadequacy to the aggressive agents. In any case,
fastening elements need replacement. Iron fastening should be avoided due to
its rapid deterioration when exposed to atmospheric agents. Galvanised fastening
should be avoided in maritime and industrial environments, but, otherwise, they
are a good option. In regions with high relative humidity, where good corrosion
resistance is required, stainless steel fastening is advised (Bureau Veritas 1993;
Centro Tecnológico da Cerâmica e do Vidro 1998). The degradation condition
should also be assessed. If screws are corroded, they must be replaced. If fastening
does not include washers, their inclusion should be considered. Better protection for
fastening elements comes from the use of plastic protecting caps.
In some cases, fastening elements may be loose due to movements of the cladding
elements. This may lead to slashed screws. Repairs should replace the fastening
elements with wider diameter screws. Tubular rivets may get looser if insufficiently
long, badly applied, in an insufficient amount, badly distributed or if subjected to
excessive fatigue due to excessive stiffness. The use of self-tapping screws next to
rivets is advised in those situations (Fig. 5.9). Rivets should only be replaced with a
larger rivet if the original allows the entrance of water through the cladding (Bureau
Veritas 1993).
Metallic pitched roofs claddings are subject to bimetallic corrosion in fastening
elements. The incorrect selection of the alloy combined with salty or acid water
causes the corrosion of the less noble material. In these cases, the cladding should be
repaired removing corrosion, or, in extreme cases, replacing the cladding plate. Next,
the fastening element should be removed. Slate, micro concrete and ceramic roof
tiles and asphalt shingles are usually associated with detachments or misalignments
(Bureau Veritas 1993). If fastening is done with metallic fastening elements, in the
Fig. 5.9 Example of “R-B11 Change/replacement/repair of the fastening system or correction of

the holes in the plates or substrate”: in a riveted metallic roof cladding, introduction of a self-tapping
screw next to a loose rivet
case of corrosion, replacement is needed with copper, stainless or galvanised steel

(Stahl 1984; Centro Tecnológico da Cerâmica e do Vidro 1998; Richardson 2001;
Technical Conservation Research and Education Group 2006). If fastening elements
are synthetic, such as mastics or polyurethane foam, or mortar, they must be removed
and reapplied. In other cases, good practice rules advise the use of fastening, although
it is not used. In these situations, the adequate fastening system should be applied.
Finally, if fitted tiles are loose or misaligned, some type of fastening should be used
if weather aggressiveness is high.
In flat roofs, fastening elements may be of galvanised, stainless or tempered steel
or plastic. The use of mechanical fastening is very imported in self-protected systems
and to avoid pull-out due to wind action (National Roofing Contractors Association
1989; Douglas and Noy 2011). If a new application, repair or replacement of this
type of fastening elements is necessary, it is important that wall plugs penetrate deep
enough in the cladding system. It is important that mechanical fastening is not used in
waterproofing membranes reinforced with fibreglass mesh, as they are very fragile.
Instead, membranes may be reinforced with a polyester mesh.
In façades cladded with natural stone, fastening faults may result in defects, such as
the detachment of stone plates (Ashurst 1998). To correct those defects, the fastening
system should change, using a more adequate one. For that purpose, a chisel, trowel,
plumb bob, set-square, markers, drill and suction cups are needed. New fastening
elements are also needed, as per the chosen system. The existent plates are removed
using a chisel or other equipment. The surface is cleaned, chipping the substrate or
removing existing bedding material. Then, the new system is applied, and sound
plates are reinstated. Damp stained stone plates may be reused after being placed in
a kiln at adequate temperature (50–60 °C) for a few weeks, to eliminate dampness.
In some cases, fixing holes in stone plates or in the substrate may need reviewing,
in terms of depth, diameter or location. For that correction, drilling and measuring
equipment is necessary. First, new holes are drilled in the stone plates or in the
substrate with an adequate drill bit. Depending on the distance between the original
and the new hole, the stone plate may need replacement. If not, original holes should
be filled with mastic. Preferably, stone plates should be drilled in stone workshops.
In ETICS façades, adhesion issues may require the application of new adhesive
material or mechanical fastening, as the detachment of the cladding is very grave
and dangerous for users. If the whole system loses adhesion, or if the adhesion
issue occurs between the reinforced base coat and insulation plates, the cladding
should be completely removed and a new one should be applied. If aggressive agents
originated the detachment of the original cladding, the use of mechanical fastening,
besides adhesive materials, should be considered (Sulakatko et al. 2006; European
Organisation for Technical Approvals 2013). Mechanical fastening elements may
also be used in partial detachment or when adhesion issues occur more superficially.
They must be applied in a sound substrate and adjusted as needed. However, if plastic
fasteners are used and applied very far from each other, bulging may occur. In no
circumstances should nails be used.
5.2.3 Change in the Bearing Structure/Substrate
The group of repair techniques “change in the bearing structure/substrate” (R-C)

refers to those that reach the substrate, i.e. repair techniques more intrusive than
those in category R-B. Repair techniques in R-C category are included in Table 5.3.
In flat roofs and outdoor floorings, the shaping layer defines the drainage slope.
Repair technique “application/replacement of the shaping or levelling layer” (R-
C3) is used in this context when the slope is insufficient. The shaping layer may
be done in cellular concrete, light expanded clay aggregate or lightweight concrete
with granulate of expanded polystyrene (National Roofing Contractors Association
1989). This layer is applied over a dry, clean and flat substrate, and, if lightweight
concrete is used, it is advised to use a levelling layer over the shaping layer. To review
Table 5.3 Classification of repair techniques in the category “change in the bearing
structure/substrate” in a global inspection system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
R-C Change in the bearing structure/substrate
R-C1 Execution of a roof slab in pitched roofs (cr)
R-C2 Repair/reinforcement/replacement of the bearing structure in pitched roofs (cr, pr)
R-C3 Application/replacement of the shaping or levelling layer (cr)
R-C4 Repair of dead cracks in the substrate and reapplication of the cladding (cr, pr)
Fig. 5.10 Example of “R-C3 Application/replacement of the shaping or levelling layer”: diagram
of the replacement levelling layer of a flat roof
the slope (Fig. 5.10), it is preferable to remove all the cladding system elements and,
then, clean and apply a new shaping layer considering a minimum 2% slope to allow
water drainage and avoid ponding and debris accumulation.
In floorings, a levelling layer is important for the flooring elements’ stability and
performance (Figliuzzi et al. 2018). It may be replaced with levelling mortar and
cement grout using a diamond circular saw, hammer, chisel, brush, hard hair paint
roller, batten and trowel. The first step is to completely remove the original levelling
layer, especially if it is powdery, with the diamond circular saw in a grid pattern.
Smaller areas are removed with a hammer and a chisel. The substrate is cleaned and,
then, the cement grout is applied with the hard hair paint roller to promote better
adhesion. Next, the levelling layer is applied in two coats, using the batten. New
cladding elements should only be applied after two weeks, minimum.
Fig. 5.11 Example of repair technique “R-C4 Repair of dead cracks in the substrate and reappli-
cation of the cladding”: diagram of the different stages (from top to bottom) of the repair process,
beginning with the crack already exposed
The substrate of façade claddings may be cracked. If so, the “repair of dead
cracks in the substrate and reapplication of the cladding” (R-C4) may be needed, if
no movement is detected in the cracks (Joti and Mitra 2018) (Fig. 5.11). First, the
cladding elements and all the levelling material along the crack are removed and
the crack is cleaned. Then, the crack is filled with mastic material and paper tape, to
separate it from the cladding. Then, the levelling layer is applied with cement mortar,
in two layers intertwined with fibreglass mesh over the crack.
5.2.4 Singularities
The group “singularities” (R-D) includes repair techniques meant to eliminate defects
in particular areas, such as joints, tail-ends or in the cladding’s close surroundings.
Techniques of this type are listed in Table 5.4.
The “replacement/repair of current joints’ filling material and/or joints cleaning”
(R-D2) is one of the techniques that may be advisable for specific areas of a cladding
to help preserve its durability. The original filling material should be removed with an
Table 5.4 Classification of repair techniques in the category “singularities” in a global inspection
system for the building envelope
Code Denomination
R-D Singularities
R-D1 Application/repair/replacement of expansion joints (cr, pr, pmw)
R-D2 Replacement/repair of current joints’ filling material and/or joints cleaning (cr, pr,
pmw)
R-D3 Application of fungicide, biocide or herbicide in joints (cr, pr)
R-D4 Joint thickness increase or joint insertion (cr, pr)
R-D5 Repair/application of tail-ends and associated protection elements (cr, pr, pmw)
R-D6 Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing (cr, pr)
R-D7 Removal of corroded or damaged metallic elements, with hole and notch filling (if
applicable) (cr, pr, pmw)
R-D8 Repair of water penetration spots (cr, pr)
R-D9 Protecting or smoothing of protruding corners or edges (cr, pr)
R-D10 Cleaning of façade’s horizontal areas in adhesive ceramic tiling (pr, pmw)
R-D11 Repair, insertion or replacement of sealants or insulation mastics in door and window
frames (cr, pr)
R-D12 Replacement of degraded, or missing, elements in door and window frames (cr, pr)
R-D13 Adjustment, replacement or additional installation of hardware
(hinges/locks/span-frame connections) in door and window frames (cr, pr)
R-D14 Correction of geometrical construction details (pr)
Fig. 5.12 Example of “R-D2 Replacement/repair of current joints’ filling material and/or joints
cleaning”: illustration of removing the degraded joint filling material
adequate solvent and/or a screwdriver (Fig. 5.12) and, then, after cleaning procedures,
the new filling material is applied, chosen according to the exposure conditions.
Filling materials should be deformable to avoid any future cracking.
In ETICS façades, joints’ filling is slightly different from other cladding mate-
rials. To repair joints in ETICS, silicon-based sealants are recommended due to
their stability when subjected to UV radiation or environmental aggressive agents.
Their Young’s modulus is very stable and they remain flexible at low temperatures
(Hollaway 2010). The surface must be prepared and cleaned before the repair starts,
consisting in applying new sealant materials.
Repair technique “joint thickness increase or joint insertion” (R-D4) may be
advised for defects in adhesive ceramic tiling, natural stone claddings, rendered
façades, and architectural concrete surfaces (Seeley 1987; Lerma et al. 2016). The
use of R-D4 allows the cladding to have joints adequate for the type of use and
exposure. However, applying this technique depends on the possibility of changing
stereotomy. For this purpose, all the cladding elements need to be removed and
reapplied with the predefined geometrical changes. Expansion joints, elastic joints
(Fig. 5.13) and peripheral joints may also be created cutting tiles or plates and the
bedding material up to the substrate, using an adequate saw. Afterwards, and after
washing and drying the surface, joints are filled with adequate filling material.
Inserting joints is also a viable option to repair active cracks. This way, in areas
with active cracking, cracks become movement joints through the application of
Fig. 5.13 Example of elastic joints in a renewed adhesive ceramic tiling façade (“R-D4 Joint
thickness increase or joint insertion”)
flexible sealants. It is better applied in cracks with a regular shape and wider thickness
variation. First, the crack is widened preferably to a V-shaped section 5–10 mm deep
and 5–25 mm wide. Then, the crack is treated, including cleaning and removing all
debris with a pressured air jet. Next, the filling process begins with the application
of an elastic strip in the crack, which should be fastened only to the edges of the
crack. A polyethylene or polyurethane foam cord (circular section) is applied in
such a way that it is compressed to the lateral faces of the crack. This stage ends with
the application of a polyurethane or special polymers mastic using a putty knife or
a pneumatic gun. Finally, an elastic finishing is applied, preferably reinforced with
mesh and matching the expected aesthetical effect. In architectural concrete surfaces,
the crack may be shaped like an inverted V and the base of the crack filled with an
expanded polyethylene plate (Pattanaik 2011).
A drainage system is another type of singularity subject to repairs. Using the
“application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing” (R-D6),
defects in roofing and façades may be solved. In flat roofs, problems may arise
next to roof outlets/drains, gutters, hoppers and downpipes. The ease of access to
the drainage system is very important for a swift repair. Drainage elements should
be repaired or replaced, partially or completely, to ensure the effectiveness of the
rainwater drainage system. Repair works may include:
• Redrawing the drainage system, if it is insufficient to drain the predicted/verified
water flow (Fig. 5.14);
• Repairing and waterproofing gutters;
• Replacing or repairing hoppers (Fig. 5.14);
• Rebuilding connections between gutters and hoppers and downpipes, preserving
the appearance of the building façade as much as possible;
Fig. 5.14 Example of use of repair technique “R-D6 Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of

drainage systems/plumbing” by redrawing the drainage system and replacing hoppers
• Replacing or repairing downpipes, considering that, if they are made of fragile or

susceptible-to-dents materials, they should be protected or replaced by galvanised
steel tubes up to 2 m height, in order to avoid ruptures or obstruction due to
accidental impacts;
• Rebuilding connections between downpipes and rainwater drainage plumbing, if
it exists;
• Repainting drainage elements after repair procedures.
To avoid clogging issues (Wilson 1984), auxiliary elements, like leaf grids or
dome strainers, should be placed over drains to stop large debris from going into
the drainage system. The drain outlets of downpipes should be adequately inspected
after the removal of debris, in view of detecting possible slippage or cracking of
waterproofing tail-ends in those areas. If any of those defects are detected, the tail-
end should be replaced. If ponding is detected in areas without access to the drainage
system, the problem should be solved by correcting the slope of the roof (Lawson
2012). Alternatively, a drain may be created or moved. If leakage is detected next
to drains, due to defects in waterproofing, it is advisable to remove all the drainage
elements next to the defect and change it to a drain with a strainer and flashing.
Metallic drain elements are not recommended.
In façades, defects may be associated with hidden or external plumbing/drainage.
Eliminating this type of causes of defects implies repairing leakage points or replacing
plumbing joints. If the plumbing is inside the wall, the cladding may have to be
removed and reapplied afterwards. Precisely identifying the location of leakage origin
is not immediate, requiring careful testing. If plumbing is exposed, it is simpler to
identify the origin of problems, repairing or substituting problematic elements.
In door and window frames, the existence of unobstructed and well-positioned
drainage holes is essential to avoid water leakage and a fast degradation of the
frame’s materials. Hence, clearing drainage holes is part of the regular maintenance
of a window. If the positioning of the holes stops drainage, new holes should be
opened. The drainage of water reaching the indoor side of the frame must be done
as directly as possible.
Another singular point of façades is where metallic elements are placed. Repair
technique “removal of corroded or damaged metallic elements, with hole and notch
filling (if applicable)” (R-D7) is adequate for issues in those singular points. The
objective is to stop further defects from progressing. Thus, early action is required,
to avoid staining and compromising the cohesion of fastening areas. The corroded
elements must be removed or replaced by stainless steel elements. Alternatively, if
degradation is not widespread, rust should be removed, and anti-corrosion protection
applied. Any remaining holes should be filled with joint filling materials, for instance
(Fig. 5.15). In some cases, plates or tiles must be removed to allow extracting the
damaged metallic elements. If the replaced elements are part of the cladding’s fasten-
ing system, notches may have to be redone and holes filled with mastic, for instance.
When the cladding has already been damaged by the corrosion process, mitigation
and repair actions should be put in place, according to the type of damage.
To protect specific areas of a cladding subject to accidental impacts, “protecting
or smoothing protruding corners or edges” (R-D9) may be advisable. For adhesive
ceramic tiling, stone claddings or rendered façades, placing prefabricated profiles
(plastic or metallic) in protruding corners may be an option (Fig. 5.16), requiring the
removal of joint filling material and adjacent tiles (if applicable). Corner profiles may
also be used in architectural concrete surfaces, glued with multipurpose polyurethane
mastic. Another option is smoothing the edges of stone plates using a grinding wheel
adequate for the type of natural stone. Protruding corners may also be rounded.
Fig. 5.15 Example of misuse of repair technique “R-D7 Removal of corroded or damaged metallic
elements, with hole and notch filling (if applicable)”: area from where a corroded metallic element
was removed, leaving rust behind and a sloppy hole filling job
Fig. 5.16 Examples of use of profiles in the perimeter (b) and corner (a) of adhesive ceramic tiling,
according to “R-D9 Protecting or smoothing protruding corners or edges”
In ETICS façades, protruding corners may be repaired if damaged by impacts. By

design, ETICS corners should be reinforced with corner profiles or reinforcement
mesh. When repair is needed, materials around the affected corner must be replaced,
but the repair procedure depends on the severity of the defect. If only superficial
damage occurred, the finishing coat material may simply need to be reapplied. But
if damages are more severe, several layers may need replacement. The procedure
starts by delimiting a cut area around the damage. A cut is done with a knife or a
circular saw, considering 100 mm for each side of the corner, removing the cut section
using a putty knife. After removal, the layers of the façade system can be assessed.
Around the previous area, a new cut is done, also considering a 100 mm perimeter,
but only up to the base coat, for future overlapping of reinforcing meshes. Then, a
piece of insulation is placed in the cut area, considering the remaining shape. Any
leftover space should be filled with small pieces of insulating material. After that,
reinforcement mesh and a new base coat are placed over the insulation piece. With
a trowel, the surface is smoothed and, after drying, the finish material is reapplied,
considering the original colours and textures (Sto Corp.; The Minnesota Lath &
Plaster Bureau 2001; Dow 2002).
In façades, in some situations, the “correction of geometrical construction details”
(R-D14) may be necessary. In parapet walls, capping elements (metallic, in natural
stone or in pre-fabricated polymer concrete) need to extend over the façade for a few
centimetres, avoiding leakage and water runoff over the façade surface. On the other
hand, the eaves’ slope should not be lower than 8% and their length should avoid
water from running off on the façade. Using gutters in eaves may also avoid water
runoff (Fig. 5.17, part a). Window sills should go over at least 25 mm laterally and
from the façade plane (Fig. 5.17, part b). They should also have a slope higher than
7%, promoting water drainage and have a drip detail on the lower face (Goldberg
2011) (Fig. 5.17, part b). Coping may also be built, protruding about 4 cm over the
Fig. 5.17 Examples of: a using gutters in rehabilitated eaves as preconised by repair technique
“R-D14 Correction of geometrical construction details”; and b drip detail in a window sill but
without extending over the side of the window
façade plane if executed in mortar, or 2 cm if executed in ceramic tiling or natural

stone. On the upper side of coping, a smooth surface pitched at 45° allows the correct
rainwater drainage.
Specifically in ETICS façades, insulation plates are often incorrectly placed, with
gaps between side by side plates. Correcting such damages may be a Herculean
task as several plates may need to be moved. Still, filling gaps with small pieces of
insulation is a viable option.
5.3 Use of Repair Techniques in Building Elements

and Materials
Some repair techniques are suited for specific building elements or materials, but oth-
ers may be used in various situations, regardless of the building element or material.
According to the global building inspection system, and specifically considering the
development method used, a repair techniques–building elements/materials matrix
is needed to identify the most suited repair works in each case. If no correspondence
occurs between a repair technique and a building element or material in this matrix,
then columns filled with zeros will be observed in the defects–repair techniques
correlation matrix’s layers.
When a repair technique is not identified as being useful in a specific material, it
may not mean that it should not be used in that situation under any circumstances.
It means that it is not the best repairing approach. The repair techniques–building
elements/materials matrix is shown in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Repair techniques–building elements/materials matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope
340
Repair techniques External Flat Adhesive Natural Door and Wall ETICS Painted Architectural
roofs
R-A Surface of the R-A1 • • • • • • • • •
cladding R-A2 • • • • • • •
R-A3 • •
R-A4 •
R-A5 •
R-A6 • •
R-A7 • •
R-A8 •
R-A9 •
R-A10 •
R-A11 • • • • • • •
R-A12 • • • • •
R-A13 • • • • •
R-A14 •
R-A15 •
R-B Cladding system R-B1 •
R-B2 •
R-B3 •
R-B4 • •
(continued)
5 Repair Techniques
roofs
R-B5 • •
R-B6 •
R-B7 •
R-B8 •
R-B9 •
R-B10 •
R-B11 • • • •
R-B12 •
R-B13 •
R-B14 •
R-B15 •
R-C Change in the R-C1 •
bearing R-C2 •
5.3 Use of Repair Techniques in Building Elements and Materials
structure/substrate
R-C3 • •
R-C4 • •
R-D Singularities R-D1 • •
R-D2 • • •
R-D3 • •
R-D4 • • • •
(continued)
341
342
roofs
R-D5 • •
R-D6 • • • •
R-D7 • • •
R-D8 • •
R-D9 • • • • •
R-D10 •
R-D11 •
R-D12 •
R-D13 •
R-D14 • • •
5 Repair Techniques
5.4 Defects–Repair Techniques Correlation 343
5.4 Defects–Repair Techniques Correlation
As mentioned in Sects. 3.6 and 4.4, during inspections, the surveyor implicitly estab-
lishes relationships between defects and causes. To complement that diagnosis pro-
cess, in situ diagnosis methods are also associated with the pathological phenomena
if there is a chance, and the need, to perform a more detailed or robust analysis.
Likewise, while inspecting, the surveyor immediately thinks which would be a good
procedure that would repair the defect and eliminate its causes. Still, not every avail-
able technique always comes to mind and some situations have such contours that the
best remedy is not obvious. It is, thus, useful for the surveyor to have a list of repair
techniques at hand that are known to provide good results when repairing identical
defects. A list of that kind would make the surveyor’s job easier and the inspection
results less dependent on the surveyor’s knowledge and professional experience.
That list of repair techniques comes from the use of correlation matrices (Branco
and de Brito 2004). The latter are part of the core of building inspection systems
(Silvestre and de Brito 2009), and a defects–repair techniques correlation matrix
may be of great use during fieldwork. Using that correlation matrix, the surveyor
can check whether a limited set of suggested repair techniques are appropriate in the
case under analysis.
The defects–repair techniques correlation matrix is a graphic representation of
the adequacy of a technique for a defect. Thus, the correlation matrix is a table
with a set of rows (defects) and columns (repair techniques) intersecting each other
(Fig. 5.18). At those intersections, an index (0, 1 or 2) stands for the level of adequacy
of a repair technique to a specific defect. To read the correlation matrix, the defect
row is chosen, and then the index is read corresponding to the column of one of the
repair techniques.

defects and repair techniques
as defined by Branco and de
Brito (2004)
Several authors have already defined correlation matrices between defects and
repair techniques, namely: Branco and de Brito (2004), Walter et al. (2005), Garcia
and de Brito (2008), Silvestre and de Brito (2010), Gaião et al. (2011), Neto and de
Brito (2011), Pereira et al. (2011), Garcez et al. (2012), Amaro et al. (2013), Delgado
et al. (2013), Sá et al. (2014), Pires et al. (2015), Conceição et al. (2017), da Silva
et al. (2017), Santos et al. (2017), Carvalho et al. (2018).
5.4.1 Correlation Matrix
As mentioned in Sects. 3.6.1.1 and 4.4.1, correlation matrices in a global inspection

system must be three-dimensional (Fig. 5.19). Like in the two-dimensional matrix,
rows correspond to defects and columns to repair techniques. Additionally, layers cor-
respond to building elements and materials. These layers differentiate pathological
processes according to the specificity of materials and building elements.
Reading three-dimensional correlation matrices as suggested, implies that, at first,
the building element or material is chosen. Then, the detected defect is identified
followed by the repair technique (Fig. 5.20).
Fig. 5.19 Schematic

three-dimensional
defects–repair techniques
correlation matrix

three-dimensional
defects–repair techniques
correlation matrix
Additionally, the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix allows several inter-

pretations, as do the defects–causes and defects–diagnosis methods correlation matri-
ces. A repair technique may be used to repair a specific defect and, reading the
correlation matrix, it is possible to determine which other defects may also be
solved by that procedure in that building element. On the other hand, the defect
may be chosen first and all the repair techniques to repair it in various materials may
be considered. Nevertheless, during fieldwork, the suggested approach (building
element/material–defect–repair technique) is more operative.
5.4.2 Building a Defects–Repair Techniques Correlation

Matrix
Taking the non-structural building elements and materials of the building envelope
into account, as well as the classifications of defects and repair techniques of the
global inspection system, the proportional three-dimensional matrix is represented
in Fig. 5.21.
To fill this matrix, the adequacy of the repair techniques to each defect needs to
be kept in mind. Using the literature and professional experience, the close or far
relationship between defects and repair techniques is expressed in the intersection of
rows, columns and layers using correlation indexes, as follows (de Brito et al. 1994):
Fig. 5.21 Proportions of the three-dimensional defects–repair techniques correlation matrix within
the building envelope inspection system
• 0—no correlation: no relationship between the defect and the repair technique;
• 1—low correlation: adequate repair technique with some constraints to repair the
defect or eliminate its causes;
• 2—high correlation: the most adequate repair technique to repair the defect or
eliminate its causes.
The third dimension of the correlation matrix should always be present during the
filling process, as defects need to occur in a specific building element or material for
that technique to be useful in a specific situation.
Table 5.6 shows an excerpt of the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix. It
refers to the layer of external claddings of pitched roofs and considers the rows of
physical, chemical and mechanical defects intersecting with the columns of repair
techniques used in the surface of the cladding or corresponding to changes in the
bearing structure/substrate. The theoretical correlation matrix was built based on
existing matrices (Silvestre and de Brito 2010; Neto and de Brito 2011; Garcez et al.
2012; Amaro et al. 2013; Sá et al. 2014; Pires et al. 2015; Conceição et al. 2017;
da Silva et al. 2017; Santos et al. 2017) that had already been validated in fieldwork
surveys in representative samples. In those surveys, the most appropriate repair tech-
niques for each defect were chosen. Those results were compared with theoretical
indexes, considering the percentage of cases in the sample in which each repair
technique was associated with a specific defect. If any discrepancy was detected,
the differences were highlighted and those with clear differences were analysed and
altered, if justified. If, in some cases, changes were made, in others, the theoretical
index remained the same (Silvestre and de Brito 2011). The validation process of the
global correlation matrix was essentially done through literature review.
Interpreting the excerpt of the correlation matrix in Table 5.6, and providing its
suggested reading method, defects “A-A4 Colour changes” may be repaired and
their causes may be mitigated or eliminated using the following repair techniques (in
categories “surface of the cladding” and “change in the bearing structure/substrate)
in external claddings of pitched roofs:
– R-A4 Surface rehabilitation of the plastic external claddings of pitched roofs;
– R-A1 cleaning;
– R-A3 corrosion removal and re-establishment of the anticorrosion protection
in metallic elements;
– R-A7 application of ventilation systems/accessories;
– R-A9 application of spray polyurethane foam (SPF) on the external surface of
pitched roofs;
– R-A11 replacement or reapplication of the cladding/glazing (partially or
completely).
Table 5.6 Excerpt of the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix in a global inspection system for the building envelope (layer for external claddings of
348
pitched roofs), referring only to defects of physical, chemical and mechanical nature and to repair techniques in categories “surface of the cladding” and “change
in the bearing structure/substrate”
Defect R-A1 R-A2 R-A3 R-A4 R-A5 R-A6 R-A7 R-A8 R-A9 R-A10 R-A11 R-A12 R-A13 R-A14 R-A15 R-C1 R-C2 R-C3 R-C4
A-A1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
A-A2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A4 1 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A5 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-A6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B1 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B5 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-B6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
A-C1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C3 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A-C7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
A-C8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(continued)
5 Repair Techniques
Defect R-A1 R-A2 R-A3 R-A4 R-A5 R-A6 R-A7 R-A8 R-A9 R-A10 R-A11 R-A12 R-A13 R-A14 R-A15 R-C1 R-C2 R-C3 R-C4
A-C9 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
A-C10 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
A-C11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
5.4 Defects–Repair Techniques Correlation
349
Making use of the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix, the surveyors

have a list like the one presented for A-A4 for each detected defect, immediately
providing a set of actions that may be used for rehabilitation.
More examples of using this matrix may be mentioned. In adhesive ceramic
tiling, the growth of vegetable organisms includes both “biodeterioration/biological
growth” (A-B1) and “vegetation growth” (A-B2). Repair technique “application/re-
pair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing” (R-D6) refers to embed-
ded plumbing and plumbing at plain sight. There is a slight correlation between the
repair technique and these types of defects, referring to correlation index 1.
Defect “cracking and/or splintering adjacent to joints/edges” (A-C4) in natural
stone claddings refers both to cracking and fractures in stone elements close to
joints and to shard in fastening holes. Repair technique “repair of water penetration
spots” (R-D8) includes reducing the permeability of external facings and redirecting
rainwater or repairing water leaking points. Although these procedures do not directly
solve defect A-C4, they may avoid some of its causes or consequences, leading to the
definition of correlation index 1 in the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix.
The occurrence of “efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation” (A-B3) in
rendered façades may be solved with the contribution of repair technique “appli-
cation of a new (adequate) cladding/finishing coat over the existent/replacement”
(R-A12) (correlation index 1). It does not eliminate the causes of A-B3, but, used in
combination with other repair techniques, it contributes to avoiding the reoccurrence
of that defect.
As for defect “warpage, swelling, deformation and other flatness deficiencies”
(A-C7) in ETICS, it includes surface irregularities, visible joints between insulation
plates and swelling of insulation plates. This defect may be repaired with the “re-
placement/repair of current joints’ filling material and/or joints cleaning” (R-D2)
with some limitations (correlation index 1), as it does not solve all the phenomena
included in A-C7.
In painted façades, “dirt and accumulation of debris” (A-A3) may refer to dirt
as well as graffiti. As for repair technique “cleaning” (R-A1), it includes brush-
ing/dusting, manual washing using water and a sponge, pressurised water washing,
and chemical washing. All these procedures are highly recommended for dirt and
graffiti issues, except for manual washing, which is not the best approach for graffiti
cleaning. Nevertheless, defect A-A3 is highly correlated with repair technique R-A1,
corresponding to correlation index 2.
Repair technique “correction of surface irregularities or evening an architectural
concrete surface with mortar” (R-A15) includes the removal of surface irregulari-
ties and smoothing surfaces with the use of mortar. It is used to repair “finishing
defects/discontinuities in architectural concrete surfaces” (A-D3), namely honey-
combs, fastening marks, cement paste runoff, crusts, formwork incrustation, and
bug holes. Considering the adequacy of R-A15 to hide defect A-D3, their correlation
index in the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix is 2.
In door and window frames, defect “biodeterioration/biological growth” (A-B1)
includes biological colonisation and the degradation of framing materials, referring
to rotting issues in wood frames. As for repair technique “execution of prostheses
or application of reinforcement profiles in door and window frames” (R-B9), it

includes the use of prostheses and applying reinforcement profiles. Prostheses may
be a recommended option for rotting issues in wood frames, but neither prostheses
nor reinforcement profiles are used to repair biological colonisation. Considering
that rot or biological colonisation have equal occurrence chances, it is prudent to
consider that the correlation index between A-B1 and R-B9 is 1.
In external claddings of pitched roofs, defect “colour changes” (A-A4) includes
shade differences, colour changes and the oxidation of the cladding. This defect is
related to repair technique “surface rehabilitation of the plastic external claddings
of pitched roofs” (R-A4) through correlation index 2. Although not all external
claddings are plastic, the occurrence of defect A-A4 is more frequent in plastic
claddings, justifying the high correlation with R-A4.
Repair technique “application/repair/replacement of the waterproofing system or
separation layer in flat roofs” (R-B6) includes the application/repair/replacement
of waterproofing and of the separation layer. This technique is highly associated
(correlation index 2) with defect “leakage damp” (A-A1) as it may clearly solve the
origin of leakage points.
The classification list of repair techniques is part of building inspection systems and
is used by surveyors as a compendium of techniques that are used in the building
envelope to repair defects and eliminate their causes. Using this information during
inspections makes them less dependable on the surveyors’ professional experience
and knowledge.
The list of repair techniques within the global inspection system groups repair
techniques in categories according to the layer/part of the cladding that is repaired.
The listed repair techniques are the most commonly used, but have varied costs,
execution speed and labour needs. Repair techniques may be applied on the surface
of the cladding or in the whole cladding system, and may refer to changes in the
substrate or in the bearing structure, or to singularities.
As not all repair techniques are adequate for all building elements and mate-
rials, a matrix of repair techniques and building elements/materials is presented,
establishing the adequacy of using specific methods in specific elements, in the
context of a global inspection system. Furthermore, a three-dimensional correlation
matrix between defects and repair techniques, according to building elements and
materials, is also presented. The recommendation of repair techniques to specific
types of defects is expressed in terms of correlation indexes 0 (not recommended),
1 (recommended with limitations) and 2 (recommended without limitations).
The following chapter explores the methodology used to build operative files
aggregating information about Chaps. 3, 4 and this chapter can be used in fieldwork,
as well as the suggested inspection forms to guide information gathering during
inspections.
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Chapter 6
Elements to Support the Inspection
Procedure
Abstract Following the development of classification lists and correlation matrices

within the building inspection system, files of defects, diagnosis methods and repair
techniques are created as a means of communication. Defect files contain information
about each defect in the list of defects, including probable causes, diagnosis methods
and repair techniques, according to the data in the respective correlation matrix.
Defect files also include criteria to determine the level of urgency of repair of each
defect. Those criteria are complemented with illustrative photographs of each level
of urgency of repair of each defect in each type of building element or material in
an atlas of defects. For each method in the classification of diagnosis methods, a
diagnosis method file is created describing the procedures, materials and equipment
needed. Likewise, for each technique in the classification of repair techniques, a
repair technique file is developed describing the repair process, including materials
and equipment needed, as well as estimated labour, time and costs. An inspection
form is essential to ensure a standard approach to each scenario during fieldwork.
The inspection form developed is organised according to modules of information
referring to the building, construction and degradation of each inspected building
element and maintenance data.
Following the classification of defects, their probable causes, diagnosis methods and
repair techniques, and the establishment of correlation matrices between defects and
causes, defects and diagnosis methods and defects and repair techniques, a means of
communication of this information is needed. For that purpose, a set of informative
files is created including defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques files.
Consulting the file of the detected defect type, the surveyor is provided with
details allowing to better understand the origin and consequences of the pathological
process, be more alert to specific features and determine the defect’s urgency of repair
with objective criteria. If more information on the defect is needed to characterise it,
one of the suggested diagnosis methods may be indicated. To choose and perform an

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_6
358 6 Elements to Support the Inspection Procedure
adequate test, the surveyor should refer to the diagnosis method file, thus becoming
aware of materials needed, testing steps, and main advantages and limitations.
After the assessment of the defect, the surveyor is expected to prescribe a suit-
able course of action. Data from the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix are
included in the defect file, indicating the most adequate techniques through correla-
tion indexes. When in doubt, the surveyor should consult the repair techniques files,
which provide details on the materials needed, procedure, time and cost.
During fieldwork, an inspection form should be used to make sure all the important
data are collected. Thus, an inspection system must include an inspection form with
predetermined fields for the surveyor to fill with information about the building and its
context, each inspected building element or material and their defects. The surveyor
should attentively observe the phenomena and fill the inspection form aided by the
defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques files to collect all the required data.
Specifically, to determine the urgency of repair of each defect, besides the criteria
defined in the defect files, the inspection system also includes an atlas of defects.
Essentially, the atlas of defects illustrates all the levels of urgency of repair of each
defect in each building element or material, according to the mentioned criteria in
the defect files. It is a visual tool similar to a comparison scale.
The defect files and the atlas of defects are organised according to the classifi-
cation list of defects. The diagnosis methods and repair techniques files are organ-
ised according to the classification lists of diagnosis methods and repair techniques,
respectively. The inspection form is a long document, divided into several parts,
according to the type of collected information.
6.2 Defect Files
All the information on each defect is summarised in individual defect files. These
files include the probable causes of each defect, the most adequate diagnosis meth-
ods to characterise them and the necessary techniques to repair them or eliminate
their causes, following the respective classification lists and correlation matrices, as
presented in Chaps. 3, 4 and 5.
6.2.1 Structure of a Defect File
All the defect files have the same structure of information. In a header (Fig. 6.1), the
code and name of the defect are identified, according to the classification of defects
(Chap. 3). If the defect file has more than one page, the header is repeated in every
page. The upper right corner of the header contains the page number and the total
number of pages of the file in the format of “0/0”.
The header is followed by a concise description of the defect’s characteristic
pathological signs (Fig. 6.1). Then, the field of application is defined, according to
6.2 Defect Files 359
Fig. 6.1 Header, description and field of application of the file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic
fastening or tail-end elements”
the possibility of occurrence of the defect in different building elements and materials,
as defined in the defects–building elements/materials matrix (Chap. 3). In this area,
the defect file is illustrated with photographs exemplifying the occurrence of the
defect in each type of building element or material (Fig. 6.1).
Next, the probable causes of occurrence of the defect are presented, transposing
the information in the defects–probable causes correlation matrix (Chap. 3) to a table
in the defect file (Fig. 6.2). The list of related causes (code and name) is presented in
that table’s rows, where each column corresponds to a building element or material
defined in the field of application. Correlation indexes (0, 1 or 2) in the intersection
of rows and columns represent the relationship between the defect of the file and the
cause in each row in a specific building element or material.
Fig. 6.2 Probable causes and possible consequences of the file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in
metallic fastening or tail-end elements”
Fig. 6.3 Aspects to inspect and diagnosis methods of the file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic
fastening or tail-end elements”
After the probable causes, the main possible consequences of the defect are listed
(Fig. 6.2), which may refer to additional defects detected in the building element or
material.
Following are aspects to inspect (Fig. 6.3), which refer to characteristics of the
occurrence that may help diagnose it or alert for combined events. To identify such
characteristics no specialised equipment is required.
Still, if more data about the phenomenon need to be collected, the defect file also
includes a list of in situ diagnosis methods that may help characterise the defect in
terms of extent, severity and progression state. These diagnosis methods may also
be useful to confirm the defect’s causes. The diagnosis methods are included in a
table (Fig. 6.3) based on the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix (Chap. 4).
Each row corresponds to a diagnosis method (code and name) and each column to
a building element or material, matching those defined in the field of application. In
the intersection between rows and columns, correlation indexes (0, 1 and 2) establish
the relationship between the defect and the diagnosis method in each building ele-
ment or material, as defined in the respective layer of the defects–diagnosis methods
correlation matrix.
Then, a set of classification parameters is listed (Fig. 6.4) to help assess the level
of urgency of repair of the defect. However, more detailed criteria to determine the
level of urgency of repair of the detected defect are given in a specific section of the
defect file (Fig. 6.4), based on those classification parameters. Five urgency levels are
defined, from 4 (the least urgent) to 0 (the most urgent). For each level, according to
the building element or material where the defect may be detected, objective criteria
are defined delimiting the differences between occurrences that determine different
levels of urgency of repair. It is frequent to consider that a defect is never rated
in some of the levels of urgency of repair. For instance, some types of defect are
intrinsically mild. In those cases, the defect file does not include criteria for level 0
of urgency of repair. The levels of urgency of repair correspond to:
• Level 0: existence of imminent danger, needing contingency measures;
• Level 1: need of immediate intervention, as the role of the building element is
compromised in such a way that not intervening may compromise the building;
Fig. 6.4 Classification parameters, urgency of repair and repair techniques of the file of defect
“A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening or tail-end elements”
• Level 2: need of intervention in the short-term, as the role of the building element
starts to be compromised or harmless phenomena affect a large portion of the
building element;
• Level 3: need of intervention in the long-term, as the phenomena are harmless
and restricted to a limited area;
• Level 4: no need of intervention but requiring further assessment in the next
inspection.
Finally, the defect file includes techniques to repair the defect and eliminate its
causes, according to the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix (Chap. 5). Infor-
mation in this correlation matrix is transposed to a table (Fig. 6.4) where rows cor-
respond to repair techniques (code and name) and columns to the building elements
and materials defined in the field of application. In the intersection between rows and
columns, correlation indexes (0, 1 and 2) establish the relationship between the defect
of the file and each repair technique in specific building elements and materials.
6.2.2 Example of a Defect File
In Fig. 6.5, as an example of a complete defect file, the file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion
in metallic fastening or tail-end elements” is presented. If the surveyor detects signs
of defect A-B6 in tail-end elements of the cladding system of a flat roof, this defect
file may be used to help inspect that phenomenon.
Interpreting the information in the sections of this file (already mentioned in
Sect. 6.2.1), first, the surveyor should check whether the description of the defect
362
Fig. 6.5 Complete file of defect “A-B6 Corrosion in metallic fastening or tail-end elements”
6 Elements to Support the Inspection Procedure
6.2 Defect Files
Fig. 6.5 (continued)

363
matches the detected occurrence, at least partially. In this example, changes involving
colour, runoffs, blistering, detachment, pitting or puncturing should occur in metallic
tail-end elements. The surveyor may also compare the observation with the photo-
graph provided in the field of application. Although it does not cover all possibilities,
the picture may help understand the description.
Next, assessing what could have caused the defect, the surveyor should choose
from the list of probable causes, considering only those that have correlation indexes
1 (low correlation) or 2 (high correlation) in the column of flat roofs (FR). In this
case, A-B6 may be caused by:
– C-A8 Specification of inadequate or incompatible materials, or missing
specification;
– C-D12 Dampening of the cladding system;
– C-A11 Deficient design/detailing of the water drainage system;
– C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow;
– C-E1 Inexistent or inadequate maintenance.
The surveyor should also pay attention to possible consequences of the defect. In
the case of A-B6 in a flat roof, the defect may contribute to deformation, cracking,
fracture and detachment in the current surface; degradation of underlying materials
and elements; leakages; and an affected aesthetical effect. If detected consequences
coincide with types of defects defined in the classification of defects, the surveyor
should register them as separate defects.
Then, the surveyor is reminded of specific aspects to inspect. In this case, the
compatibility of materials in contact with the metallic tail-end elements should be
checked. The surveyor should also try to determine whether the surrounding environ-
ment is aggressive and the extent of the defect. Following the alert on possible con-
sequences, the surveyor should be able to objectively answer whether deformation,
cracking, fracture, subsequent detachment, water ponding or leakage occur.
Still, if the level of uncertainty of the diagnosis is too high, the surveyor should pro-
pose performing additional tests. Using the list of diagnosis methods in the defect
file, the surveyor should choose from those diagnosis methods that have correla-
tion indexes 1 (low correlation) or 2 (high correlation) in the column of flat roofs
(FR). In this case, more information on A-B6 may be collected with method “D-A3
Assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and alignments (ND)”.
Then, the classification parameters are used to determine the level of urgency
of repair. In the example, the urgency of repair of “corrosion in metallic fastening
or tail-end elements” (A-B6) in flat roofs ranges from level 3 (intervention in the
long-term) to level 2 (intervention in the short-term). According to the established
criteria, if there are conditions for the phenomenon to progress or if the defect causes
loss of watertightness, it is a level 2 occurrence. Otherwise, the urgency of repair of

the defect is of level 3.
Finally, the surveyor determines the best course of action to mend the defect and
eliminate its causes, choosing from those repair techniques that, in the list in the
defect file, have correlation indexes 1 (low correlation) or 2 (high correlation) in the
column of flat roofs (FR). In this case, A-B6 has a high correlation with both “R-
D5 Repair/application of tail-ends and associated protection elements” and “R-D6
Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing”.
6.3 Atlas of Defects
The criteria to categorise detected defects in one of the five levels of urgency of
repair are defined in writing in the defect files. The atlas of defects complements
that information with photographs that illustrate the written criteria. The goal is to
compare the detected occurrence with the photographs of the same type of defect in
the same building element or material for easier identification of the level of urgency
of repair.
6.3.1 Structure of the Atlas of Defects
The atlas of defects is composed of various pages—one page per type of defect,
according to the classification of defects (Chap. 3). Each page is structured like a
table (Table 6.1). In the first row, the code and name of the defect are identified.
Below, each building element or material where the defect may occur corresponds
to a column. In the first column, the level of urgency of repair is identified, as each
row corresponds to a different level, from 0 to 4.
For each building element or material (column), for each level of urgency of repair
(row) with delimiting criteria defined, a picture illustrating the defect is shown and
the criteria are described below. This means that it is not expected that every row is
fully filled. Some types of defects in some types of building elements or materials do
not cause imminent danger (level 0), because they are never very severe, while other
types of defects, when they occur, are never so light that they only require assessment
in the next inspection (level 4).
6.3.2 Example of a Page of the Atlas of Defects
In Fig. 6.6, the page of the atlas of defects corresponding to defect “A-C5 Wear
or scaling of the finishing coat” is shown. According to the defects–building ele-
ments/materials matrix, defect A-C5 can only be found in adhesive ceramic tiling,
door and window frames and external thermal insulation composite system (ETICS).
Table 6.1 Structure of a page of the atlas of defects

Code and name of the defect
Level Building Building Building Building Building Building
of element or element or element or element or element or element or
urgency material 1 material 2 material 3 material 4 material 5 material 6
of
repair
0
Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria

1

2

3

4
The defect is considered neither of level 0 or level 4 in these building elements and
claddings. In ETICS, the most urgent level of urgency of repair of A-C5 is level 1,
which corresponds to the need for immediate intervention. In adhesive ceramic tiling
and in door and window frames, A-C5 occurrences range from level 2 to level 3.
Some of the criteria that define the threshold between two consecutive levels
cannot be fully identified in the photographs. The aesthetical value of the affected
area is one of those criteria.
6.3 Atlas of Defects 367
Fig. 6.6 Page of the atlas of defects corresponding to defect “A-C5 Wear or scaling of the finishing
coat”
6.4 Diagnosis Methods Files
The available information about each diagnosis method is condensed in individual

diagnosis methods files. Each file includes the main features of the diagnosis method,
including its objectives and a stepbystep description of the test.
6.4.1 Structure of a Diagnosis Method File
All the diagnosis methods files have an identical structure of information. Like in
defect files, in a header (Fig. 6.7), the code and the name of the diagnosis method
are identified, according to the classification of diagnosis methods (Chap. 4). In the
upper right corner of the header, the page number and the total number of pages of
the file are shown in the format of “0/0”. If the diagnosis method file has more than
one page, the header is repeated in every page.
Below the header, a block of information is shown, with some photographs illus-
trating the diagnosis method on the right (Fig. 6.7). On top of that block, the type
of diagnosis method is identified (destructive or non-destructive) and the objectives
of performing the method are listed. Then, the materials and equipment necessary
to perform the diagnosis method are listed and the field of application is defined
mentioning the building elements and materials in which the diagnosis method may
be performed (Fig. 6.7).
Next, the diagnosis method is described in detail, delineating each step of the test
procedure. If the diagnosis method is composed of more than one type of test, each
of those is described individually (Fig. 6.8).
In the next two sections of the file, advantages and limitations of performing the
diagnosis method are listed (Fig. 6.9), specifying to which test that composes the
diagnosis method the advantage or limitation refers to (if applicable).
Fig. 6.7 Header, type of method, objectives, materials and equipment needed, field of application
and photographs of the file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit”
6.4 Diagnosis Methods Files 369
Fig. 6.8 Description of the file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit”
Fig. 6.9 Advantages, limitations and references of the file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips
and field kit”
Finally, the diagnosis method file includes some references that the surveyor may
refer to if more information is needed (Fig. 6.9).
In the description of the diagnosis method, the surveyor finds the procedure that
should be followed if the diagnosis method is chosen to assess the detected defect.
In the case of D-J2, the procedure for test strips is described first and, then, the
procedure for field kit, considering both the titrimetric and the colorimetric analyses
separately.
Before proposing performing a diagnosis method, the surveyor should be aware
of its advantages and limitations. Although the advantages section may point reasons
to recommend the diagnosis method, the limitations section may indicate that the
method is not as helpful as it was expected.
Finally, to clarify any of the information in the diagnosis method file or to have a
more thorough description of the method, the surveyor should consult the references
at the end of the file.
The full file for diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit” is presented in
Fig. 6.10.
370
Fig. 6.10 Complete file of diagnosis method “D-J2 Test strips and field kit”
6.4 Diagnosis Methods Files 371

6.5 Repair Techniques Files
A summary of the information on each repair technique is available in individual

repair techniques files. Each file highlights the main characteristics of the technique,
including the description of the repair process and estimated labour, time and costs.
6.5.1 Structure of a Repair Technique File
All the repair techniques files have the same structure. Like in the defects and diag-
nosis methods files, in a header at the top of the file (Fig. 6.11), the code and the
name of the repair technique are identified, according to the classification of repair
techniques (Chap. 5). The header also contains the page number and the total number
of pages of the file in the format of “0/0”. If the repair technique file has multiple
pages, the header is repeated in every page.
Below the header, the location within the building element where the repair tech-
nique is applied is identified, as well as the type of repair technique (preventive repair,
curative repair or maintenance) (Fig. 6.11). Then, a list of the characteristics of the
equipment and materials needed to perform the repair is presented. It is organised
according to the type of building element or material to which the repair technique
is applied. Those building elements and materials are identified on the right, in the
field of application, illustrated with a photograph of the use of the technique in each
building element or material (Fig. 6.11).
Next, the steps involved in applying the repair technique are described for every
building element and material identified in the field of application (Fig. 6.12).
Then, according to the building element or material, estimations of the labour and
time needed to apply the repair technique are presented, followed by an estimation
Fig. 6.11 Header, location, type, equipment and materials needed and field of application of the
file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways”
6.5 Repair Techniques Files 373
Fig. 6.12 Description of the file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways”
Fig. 6.13 Estimated labour and target time, estimated cost, expected results, critical areas and
references of the file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways”
of costs (Fig. 6.13). The expected results after using the repair technique are outlined
and the critical areas needing specific care while applying the repair technique are
summarised (Fig. 6.13). Finally, the repair technique file includes a set of references
for more detailed information on the repair technique (Fig. 6.13).
6.5.2 Example of a Repair Technique File
In Fig. 6.14, the file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways” is presented as
an example of a complete repair technique file. If proposing repair technique R-A6
is under consideration, the surveyor should consult this repair technique file to be
better informed while deciding.
Interpreting the information in each section of the file mentioned in Sect. 6.5.2,
first, the surveyor should confirm that the building element or material where the
defect was detected is included in the field of application. The surveyor should also
check the intrusiveness of applying R-A6, which, in this case, only affects the surface
of the cladding. According to the type of repair technique, the surveyor is informed
374
Fig. 6.14 Complete file of repair technique “R-A6 Creation of pathways”

6.5 Repair Techniques Files 375

that R-A6 is a preventive repair technique. Next, the surveyor should check whether
the equipment and materials listed for the building element where the defect was
detected are easily available.
The procedure to create pathways, in this case, is described in the next section of
the repair technique file, followed by an estimation of labour, time and costs. These
estimates allow the surveyor to understand whether available resources are enough
to apply the repair technique.
Expected results help realise whether the outcome of applying the repair technique
will mend the detected problems in the building element. Critical areas alert the
surveyor for some issues that may be associated with performing the repair technique.
If more information about the repair technique is still required, the reference list may
fulfil those needs.
6.6 Inspection Forms
Inspection forms are used to characterise the inspected buildings, their building ele-
ments and the defects detected in the latter. By filling in the required information, the
surveyor has a standardised approach to every inspected building, as the information
collected is always the same.
6.6.1 Structure of an Inspection Form
The inspection form starts with a header where the inspection is numbered and dated,
the surveyor is identified, and the objectives of the inspection are stated (Fig. 6.15).
Next, the surveyor indicates the weather conditions at inspection time, namely
temperature, rainfall and humidity (Fig. 6.15).
The second section of the inspection form is used to provide general information on
the building (Fig. 6.16), including the location, a brief characterization, a photograph
of the general view of the building and/or a schematic diagram, information about the
building’s shape, number of floors above the ground, number of free façades and year
of construction. In this section, contacts made with owners, tenants, designers and
Fig. 6.15 Sections of the inspection form for a header and for weather conditions data at inspection
time
6.6 Inspection Forms 377
Fig. 6.16 Section of the inspection form for information on the building
contractors are identified (name and contact details). Finally, the types of building
elements and materials inspected in the building are identified.
In the third section of the inspection form, the surveyor gives information about
the environmental exposure of the building (Fig. 6.17). This information includes the
type of surroundings, distance from the sea (or river), exposure to humidity, wind-rain
action, and polluting agents, elevation, winter and summer thermal zones, climatic
zone for wind-rain combination, wind action region and ground roughness. Winter
and summer thermal zones are defined according to the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) (2009), referring to thermal actions. In Portugal’s national
annexe, the country is divided into three main areas, according to the records of
minimum (winter) and maximum (summer) temperatures. In this case, winter thermal
zones are defined according to minimum temperatures of –5 °C (zone A), 0 °C (zone
B) and 5 °C (zone C). Summer thermal zones are defined according to maximum
temperatures of 45 °C (zone A), 40 °C (zone B) and 35 °C (zone C). For each country,
these classifications should be adapted to adequate ranges of temperature.
According to (European Committee for Standardization 2010), referring to wind
actions, wind action regions are defined. In Portugal’s national annexe, two main areas
of wind action are defined. Region B corresponds to the archipelagos of Madeira and
Fig. 6.17 Section of the inspection form for environmental exposure data
Azores and to continental areas located in a coastal strip 5 km wide and regions
above 600 m. Region A comprises the remaining areas. This classification should be
adapted to the dominant wind characteristics of each country. The ground roughness
categories are also based on (CEN 2010). Five categories are defined, according to
Portugal’s national annexe: category 0 are as correspond to coastline regions exposed
to winds from the sea; category I areas refer to lakes or regions with neglectable veg-
etation, free from obstacles; category II areas correspond to regions of undergrowth,
such as grass, and isolated obstacles (trees, buildings) away at least 20 times their
height from other obstacles; category III areas refer to regions regularly covered
with vegetation or buildings, or with isolated obstacles away up to 20 times their
height (e.g. villages, suburban areas, permanent forests) from other obstacles; cate-
gory IV areas correspond to regions in which at least 15% of the surface is covered
by buildings with an average height exceeding 15 m.
The climatic zone for wind-rain combination is defined according to Centro Tec-
nológico da Cerâmica e do Vidro (1998), which judiciously divided Portugal into cli-
matic zones based on the studies of the Portuguese meteorological institute. Climatic
zones were given more or less severity in accordance with the average annual precip-
itation, the location elevation and the distance to the coastline. For other countries,
according to the available data, similar climatic zones may be established.
The fourth section of the inspection form refers to construction characteristics of
the inspected building element (Fig. 6.18). It should be repeated for each building
element identified in the second section of the inspection form. The contents of
the fourth section vary according to the type of building element or material. For
instance, for architectural concrete surfaces, information on the building element
includes: year of construction, type of façade, façade orientation, area of the total
surface, area of the cladding, height above ground, shading, type of finish, colour,
surface protection, environmental exposure class (according to CEN 2016), windows,
drip details in windowsills, balconies, drip detail in balconies, parapet walls, eaves or
upper protection, flowerbeds or protruding elements and photographs of the cladding.
Fig. 6.18 Section of the inspection form for information on each building element
Fig. 6.19 Sections of the inspection form for general maintenance data, maintenance data on
specific building elements and notes
Then, maintenance data about the building may be given in the fifth section
(Fig. 6.19). General maintenance data includes assessing the general conservation
state of the building (qualitatively), mentioning the existence of previous interven-
tions, type of maintenance, periodicity of inspections or interventions and means
of access for inspection/intervention. For each inspected building element, specific
maintenance data about previous interventions may also be collected, referring to
the year it occurred, type, techniques and materials used.
In the sixth section, the surveyor may take some general notes (Fig. 6.19).
Sections VII to XII are assigned to characterising the degradation conditions of
each inspected building element. The contents of these sections vary according to
the type of building element or material. These sections must be repeated for each
inspected building element. Section VII (Fig. 6.20) lists all the defects that may
occur in the inspected building element (according to the classification of defects),
and the surveyor should identify those that are detected in that particular building
element. For each of those defects, the level of urgency of repair should be determined,
according to the criteria stated in the defect file. In section VIII (Fig. 6.20), the
surveyor answers some simple yes or no or multiple-choice questions about the
detected defects.
In section IX (Fig. 6.21), all the probable causes of defects that may occur in the
inspected building element or material are listed. In the column corresponding to each
detected defect, the surveyor should indicate the causes that may apply, identifying
indirect causes with correlation index 1 and direct causes with 2.
In section X (Fig. 6.22), the diagnosis methods that may be used in the inspected
building element are listed. If the surveyor considers that any of them may be adequate
for any of the detected defects, it should be indicated in the corresponding column.
Similarly, the repair techniques that may be applied in the inspected building
element are listed in section XI (Fig. 6.23). Those considered useful to mend the
detected defects should be indicated in the corresponding column.
Finally, for each detected defect, at least one photograph must be taken and placed
in section XII (Fig. 6.23).
Fig. 6.20 Sections of the inspection form to identify detected defects, determine their level of
urgency of repair and characterise them
Fig. 6.21 Section of the inspection form to identify the probable causes of detected defects
Fig. 6.22 Section of the inspection form to identify the adequate diagnosis methods for each
detected defect
Fig. 6.23 Sections of the inspection form to propose repair techniques for each detected defect and
to place photographs of the detected defects
6.6.2 Example of an Inspection Form
All the mentioned sections of the inspection form are organised in three separate parts.
The first part includes the header, sections I to III and sections V and VI. Section IV
is included in the second part of the inspection form and has nine variants, one per
Fig. 6.24 Cover page of the inspection form
type of building element or material. Sections VII to XII compose the third part of
the inspection form, which also has nine variants, according to the type of building
element or material. An example of an inspection form is presented from Figs. 6.24,
6.25, 6.26 and 6.27, showing the variants for architectural concrete surfaces.
Building inspection systems need means of communication with the surveyor. All
the knowledge gathered within the building inspection system proposed is conveyed
in defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques files.
Additionally, an atlas of defects is a visual tool that helps the surveyor ascertain
the level of urgency of repair of detected defects, comparing the occurrence with a
reference photograph.
The inspection forms guide the collection of information during fieldwork,
standardising the process as for every instance the same type of information is
required.
Fig. 6.25 First part of the inspection form

383

Fig. 6.26 Second part of the inspection form, in this case, for the characterisation of an architectural concrete surface
385
386
Fig. 6.27 Third part of the inspection form, in this case, to characterise the degradation of an architectural concrete surface
6.7 Concluding Remarks 387






References 393
References

European Committee for Standardization (2009) EN 1991-1-5:2003/AC:2009 Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures—Part 1–5: General actions—Thermalactions. European Committee for Standard-
ization, Brussels, Belgium
European Committee for Standardization (2010) EN 1991-1-4:2005/A1:2010 Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures—Part 1–4: General actions—Wind actions. European Committee for Standardiza-
tion, Brussels, Belgium
European Committee for Standardization (2016) EN 206:2013 + A1:2016 Concrete—Specification,
Belgium
Chapter 7
Case Studies
Abstract The chapter dedicated to the presentation of case studies starts by outlining
the criteria that led to the selection of buildings. Then, to demonstrate the use of the
inspection system proposed in previous chapters, a summary of the information
collected during the inspection of a coffee house, a detached house and a museum is
given. Following the structure of collection of data in inspection forms, the buildings
and their surroundings are characterised and, then, more detailed data on each type of
inspected building elements, including their main features, the degradation condition
and actions to restore their performance, are provided. Moreover, a general guide for
using the inspection system in fieldwork is provided. Based on the case studies’
experience, an analysis of the advantages and limitations of using such system is
made. Finally, considering the stage of communication of the inspection results, and
using the data collected in the case studies, examples of pictures, tables and charts
with inspection findings are presented.
7.1 Introduction
The theoretical benefits of the proposed inspection system are only an asset if proven
useful for the analysis of the degradation condition of buildings. The purpose of this
chapter is to demonstrate the use of the proposed inspection system and analyse how
it can improve inspection procedures and results.
For that purpose, three case studies were inspected, chosen according to some
simple criteria, namely:
• The buildings should be of different sizes, varying from a small building to
progressively larger ones;
• Still, the buildings do not need to be very large, since repetitive analyses do not
imply a better demonstration of the system;
• The buildings should have different functional programmes;
• All the types of building elements included in the inspection system should be in
the set of case studies; i.e. at least an instance of each type of building element
should be inspected;

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_7
396 7 Case Studies
• The buildings, or the building envelopes, should be (mostly) accessible, observable

and have available information (at least the construction year).
With these criteria in mind, a coffee house, a detached house and a museum
were selected for demonstrative inspections. For demonstration purposes, it is shown
how an inspection system such as the one proposed here may be used in a single
inspection. When inspection systems are implemented within maintenance plans,
the same building or building element is periodically inspected, and thus different
and progressive results are expected. The differences between these results may be
associated with various factors, such as weather conditions, seasons and progression
of degradation mechanisms. The presentation of periodic inspections is outside the
scope of this book.
During the inspection campaign, to fill the inspection form (Chap. 6) while
characterising the detected defects, the following was complied with:
• At least one direct and one indirect causes were identified for every defect;
• Up to three direct and three indirect causes could be identified for each defect;
• The recommendation of diagnosis method was optional, in accordance with each
analysed situation;
• Up to three diagnosis methods could be recommended;
• At least one repair technique was determined for every defect;
• Up to three repair techniques could be determined for each defect.
7.2 Coffee House
The first case study in this chapter is a coffee house located in a park next to the
forest in the Portuguese summer village and beach of S. Pedro de Moel (coordinates
39°45 28.0 N 9°01 41.2 W). The park includes pine trees, a playground, a picnic
park and the tourism office, besides the coffee house.
The village of S. Pedro de Moel was the object of a strict urbanisation plan in
1947, later expanded in 1964, promoted by the municipality of Marinha Grande.
The park and the coffee house were part of the 1947 plan. The first coffee house
building, the Bambi coffee house, dated back to 1957 and was a wooden building.
This park was one of the social attraction points of the village (Barros 1989). In
2000 (Direção-Geral do Território 2017) the Portuguese Government, through the
Office of Land Use Planning and Urban Development (DGOTDU), launched the
POLIS Programme to promote the rehabilitation of cities considering several areas,
like the environment, digital communication, scientific, technological and cultural
infrastructures and social integration (Infopédia 2019). This programme was used to
distribute European Union funds through the territory. The Municipality of Marinha
Grande applied to the POLIS Programme and was integrated into the programme
in its second phase. S. Pedro de Moel was part of the rehabilitation plan of the
application, including the rehabilitation of the aforementioned park. So, in 2005, the
7.2 Coffee House 397
Bambi coffee house was renewed entirely, giving place to a new building built in
architectural concrete with large glazed areas in the main façade. This building is the
first case study.
The inspection occurred in the morning of the 23rd of August 2019, a sunny day at
S. Pedro de Moel, with 24 °C, no rain and relative humidity of 54% (Fig. 7.1). Some
contacts were made with the coffee house staff. During the inspection, a Panasonic
LUMIX DMC-FZ28 camera was used, with 18x optical zoom. A notebook and the
inspection form of the proposed building inspection system were used, as well as a
tape measure and a crack width ruler. Except for a hat due to sunlight, no personal
protection equipment was used, as no risks were detected. No access to the roof was
available at the time of the inspection.
7.2.1 Characterisation of the Building and Its Surroundings
The inspected building is relatively small and compact, with less than 150 m2 of gross
floor area distributed through a single floor. All the façades are free from obstacles.
The building has an indoor kitchen, toilets and services that support its commercial
use. The main room is shaped like half an ellipse and the round surface is entirely
glazed (Fig. 7.2). The rear façade has windows for the kitchen and toilets, as well as
an annexe for storage. The coffee house also has a large terrace communicating with
the surrounding park and playground.
The unglazed façade surfaces are cladded with architectural concrete and adhesive
ceramic tiling. Additionally, some ceramic tiling surfaces have been cladded after
2005 with wood slats to match a wooden roofed terrace (built on an opposite area
of the building). These wood additions to the building are out of the scope of the
inspection, as well as the storage annexe. The glazed area of the main façade is
complemented with aluminium window frames for ventilation. The building has a
flat roof.
The coffee house is about 420 m from the shore (Fig. 7.3), hence in a maritime
environment with high exposure to humidity. Still, there is a low exposure to pol-
luting agents, given the proximity to the shore, the absence of industrial plants in
the immediate surroundings and the proximity to a vast national forest, although
partially destroyed by wildfires. The Marinha Grande municipality is characterised
by a minimum temperature of 0 °C in the winter and a maximum temperature of
35 °C during the summer. The area is also considered to belong to zone III of the
combination of wind-rain effects, as it is in a shore strip with 20 km, thus with more
accentuated wind-rain effects. Those effects were experienced in 2018 when hurri-
cane Leslie caused several damages in the roofs of some buildings in S. Pedro de
Moel and took down a large number of trees around the village. As for the ground
roughness, the area is considered to be of category I (European Committee for Stan-
dardization [CEN] 2010), as the building is not located immediately on the shore
(the cases included in category 0).
398
Fig. 7.1 Section of the inspection form with general data about the conditions at inspection time
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Fig. 7.2 General view of the coffee house building

Condition
Adhesive ceramic tiling, architectural concrete surfaces, window frames and flat
roofs were inspected in the coffee house building.
7.2.2.1 Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
The adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces date back to 2005, the year of construction of
the building, without relevant maintenance afterwards. These surfaces are located
in the rear façade, which is oriented northeast, and are coplanar, diverging in terms
of the size of the tiles (15 cm by 15 cm and 7.50 cm by 7.50 cm) (Fig. 7.4). These
surfaces are set over masonry walls, and, indoors, they correspond to the toilets area.
In total, the façade has 8.55 m2 , of which 6.03 m2 correspond to 15 cm by 15 cm
tiles (green) and 1.71 m2 to 7.50 cm by 7.50 cm tiles (white). In the context of the
inspection, green and white tiled areas are considered two different surfaces. The
remaining surface corresponds to squared aluminium window frames, which are out
of the scope of the inspection due to insufficient conditions to adequately inspect
them.
The tiles have a smooth finish and were probably applied with simple bedding,
although this type of construction information was not confirmed, as no documents
from the design specifications or the contractor were available. The lack of infor-
mation is a common challenge in building inspections. Still, considering the type of
tiling, the construction year and observation, some information can be inferred.
The adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces in the coffee house only had some protruding
corners protected (vertical edges with plastic tile trims), and only peripheral areas
400
Fig. 7.3 Sections of the inspection form with general data about the building’s environmental exposure characteristics and maintenance
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7.2 Coffee House

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Fig. 7.4 General view of the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces
around the windows were protected (by windowsills and plastic tile trims). The tiled
surfaces were set with movement joints, but without any elastic or expansion joints, as
the surfaces are relatively small. No peripheral joints were found as well. Movement
joints are 2 mm wide and are filled with grout. The inspection form data on the
characteristics of the green adhesive ceramic tiling surface is exemplified in Fig. 7.5.
As for the degradation conditions of the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces, similar
defects were detected in both surfaces, as they are coplanar. The most relevant fault is
the degradation of the filling material of movement joints (A-D6) (Fig. 7.6). It reaches
the whole surface of both cladding areas. As such, and considering the criteria to
determine the urgency of repair stated in the defect file,1 the defect is considered of
level 2 of urgency of repair (need of intervention in the short-term) (Fig. 7.7).
Defect A-D6 occurs in the current area of the surface, and there is no warpage,
swelling or detachment of tiles. No degradation of the bedding material or substrate
was detected. As the defect is spread throughout the surface, it occurs up to 2.85 m
high. Despite the deterioration of the joint filling material, no efflorescence or leach-
ing was detected, as the degradation mostly consists of dirt or biological growth in
the joints, visible through the dark colour that the joint grout has assumed.
1 Defect “A-D6 Degradation of the filling material of current joints”, in adhesive ceramic tiling, may
be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those that occur in an area of high
aesthetical value, or that affect more than 10% of the surface, or that occur simultaneously with
leakages. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-D6.
7.2 Coffee House
Fig. 7.5 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of one of the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces
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Fig. 7.6 View of the degradation of the joint filling material in the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces
The probable direct causes of defect A-D6 are: “C-D4 Action of vegetation growth,
fungi or mould”, “C-D5 Atmospheric contamination/pollution” and “C-D12 Damp-
ening of the cladding system”. As for probable indirect causes, “C-A11 Deficient
design/detailing of tail-end areas” and “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris”
were identified.
The indirect causes of A-D6 represent situations that occurred first and need direct
causes to generate the pathological process; i.e. the façade was designed without
coping in the parapet wall, which contributes to the degradation of the joints, and
no signs of regular cleaning of the façade were detected. Additionally, the direct
causes progressively contributed to the deterioration of the joints, whether through
the development of fungi and mould, the accumulation of debris resulting from
atmospheric pollution, or the dampening of the joints, favouring the degradation of
the filling material and biological growth.
As for the diagnosis methods, in this context, none were advised to better char-
acterise A-D6. In terms of repair techniques, “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application
of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” and “R-D2
Replacement/repair of current joints’ filling material and/or joints cleaning” are rec-
ommended. As joints in the whole surface are affected, cleaning operations should
not be restricted to joints, but general cleaning should be done. Additionally, the
joint filling material should be assessed to determine whether cleaning procedures
are enough to restore the grout’s appearance. If not, the filling material should be
replaced. Then, an antifungal and biocide protective coat should be applied, to prevent
the future development of biological growth in the movement joints.
In the green adhesive ceramic tiling surface, the one that goes from the bottom
to the top of the façade, vegetation growth (A-B2) was also detected in 7% of the
surface, corresponding to the area in direct contact with the ground (Fig. 7.8). This
7.2 Coffee House
Fig. 7.7 Sections of the inspection form with data on the defects detected on the green adhesive ceramic tiling surface, including: urgency of repair, specific
characteristics, and identification of probable causes, diagnosis methods and repair techniques
405
406

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7.2 Coffee House

407
408

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7.2 Coffee House

409
410

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411
412

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Fig. 7.8 Vegetation growth in the lower area of the façade cladded with adhesive ceramic tiling
defect is considered to be of level 3 of urgency of repair (Fig. 7.7), according to the

criteria2 defined in the defect file.
The probable direct causes of the occurrence of A-B2 are: “C-D4 Action of veg-
etation growth, fungi or mould” and “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow”. Causes
“C-A20 Deficient design/detailing of the area next to the ground” and “C-D13 Nat-
ural ageing” were identified as probable indirect causes. The ageing of the cladding
and inefficient design of the façade area next to the ground contributed to the accu-
mulation of water and, consequently, to vegetation growth. As the defect is evident,
no diagnosis methods were advised. Repair techniques “R-A1 Cleaning” and “R-
D3 Application of fungicide, biocide or herbicide in joints” were recommended to
eliminate the vegetation growth and prevent the re-occurrence of the defect.
7.2.2.2 Architectural Concrete Surfaces
The architectural concrete surfaces are part of the original building, from 2005.
From what can be observed, none were subjected to relevant maintenance actions.
The surfaces are located on the front, side and rear façades (southwest, southeast and
northeast, respectively) (Fig. 7.9). On the front façade, the architectural concrete sur-
face (16.90 m2 ) corresponds to the top region, right above a glazed area. This surface
is curved and slanted. The surface on the rear façade (5.78 m2 ) also corresponds to
the top area of the façade, above the storage annexe. This surface is slightly curved.
The surface on the side façade (10.30 m2 ) corresponds to a wall that follows the
shape of one of the flat roofs.
2 Defect“A-B2 Vegetation growth”, in adhesive ceramic tiling, may be of level 2 or level 3 of

urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those that affect more than 30% of the surface, or that occur
simultaneously with leakages. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B2.
a b c
Fig. 7.9 Analysed architectural concrete surfaces in the coffee house: a partial view of the surface
on the main façade; b surface on the side façade; and c partial view of the surface on the rear façade
All the architectural concrete surfaces have a smooth finish and grey colour with
a water-repellent treatment. Due to the surrounding environment, which may result
in corrosion induced by seawater chlorides, these concrete surfaces are considered
to belong to environmental exposure class XS1 (CEN 2016). This means that the
surrounding atmosphere carries sea salts, but there is no direct contact with seawater.
None of the façades with architectural concrete surfaces is adequately topped
with a coping, and there are no eaves or protection of the top of the façades. This
design option highlights the sculptural role of architectural concrete in the shape of
the building.
As an example, the inspection form data on the characteristics of the architectural
concrete surface in the main façade are presented in Fig. 7.10.
In terms of degradation, three defects were detected in all architectural concrete
surfaces: “A-A2 Surface moisture”, “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris” and
“A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth” (Fig. 7.11). The surface moisture affects
between 20 and 43% of surfaces. Considering the criteria used to determine the
urgency of repair of A-A2,3 the surface moisture on the front façade is considered
to be level 3 and in the other surfaces level 2 (need of intervention in the long and
short-term, respectively).
The surface moisture is directly caused by “C-D9 Wet-dry cycles” and indirectly
by “C-A13 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of singularities” and “C-D6 Accu-
mulation of dust dirt or small solid particles”. Wet-dry cycles result mainly from
the absence of coping. Additionally, as the surface is wet during more prolonged
periods, it tends to accumulate dirt, which also potentiates the occurrence of damp.
To have more precise data on the surface moisture, two diagnosis methods are rec-
ommended: “D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and
humidity” and “D-F4 initial surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube”. The
defect may be repaired implementing “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application of a
3 Defect “A-A2 Surface moisture”, in architectural concrete surfaces, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of

urgency of repair. Level 1 defects affect more than 50% of the surface and have conditions for the
phenomenon to progress, Level 2 defects affect more than 20% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer
to the remaining cases of A-A2.
416
Fig. 7.10 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of one of the architectural concrete surfaces
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7.2 Coffee House
Fig. 7.11 Section of the inspection form with data on the detected defects and their urgency of repair referring to the architectural concrete surface in the front
façade
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protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” and “R-D14

Correction of geometrical construction details”. Although the surface was initially
treated with water-repellent, it needs to be renewed.
The occurrence of “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris” should also be high-
lighted. Dirt affects 51–100% of the area of inspected surfaces. Thus, this defect is
considered in level 1 of urgency of repair (need of immediate intervention) in all
architectural concrete surfaces, according to the criteria4 defined in the defect file.
A-A3 occurs mostly in areas affected by damp, and it is directly caused by “C-
D3 Chemical action of organic compounds or dirt” and “C-D9 Wet-dry cycles”.
Causes “C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt or small solid particles”, “C-E1 Inexistent
or inadequate maintenance” and “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris” are
singled as probable indirect causes. The surfaces are dirty as a direct consequence
of the accumulation of dust motivated by the periodic occurrence of damp on the
surface. But it is also driven by the inexistence of maintenance or cleaning works, not
renewing the water-repellent treatment of the surfaces and not regularly removing
dirt.
To collect more specific data on the phenomenon, diagnosis methods “D-C1 Mea-
surement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and humidity” and “D-F4 Initial
surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube” are possible recommendations.
As for repair techniques, “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application of a protective coat
(paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” and “R-D14 Correction of geo-
metrical construction details” are advised. The recommended diagnosis methods and
repair techniques coincide with those prescribed for A-A2. That is a logical outcome,
as both defects are associated in terms of causes and effects. Hence, both defects
should be analysed together and repairs should be coordinated.
As for “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, it affects 19–41% of the
inspected architectural concrete surfaces, with variable relevance of the effects. The
front façade surface is considered in level 2 of urgency of repair, while side and rear
façades’ surfaces are in level 3, according to the system’s criteria for defect A-B1.5
On all the analysed surfaces, the biological growth (A-B3) phenomenon is asso-
ciated with moisture and sunlight exposure conditions, which, combined with the
absence of any type of coping on the top of the façades and lack of maintenance,
create good conditions for the development of fungi, mould or lichens (Fig. 7.12).
Thus, direct causes “C-D2 Excessive, insufficient or differentiated solar radiation”
and “C-D9 Wet-dry cycles” are identified in the three assessed surfaces, while causes
“C-A13 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of singularities” and “C-D6 Accumula-
tion of dust dirt or small solid particles” are identified as indirect. On the front façade,
cause “C-D3 Chemical action of organic compounds or dirt” is also identified as an
4 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in architectural concrete surfaces, may be of level
1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects affect more than 30% of the surface and have conditions
to progress, or are detected in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 2 defects affect more than
15% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
5 Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, in architectural concrete surfaces, may be of
level 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects affect at least 25% of the surface and have conditions
to progress. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B1.
a b
Fig. 7.12 Defects in architectural concrete surfaces: a wear in the front façade; and b efflorescence
in the rear façade; both photographs also show signs of biological growth
indirect cause. Instead, on the side and rear façades, cause “C-E2 Missing/inadequate
cleaning of debris” was considered the third indirect cause of A-B1.
If more data are considered useful on these architectural concrete surfaces, diag-
nosis methods “D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface temperature and
humidity” and “D-F4 Initial surface absorption test (ISAT) and Karsten-tube” are
advised, as they can provide information on the moisture, temperature and absorption
conditions of the surfaces and their surroundings.
Repair techniques “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application of a protective coat
(paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” and “R-D14 Correction of geo-
metrical construction details” were selected as adequate to tackle defects of type “A-
B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth” on all the inspected architectural concrete
surfaces.
Besides the mentioned defects (surface moisture, dirt and biological growth),
which were found in all the surfaces, the architectural concrete surface in the front
façade also showed signs of “A-C6 Scratches/grooves and deep wear” and, in the
one in the rear façade, “A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation” was
detected.
The signs of wear in the front façade are still at an initial stage, as they do not
stand out and only affect about 1% of the surface (Fig. 7.12, part a). Hence, A-C6
is considered to be a level 3 defect, in terms of urgency of repair, according to the
predetermined criteria.6
A-C6 is caused by “C-C12 Abrasion” and “C-D20 Acids in architectural concrete
surfaces”, as direct causes, and by “C-D1 Wind”, “C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt or
6 Defect “A-C6 Scratches/grooves and deep wear”, in architectural concrete surfaces, may be of
level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects affect more than 50% of the surface and have
conditions to progress, or have an exposed reinforcement. Level 2 defects affect more than 20% of
the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-C6.
420 7 Case Studies
small solid particles” and “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris”, as indirect

causes. The defect should be associated with the effect of seawater chlorides in
concrete, which are carried by the wind and are not cleaned, as no maintenance is
performed.
No diagnosis methods were recommended for A-C6 and, as for repair techniques,
“R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal,
biocide)” and “R-A17 Correction of surface irregularities or evening an architectural
concrete surface with mortar” are advised.
The occurrence of “A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation” in the
rear façade affects about 39% of the architectural concrete surface (Fig. 7.12, part b).
It is considered a level 2 defect in terms of urgency of repair, according to the criteria7
defined in the defect file. The efflorescence phenomenon is directly caused by “C-
D9 Wet-dry cycles” and indirectly by “C-A13 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of
singularities”, as no coping is observed in the parapet wall, “C-D1 Wind” and “C-
D20 Alkali-silica reaction, sulphates or chlorides in architectural concrete surfaces”,
as the seawater chlorides may be associated with this defect.
The chemical methods “D-J2 Test strips and field kit” and “D-J3 Phenolphthalein
indicator” are advised to help determine the origin of A-B3, as well as the degree
to which it affects the concrete surface. To repair the pathological phenomenon,
techniques “R-A1 Cleaning” and “R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint,
varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” are recommended.
7.2.2.3 Door and Window Frames
The inspected window frames are part of a large glazed area in the front façade of the
coffee house building, built in 2005. One of the windows is oriented southwest (non-
protected) and the other northwest (protected), and none is provided with shading
devices. The southwestern oriented window is in a central area of the curved façade,
while the northwestern oriented window is in a peripheral region of the façade.
Both windows go almost from the ground level to the top of the indoors room
(ceiling height), with 2.80 m high by 1.60 m wide, and are made in white lacquered
aluminium. The window oriented southwest is a casement window with two window-
panes, and the window oriented northwest is a sliding window also with two panes.
Both windows have simple glazing. As both windows are adjacent to the main room
of the coffee house, they are both subjected to high water vapour production, asso-
ciated with appliances (e.g. espresso machine and dishwasher) and the occupation
with people.
As an example, the inspection form data on the characteristics of the window
frame oriented northwest are shown in Fig. 7.13.
7 Defect “A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation”, in architectural concrete surfaces,
may be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects have conditions for the progression
of the phenomenon and affect more than 15% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining
cases of A-B3.
7.2 Coffee House
Fig. 7.13 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of one of the window frames
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Fig. 7.14 Appearance of the lower frame profiles of the casement window in the front façade
In terms of degradation, the sliding window only shows “A-A3 Dirt and accu-
mulation of debris”, while the casement window shows “A-A1 Leakage damp”,
“A-D7 Absence/loss of filling material in connecting elements or current joints” and
“A-D10 Clearances/gaps in door and window frames” (Fig. 7.14). Of these defects,
A-A18 and A-D79 are the most urgent to repair, belonging to level 1, according to the
predetermined criteria. Both defects are confined to the lower profiles of the window.
The leakages are directly caused by “C-B18 Deficient execution of the water
drainage system” and “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow” and indirectly associated
with “C-A22 Deficient specification of the clearances between the span and the frame
and between the frame and the leaf in window and door frames” and “C-B10 Incorrect
application of sealants”. The window frame did not have drainage holes originally,
which were drilled at a later stage. The clearances between the profiles are larger
than required.
“D-A3 Assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and alignments”, “D-
A5 crack width ruler and crack-measuring microscope” and “D-F2 Water jet”
should be performed to better determine the causes of the defect (size of gaps,
for instance) and assess the leakage level. A-A1 should be repaired with “R-A11
8 Defect “A-A1 Leakage damp”, in door and window frames, may be of level 1 or level 2 of urgency
of repair. Level 1 defects are those with conditions to progress or causing the degradation of materials
and coatings. Level 2 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A1.
9 Defect “A-D7 Absence/loss of filling material in connecting elements or current joints”, in door
and window frames, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that
occur combined with leakages. Level 2 defects have conditions to progress without leakages. Level
3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-D7.
Replacement or reapplication of the cladding/glazing (partially or completely)”, “R-

D6 Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing” and “R-
D11 Repair, insertion or replacement of sealants or insulation mastics in door and
window frames”, according to the results of the advised diagnosis methods.
A-D7, referring to the absence of sealants in the gaps between profiles, is directly
caused by “C-B10 Incorrect application of sealants” and “C-D2 Excessive, insuf-
ficient or differentiated solar radiation” and indirectly by “C-A22 Deficient speci-
fication of the clearances between the span and the frame and between the frame
and the leaf in window and door frames”, “C-B2 Use of inexperienced or poorly
qualified/unspecialised labour” and “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris”.
Diagnosis methods “D-A5 crack width ruler and crack-measuring microscope”
and “D-F2 Water jet” are considered to be helpful to the diagnosis of A-D7, in line
with what was advised for defect A-A1. To repair A-D7, technique “R-D11 Repair,
insertion or replacement of sealants or insulation mastics in door and window frames”
is recommended, which may also be helpful to solve the leakage problems.
7.2.2.4 Flat Roofs
Two flat roofs compose the roofing system of the coffee house building. The main flat
roof covers the coffee room and is shaped approximately as half an ellipse (Fig. 7.15).
The second flat roof has a slight slope and is part of a formal element that wraps the
building from a close distance. It works as a shading element for the skylights in the
main flat roof.
Both roofs were built in 2005, as part of the original building, without further
evidence of extensive maintenance. The main roof has a slope of 1% and covers
116 m2 . The second roof has a slope of 9% and a surface of 42 m2 , without any
thermal insulation, as this roof does not enclose an indoor area. It is not clear whether
the main roof is thermally insulated, as no design or construction data were available.
The roofs have no means of access, as well as no circulation paths. The flat roofs do
not have any protection included in the cladding system, except for the self-protection
in the bituminous membranes, which is not mechanically fastened. The main roof
has some protruding elements, such as skylights (already mentioned), equipment and
chimneys.
The data on the characteristics of the main flat roof are shown in Fig. 7.16,
illustrating a filled inspection form.
All the signs of degradation detected in both roofs require intervention in the short-
term (level 2 of urgency of repair). In both flat roofs, defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumu-
lation of debris”10 was detected. Additionally, in the main flat roof, the waterproofing
membrane showed “A-B4 Blistering/bulging”11 and, in the second flat roof, “A-B1
10 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency
of repair. Level 2 defects are those with conditions to progress, or occurring with accumulation of
water, or in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
11 Defect “A-B4 Blistering/bulging”, in flat roofs, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair.
Level 1 defects are those showing a high level of degradation of the cladding. Level 2 defects are
424 7 Case Studies
second roof
main roof
Fig. 7.15 Aerial view of the coffee house (adapted from Google Images and Maxar Technologies
2019)
Biodeterioration/biological growth”12 was detected. Nevertheless, the occurrence of

accumulation of debris (A-A3) in the main roof is the most evident defect.
Defect A-A3 in the main roof affects approximately 91% of the surface and results
from fallen pine cones and needles from the surrounding pine trees (Fig. 7.17). Hence,
the defect is directly caused by “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris” and
indirectly by “C-A7 Missing/incorrect design/detailing of pathway accessories for
maintenance access” and “C-D1 Wind”. No diagnosis methods were recommended
for this defect. As for repair techniques, “R-A1 Cleaning” is advised. Frequently
cleaning roofs and their drainage systems avoids further defects associated with
clogging.
those with conditions to progress, or occurring in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects
refer to the remaining cases of A-B4.
12 Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or level 3 of
urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those that may affect the conditions of waterproofing, or occur
in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B1.
7.2 Coffee House
Fig. 7.16 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the main flat roof
425
426 7 Case Studies
Fig. 7.17 Accumulation of pine cones and needles in the main flat roof
7.3 Detached House
The second analysed case study is a two-floor house also at S. Pedro de Moel,
a Portuguese summer village and beach (coordinates 39°45 14.8 N 9°01 38.6 W).
The house is mainly used for holidays and has a gross floor area of approximately
350 m2 (175 m2 per floor).
The inspected house is in the expansion area of the urbanisation plan of S. Pedro
de Moel, devised in 1964, mentioned in Sect. 7.2. The building dates back to 1968,
but the painted rendered façades show evidence of relevant maintenance.
As in the first case study, the inspection occurred in the morning of a sunny
summer day, with 24 °C, no rain and relative humidity of 54%. No contacts were
made with the residents, but some research was done about the urbanisation plan of
S. Pedro de Moel. A Panasonic LUMIX DMC-FZ28 camera, with 18x optical zoom,
was used in the inspection procedures, as well as a notebook, the inspection form of
the proposed building inspection system, a tape measure and a crack width ruler. No
personal protection equipment was used, as no risks were detected.
Considering the average size of family housing in Portugal (Instituto Nacional de

Estatística 2013), the inspected house may be regarded as large. Still, considering
the size of surrounding detached houses at S. Pedro de Moel, the house does not
stand out. All the façades are free from obstacles, in general terms, although the
surroundings of the rear façade were subjected to some construction works to build a
small above ground swimming pool. The inspection did not include access indoors.
7.3 Detached House 427
Fig. 7.18 General view of the inspected house
A pitched roof cladded with ceramic tiles covers the building. The façades are
rendered and painted white with occasional areas cladded with adhesive ceramic
tiling and natural stone (Fig. 7.18). The house has wooden window frames, which
are out of the scope of the inspection. The building has a compact shape and, on
the upper floor, large balconies surround most of the façades. In the rear façade, the
balcony is built in wood and is out of the scope of the inspection. Actually, the entire
rear façade was excluded from the inspection due to accessibility issues.
The inspected house is in a maritime environment, about 490 m from the shoreline.
It is highly exposed to humidity and subjected to severe wind-rain action, although
having low exposure to polluting agents, like the coffee house. The remaining envi-
ronmental characteristics of the inspected house are the same as those of the cof-
fee house (maximum and minimum temperatures, wind-rain zoning, and ground
roughness), mentioned in Sect. 7.2.1.

Condition
In the detached house, natural stone claddings, adhesive ceramic tiling, wall renders,
painted façades and external claddings of pitched roofs were inspected.
7.3.2.1 Natural Stone Claddings
Three surfaces cladded with natural stone were examined (Fig. 7.19): one in the
front façade (facing northwest) and two in the side façades (one facing southwest
and another northeast). They are part of the original building from 1968, without evi-
dence of relevant maintenance. In the northwest (33.09 m2 ) and northeast (20.24 m2 )
façades, the natural stone surfaces include areas right next to the ground and regions
from top to bottom of the façade. In the case of the northwest façade, the natural stone
428 7 Case Studies
a b c
Fig. 7.19 Partial views of the inspected natural stone claddings in the detached house: a front
façade (northwest); b side façade (northeast); c side façade (southwest)
surface even protrudes above the pitched roof. In the southwest façade (6.29 m2 ), the
natural stone surface includes only an area next to the ground.
The plates used in the natural stone claddings have variable sizes and are all beige
sandstone of sedimentary origin with a rough finish. It was not possible to assess the
thickness of the plates. The substrate is composed of brick masonry and reinforced
concrete and the plates are directly fastened, most likely using a bed of cement mortar.
Between the plates, large joints (about 10 mm wide) can be found, filled with cement
mortar painted white. Eaves or balconies protect some of the natural stone surfaces,
but others do not have any protection. To illustrate the section of the inspection form
referring to the characteristics of natural stone claddings, an example is shown in
Fig. 7.20.
In terms of degradation, defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris” was
detected in all surfaces, affecting 34–100% of the claddings. Additionally, the nat-
ural stone cladding in the front façade is also affected by “A-B1 Biodeteriora-
tion/biological growth” in about 11% of the surface (mainly the area above the
pitched roof). Considering the criteria to determine the urgency of repair of A-A313
and A-B114 defects, all A-A3 defects are in level 2 and A-B1 is a level 3 defect. In
the southwest façade, the natural stone cladding is entirely affected by defect A-A3.
This is probably associated with the location of the cladding, which is in a strip
next to the ground, subject to rainwater spatter. Hence, the dirt is directly caused
by “C-D5 Atmospheric contamination/pollution”, “C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt
or small solid particles” and “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow”. Indirectly, the
defect is associated with “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris”. No diagnosis
methods are recommended to assess the defect. On the other hand, repair techniques
“R-A1 Cleaning” and “R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-
repellent, antifungal, biocide)” are recommended to minimise the phenomenon and
its causes.
13 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in natural stone claddings, may be of level 2 or
level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects occur in areas of high aesthetical value, or affect more
than 30% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
14 Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, in natural stone claddings, may be of level 2
or level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects affect more than 30% of the surface. Level 3 defects
refer to the remaining cases of A-B1.
7.3 Detached House
Fig. 7.20 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the natural stone claddings in the front façade
429
430 7 Case Studies
7.3.2.2 Adhesive Ceramic Tiling
The adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces in the detached house façades are part of the
original building, from 1968, and do not show signs of any relevant maintenance.
The inspected surfaces are located in the front (northwest) and side (northeast and
southwest) façades and clad the external walls of the building and the balconies’
railings.
The surfaces vary from 1.38 to 14.84 m2 . All the tiles are identical: 17 cm by 6 cm,
red, with a smooth finish and a shape similar to a diamond (Fig. 7.21). Although this
cannot be confirmed accurately, the tiles were probably applied using simple bedding
over a masonry substrate. Between the tiles, no joints of any kind are observed.
All the adhesive ceramic tiling surfaces are affected by “A-A5 Spalling/peel-
ing/exfoliation and pop-outs” (Fig. 7.21), although in different degrees: the claddings
of balcony railings tend to show larger affected areas (52–88%). Additionally, the
surfaces protected by eaves show signs of “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”,
which are more evident due to the pyramidal shape of the tiles.
In terms of urgency of repair, A-A515 defects are all considered of level 2, while
A-A316 defects vary between levels 2 and 3.
A-A5 defect occurs without any other relevant signs of degradation (except for
the mentioned dirt). In the most exposed surfaces, pop-outs/exfoliation affecting the
total height of some tiles may be observed. “C-D13 Natural ageing” is a direct cause
Fig. 7.21 Diamond-shaped adhesive ceramic tiles showing defects
15 Defect “A-A5 Spalling/peeling/exfoliation and pop-outs”, in adhesive ceramic tiling, may be of
level 2 or level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those with conditions to progress, or
affecting more than 20% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A5.
16 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in adhesive ceramic tiling, may be of level 2 or
level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those affecting surfaces of high aesthetical value.
Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
of A-A5 and “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow” and “C-D14 thermal shock” are
indirect ones. No diagnosis methods are considered to be useful in these cases. As
for repair techniques, “R-A11 Replacement or reapplication of the cladding/glazing
(partially or completely)” is recommended. Although replacing the cladding is a
task to be taken into consideration, the unique characteristics of the tiles should be
emphasised. If replacement is the only available option, ideally, identical diamond-
shaped tiles should be used; otherwise the building loses one of its most distinguishing
marks.
7.3.2.3 Wall Renders and Painted Façades
Wall renders and painted façades are analysed together, as physically they correspond
to the same surfaces, which have a painted rendered cladding. Three painted rendered
façades were inspected, corresponding to the front (northwest) and side (northeast and
southwest) façades. Although the building was initially built with painted rendered
surfaces, there are signs of relevant maintenance, namely the reapplication of the
painted coating and correction of minor faults in the render. Hence, the construction
year of the painted rendered surfaces is 2016. In all façades, the painted rendered
surfaces do not reach the ground, as a base cladded with natural stone protects them.
Besides being adjacent to natural stone claddings, the painted rendered surfaces are
also adjacent to adhesive ceramic tiling. The northwest façade has a painted rendered
surface of 22.74 m2 , the northeast 22.84 m2 and the southeast 46.62 m2 .
The renders are of traditional type, cement-based, and there is no evidence of the
use of reinforcement meshes. The façades have a smooth finish and are painted white,
with an undetermined type of paint. The substrate of the render is brick masonry and
reinforced concrete. No joints are found in the renders and only the balconies have
a drip detail. Besides the protection in the base of the façades (in natural stone), the
façades are also protected by eaves. Only the rear façade, which is out of the scope
of the inspection, has gutters to collect rainwater in the eaves.
Examples of the sections of the inspection form referring to the characteristics of
wall renders and painted façades are shown in Figs. 7.22 and 7.23, respectively.
In terms of degradation, all painted rendered surfaces show “A-A3 Dirt and accu-
mulation of debris”,17 affecting 2–14% of the coatings, with an urgency of repair
ranging from level 1 (immediate intervention) to level 2 (intervention in the short-
term). Dirt is detected mainly below the balconies and windowsills, as well as in the
edges of balconies. In these regions, “A-A2 Surface moisture”18 is also identified,
with level 3 (need of intervention in the long-term) of urgency of repair.
17 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in painted façades, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of
urgency of repair. Level 1 defects affect 5% or more of the surface. Level 2 defects are old or affect
less than 5% of the surface. Level 3 defects are recent and local.
18 Defect “A-A2 Surface moisture”, in wall renders, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair.
Level 1 defects are those whose progression is starting to compromise the render’s performance.
Level 2 defects are those occurring in areas with high aesthetical value, with conditions to progress
and affecting more than 30% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A2.
432
Fig. 7.22 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the wall renders in the southwest façade
7 Case Studies
7.3 Detached House
Fig. 7.23 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the southwest painted façade
433
434 7 Case Studies
Fig. 7.24 Oriented cracking in the southwest façade (highlighted in green)
Additionally, in the northwest and southwest façades, “A-C2 Oriented cracking

on the current surface” is also detected, starting in the corners of windows (Fig. 7.24).
The identified A-C2 defects are included in level 3 of urgency of repair, according to
the predetermined criteria.19 The stereotomy of this building’s façades was designed
including panels of adhesive ceramic tiling adjacent to most windows. When these
panels are not present, there is a trend of occurrence of cracking starting in the corners
of windows, about 0.60 mm thick.
Oriented cracking is directly caused by “C-C9 Stress concentration within the
substrate” and “C-D7 Temperature” and indirectly by “CA8 Specification of inade-
quate or incompatible materials, or missing specification”, “C-A14 Missing/incorrect
design/detailing of mechanical reinforcement systems” and “C-D13 Natural ageing”.
For this type of defects, the use of “D-A5 Crack width ruler and crack-measuring
microscope” is advised. To repair A-C2 defects and their causes, technique “R-A13
Treatment of cracks or other holes in the cladding” is recommended.
7.3.2.4 External Claddings of Pitched Roofs
The inspected house is covered by a four-sided pitched roof built in 1968. The roof
is cladded with ceramic interlocking roof tiles and the slope is about 45%. Although
no access was available to the attic, considering the construction year, the bearing
19 Defect “A-C2 Oriented cracking on the current surface”, in wall renders, may be of level 1, 2
or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that occur in areas with high aesthetical value,
have conditions to progress, affect the substrate and have signs of damp (four conditions have to
be met). Level 2 defects are those that (option a) affect more than 50% of the surface (1 condition
to be met), or are those that (option b) occur in areas with high aesthetical value, have conditions
to progress, affect the substrate and more than 20% of the surface (4 conditions to be met). Level 3
defects refer to the remaining cases of A-C2.
structure of the roof is probably built in wood and the attic naturally ventilated.
Moreover, the roof is unlikely to have any thermal insulation or a vapour barrier.
The roof covers about 200 m2 and some protruding elements can be observed, like
chimneys and a wall. The perimeter of the pitched roof has eaves and the southeast
side has an external gutter and downpipe. As an example, the inspection form data
on the characteristics of the pitched roof are shown in Fig. 7.25.
“A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”20 and “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological
growth”21 were detected in the pitched roof, both being considered of level 2 of
urgency of repair (intervention in the short-term).
The accumulation of debris (A-A3) (Fig. 7.26) affects the whole roof and it is a
worrying defect, as it may result in rainwater drainage issues or even leakages. It
results from the general lack of periodic cleaning procedures (C-E2), which becomes
more evident due to the effect of the wind (C-D1) and fallen pine needles (C-D6)
from the surrounding trees. The defect should be repaired through adequate cleaning
(R-A1), being careful not to break any tiles. Additionally, to prevent further biologi-
cal growth, a biocide or antifungal protective coat should be applied in the cladding
(R-A2). Including the analysis of the techniques recommended for defect “A-B1
Biodeterioration/biological growth” in this context, if the decision-maker wishes
to deal with both issues, cleaning operations (R-A1) and the application of a pro-
tective coat (R-A2) would repair both issues, in practical terms. Still, defect A-B1
additionally requires the use of repair technique “R-A7 Application of ventilation
systems/accessories”, meaning that ventilation roof tiles would have to be used to
replace some of the pre-existent ones to increase the natural ventilation of the attic.
7.4 Museum
The Neorealism Museum is the third and last case study presented in this book. It
is located in the centre of Vila Franca de Xira, a city by the Tagus River and about
29 km from Lisbon, Portugal (coordinates 38°57 19.1 N 8°59 19.8 W).
In the 1980s, in Vila Franca de Xira, the idea of creating a museum dedicated to
neorealism was born within a group of intellectuals associated with the movement
(Museu do Neo-realismo 2019). In 1993, a documentation centre opened to the public
and the idea of the museum evolved around the archival and bibliographical areas.
This way, the museum started its collections including a vast range of documents.
After a long period operating in temporary facilities, in 2007, the Municipality of
20 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in external claddings of pitched roofs, may be
of level 2, 3 or 4 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects occur with leakages, or have conditions to
progress. Level 3 defects occur in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 4 defects refer to the
remaining cases of A-A3.
21 Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, in external claddings of pitched roofs, may
be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects have conditions to progress, or show
accumulation of water, or occur in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the
remaining cases of A-B1.
436
Fig. 7.25 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the external cladding of the pitched roof
7 Case Studies
7.4 Museum 437
Fig. 7.26 Accumulation of debris in the pitched roof
Vila Franca de Xira opened the new building of the Neorealism Museum, designed
by architect Alcino Soutinho.
The inspection to the Neorealism Museum occurred in the afternoon of the 18th of
September 2019, in a partially overcast day, with 26 °C, no rain and relative humidity
of 54%. The inspection was made under the supervision of the museum’s staff, who
kindly supplied information about the building. The same camera and equipment
used in the previous inspections, described in Sects. 7.2 and 7.3, were also used to
inspect this museum.
The museum building fills the corner between one of the main streets of Vila Franca
de Xira and a secondary street. The building has three floors above the ground
floor and an underground floor, occupying a plot of about 755 m2 . Only the façades
facing north and southeast are completely free from obstacles, as the remaining are
connected to the surrounding buildings. Those façades are cladded with an external
thermal insulation composite system (ETICS), except on the ground floor, where
windows and natural stone claddings were applied. Additionally, large glazed areas
supported by a metallic bearing structure characterise the building’s front and side
façades. However, the glazing is out of the scope of the inspection. The roof is flat
and accessible for the museum staff.
Although the museum building is located in an urban environment, thus with
low exposure to humidity, it is only about 270 m from the Tagus river. It has high
exposure to polluting agents, as the building is by a main artery of the city with
heavy traffic. Additionally, Vila Franca de Xira is a highly industrialised region,
438 7 Case Studies
constituting another source of pollution. As for typical temperatures, in the winter, a

minimum temperature of 0 °C and, in the summer, a maximum temperature of 40 °C
characterise the municipality of Vila Franca de Xira. As for wind-action, the location
is considered to belong to zone B due to its proximity to the estuary of the Tagus
River. In terms of ground roughness, the area belongs to category IV (CEN 2010),
as the building is located in a densely urbanised area.

Condition
Natural stone claddings, ETICS, a door frame and a flat roof were inspected at the
museum building.
7.4.2.1 Natural Stone Claddings
The front façade (facing southeast) and the side façade (facing north) have surfaces
cladded with natural stone (Fig. 7.27). In both façades, those surfaces are found at the
ground floor level, which, as the base of the building, contrasts with the remaining
areas of the façades. The inspected surfaces were built in 2007 without any subsequent
significant interventions.
In the front and side façades, 14 and 18.36 m2 of streaked white marble with a
smooth finish were inspected, respectively. In the front façade, the stone plates are
1.60 m wide by 1.50 m high and in the side façade 1.80 m wide by 1.50 m high.
However, in the side façade, the height of the lower row of stone plates varies due
a b
Fig. 7.27 Partial views of the inspected natural stone claddings at the museum: a front façade
(southeast); and b side façade (north)
7.4 Museum 439
to the slope of the street. Although the stone plates may be considered large, they
are only 2 cm thick. The stone plates are directly fastened to the substrate with an
undetermined material and the movement joints between plates are open and about
5 mm wide, without any filling material.
As for the degradation of the natural stone claddings, only defect “A-A3 Dirt and
accumulation of debris” was detected, affecting the bottom of the cladding (20%
of the surfaces in the front façade and 24% of the surfaces in the side façade). As
the urgency of repair of A-A3 in natural stone claddings varies according to the
aesthetical value of the façade,22 dirt in the front façade is considered more urgent
(level 2) than that in the side façade (level 3), although the severity of the defect in
both façades is very similar.
The dirt detected in the natural stone claddings seems to be associated with dirty
spatter from rainwater accumulated on the sidewalk, reaching the stone plates next
to the ground. Hence, A-A3 is directly caused by “C-D6 Accumulation of dust dirt
or small solid particles” and “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow” and indirectly
caused by “C-E2 Missing/inadequate cleaning of debris”. No additional tests are
considered necessary and repair techniques “R-A1 Cleaning” and “R-A2 Applica-
tion of a protective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” are
recommended.
7.4.2.2 ETICS
The inspected ETICS surfaces were built in 2007 and were not subjected to relevant
maintenance since. Three ETICS surfaces were inspected (Fig. 7.28): two on the
front façade and one on the side façade.
a b c
Fig. 7.28 General views of the ETICS surfaces inspected in the museum: a recessed surface on
the front façade (east); b main surface of the front façade (southeast); and c side façade (north)
22 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in natural stone claddings, may be of level 2 or
level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects occur in areas of high aesthetical value, or affect more
than 30% of the surface. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
440 7 Case Studies
On the front façade, a smaller recessed surface facing east (18.13 m2 ) and a larger
main surface facing southeast (148.89 m2 ) were inspected. On the side façade, facing
north, a surface of 279.4 m2 was checked. All the surfaces are white and composed
by the most common type of ETICS: a thermal insulation layer bonded to a substrate,
cladded with a reinforced base coat and finished with a monolayer pigmented coat.
The top of the façades ends with parapet walls with metallic coping and the ETICS
surfaces never reach the ground level.
The section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of the main
surface of the front façade is exemplified in Fig. 7.29.
Several defects were detected in the ETICS surfaces, but only one was found
in all the inspected surfaces: “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”. In the sur-
faces on the front façade, this defect is even considered of level 1 of urgency of
repair, according to the predetermined criteria.23 A light layer of dirt is spread all
over the surfaces (affecting 46–83% of surfaces), except in regions with signs of
water runoff, mainly at the top of the façades, which washed away the dirt layer
(leached areas). In the main surface of the front façade, although circumscribed,
there are more pronounced dirty areas, as a result of the deficient coping of the para-
pet wall of a balcony (Fig. 7.30). In this specific area, water runoff does not wash
away dirt, but, instead, it promotes its occurrence. So, “C-D6 Accumulation of dust
dirt or small solid particles” is the direct cause of A-A3, while “C-D5 Atmospheric
contamination/pollution”, “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow” and “C-E2 Miss-
ing/inadequate cleaning of debris” are the indirect causes. To better assess the dirt
phenomena, diagnosis method “D-C1 Measurement of the ambient and/or surface
temperature and humidity” is recommended and, to repair the defect and eliminate
its causes, techniques “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application of a protective coat
(paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” and “R-A12 Application of a
new (adequate) cladding/finishing coat over the existent/replacement” may be used.
Defect “A-A2 Surface moisture” was detected on the main surfaces of the front
and side façades as a result of water runoff from the top of the façades. Still, instead
of promoting the accumulation of dirt in the affected regions, the water runoff washes
away accumulated dust on the façades’ surfaces, except in a small area in the main
surface of the front façade, as mentioned (Fig. 7.30). In the front façade, according to
the criteria to determine the urgency of repair,24 A-A2 should be repaired immediately
(level 1), while in the side façade, it should be repaired in the short-term (level 2).
The cause “C-D8 Presence of rainwater or snow” is directly associated with A-A2
23 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in ETICS, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency
of repair. Level 1 defects are those detected in areas of high aesthetical value, generalised or with
conditions to progress. Level 2 defects are those detected in areas of medium or low aesthetical
value and generalised, or detected in areas of high or medium aesthetical value and circumscribed.
Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
24 Defect “A-A2 Surface moisture”, in ETICS, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair.
Level 1 defects are those detected in areas of high aesthetical value, generalised or with conditions
to progress. Level 2 defects are those detected in areas of medium or low aesthetical value and
generalised, or detected in areas of high or medium aesthetical value and circumscribed. Level 3
defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A2.
7.4 Museum
Fig. 7.29 Section of the inspection form with data on the characteristics of one of the ETICS surfaces
441
442 7 Case Studies
Fig. 7.30 Surface moisture, dirt, colour changes, oriented cracking and flaws in a tail-end in the
main ETICS surface of the front façade
and “C-E1 Inexistent or inadequate maintenance” is considered an indirect cause. To

collect more data about the surface moisture, “D-C1 Measurement of the ambient
and/or surface temperature and humidity” should be performed.
To correct the defect and prevent its development, “R-A2 Application of a pro-
tective coat (paint, varnish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)” is recommended.
Defect “A-C7 Warpage, swelling, deformation and other flatness deficiencies”
was only detected on the ETICS surfaces of the front façade. However, it may also
be present on the surface of the side façade, but the lighting conditions did not allow
to confirm its occurrence. Flatness deficiencies are easier to identify when solar
radiation is lower, but, in a north-oriented façade such as the side façade, those ideal
conditions may never be achieved. Still, in the front façade, A-C7 is considered a
level 1 defect in terms of urgency of repair, according to the predetermined criteria.25
A-C7 affects between 31 and 52% of the surfaces and is probably a direct result of
“C-B19 Deficient fastening” and “C-B33 Deficient execution of the finishing coat in
ETICS” and an indirect effect of “C-B3 Deficient application of the ventilation and
thermal insulation elements”. The flatness issues should be further documented with
method “D-A3 Assessment of the slope, flatness, orthogonality and alignments” if
adequate access means to the façade are provided. Finally, if the issues are confirmed,
a new adhesive material or mechanical anchors (R-B13) should be applied or, in more
severe cases, the cladding should be partially replaced (R-A11).
25 Defect “A-C7 Warpage, swelling, deformation and other flatness deficiencies”, in ETICS, may be
of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that occur combined with cracking
in areas of high aesthetical value or affecting more than 5% of the surface. Level 2 defects are that
occur combined with accumulation of dust or in areas of high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects
refer to the remaining cases of A-C7.
7.4 Museum 443
Fig. 7.31 Partial view of the main surface of the front façade with oriented cracking highlighted
in blue and efflorescence stains circled in red
Additionally, other defects were detected in the ETICS surfaces: “A-A4 Colour
changes” (Fig. 7.30), “A-B3 Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence and carbonation”
(Fig. 7.31), “A-C1 Mapped cracking”, “A-C2 Oriented cracking on the current sur-
face” (Figs. 7.30 and 7.31), “A-D1 Flaws in tail-end elements” (Fig. 7.30) and very
limited cases of “A-C5 Wear or scaling of the finishing coat” and “A-C8 Material
gap/puncture”.
7.4.2.3 Door and Window Frames
The inspected door frame constitutes the main entrance of the Neorealism Museum
(Fig. 7.32, part a).
It was built in 2007, like the whole building, and was not submitted to relevant
maintenance ever since. The door is oriented east and, considering the surrounding
urban environment, it is in a protected region of the façade (not exceeding the height
of buildings within 15 m). The inspected door is composed of two side hung leaves,
each 0.90 m wide by 2.00 m high, built in steel. The steel seems to have only a standard
factory applied treatment, slightly textured, not using any additional finishing coat
(like paint or lacquering). Steel is used not only as a frame but also to partially fill
the door surface combined with simple glazing.
444 7 Case Studies
a b
Fig. 7.32 Inspected door frame in the main entrance of the museum: a general view; and b detail
of a loose sealant of the glazed surface
Regarding degradation, “A-A4 Colour changes”,26 “A-B5 Corrosion on the current

surface”27 and “A-D7 Absence/loss of filling material in connecting elements or
current joints”28 were detected, all considered level 2 defects in terms of urgency
of repair. As the colour changes stains are superficial, and the corrosion is in a
delimited small area and appears to be in its early stages, the loss of sealants in the
joints between the glass and the steel frame is the most worrying defect (Fig. 7.32,
part b), as immediate consequences may arise (e.g. leakages). A-D7 was probably
caused by “C-B10 Incorrect application of sealants” and “C-C11 Vibrations”, as an
indirect effect of “C-E1 Inexistent or inadequate maintenance”. To determine the risk
of occurrence of leakages, diagnosis method “D-F2 Water jet” should be performed.
To repair the defect, the sealants should be inserted back in their slots or replaced
(R-D11).
7.4.2.4 Flat Roofs
A large flat roof constitutes the main roofing system of the Neorealism Museum
(Fig. 7.33, part a). A smaller flat roof covers a mezzanine and technical areas, but
26 Defect “A-A4 Colour changes”, in door and window frames, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency
of repair. Level 1 defects are those that imply the occurrence of abundant leakages. Level 2 defects
have conditions to progress and/or occur in areas of high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to
the remaining cases of A-A4.
27 Defect “A-B5 Corrosion on the current surface”, in door and window frames, may be of level 1, 2
or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that imply the occurrence of abundant leakages.
Level 2 defects have conditions to progress and/or occur in areas of high aesthetical value. Level 3
defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B5.
28 Defect “A-D7 Absence/loss of filling material in connecting elements or current joints”, in door
and window frames, may be of level 1, 2 or 3 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that
occur combined with leakages. Level 2 defects have conditions to progress without leakages. Level
3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-D7.
7.4 Museum 445
a b
Fig. 7.33 Inspected flat roof: a partial view with a railing on the left; and b the roof drain without
a dome strainer, additionally showing vegetation growth around the drain and biological growth on
the surface of the concrete paving slabs
it is inaccessible, so, only the main flat roof was inspected. It was built in 2007 and
no significant interventions were performed ever since. The flat roof has a slope of
1% and covers a surface of 412 m2 . The roofing system is inverted (with thermal
insulation on top of waterproofing) and includes the heavy protection of prefabricated
concrete paving slabs. The heavy protection also allows walking on the roof, as it is
accessible from a technical area of the museum. Railings outline specific paths. The
type of waterproofing is unknown, as it is not exposed in any part of the roof. The
thermal insulation is made with 4 cm thick extruded polystyrene. The perimeter of
the roof is outlined by low parapet walls with metal coping.
In general terms, the flat roof is in a good conservation state, but still, some defects
with variable severity, extent and urgency of repair were detected. The most urgent is
“A-D13 Inadequate operation of elements of the rainwater drainage system”29 (level
1), followed by “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”30 and “A-B2 Vegetation
growth”31 (level 2) and, finally, by “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”32 and
“A-C3 Fracture or splintering on the current surface”33 (level 3).
29 Defect “A-D13 Inadequate operation of elements of the rainwater drainage system”, in flat roofs,
may be of level 1 or level 2 of urgency of repair. Level 1 defects are those that occur with accumulation
of debris or clogging or absence of roof drains. Level 2 defects occur in roofs with the incorrect
application of the waterproofing membrane or with an insufficient slope.
30 Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency
of repair. Level 2 defects are those with conditions to progress, or occurring with accumulation of
water, or in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-A3.
31 Defect “A-B2 Vegetation growth”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or level 3 of urgency of repair.
Level 2 defects are those that may affect the conditions of waterproofing, or occur in areas with
high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B2.
32 Defect “A-B1 Biodeterioration/biological growth”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or level 3 of
urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those that may affect the conditions of waterproofing, or occur
in areas with high aesthetical value. Level 3 defects refer to the remaining cases of A-B1.
33 Defect “A-C3 Fracture or splintering on the current surface”, in flat roofs, may be of level 2 or
level 3 of urgency of repair. Level 2 defects are those occurring with water leakages. Level 3 defects
refer to the remaining cases of A-C3.
446 7 Case Studies
A-A3 refers to limited debris, probably from maintenance materials left on the
roof, and residual guano. A fracture was only detected in a concrete paving slab
and seems to be a result of an accident. Biological growth is detected throughout
the roof surface as a consequence of wet-dry cycles. It is more accentuated in the
northern area of the roof, as the mezzanine floor walls cast a shadow on the roof.
Vegetation growth is detected around every roof drain (Fig. 7.33, part b), as water
tends to accumulate in those areas. Moss is also identified in some joints between
paving slabs.
Defect A-D13 refers to a broken roof drain, whose dome strainer is missing
(Fig. 7.33, part b). The defect was probably caused by “C-C8 Accidental collisions
with the cladding”, as it is a single case. Indirectly, it was also caused by “C-E1 Inex-
istent or inadequate maintenance”, as the roof drain was not replaced. Technique “R-
D6 Application/repair/replacement/cleaning of drainage systems/plumbing” should
repair the defect.
7.5 Analysis of the Inspection Procedures
In general terms, a building inspection should consider four broad steps: preparation;
on-site inspection; analysis of collected data; and communication of findings.
The inspection should be prepared keeping in mind the outlined objectives. Before
visiting the site, the surveyor should gather as much information on the building as
possible. Documents, such as drawings and construction records referring to the
design and construction stages, and maintenance records are preferred, but oral tes-
timonies from tenants and owners, for instance, are welcome. Moreover, depending
on the context, the local records office may be worth a visit to date the building and
find the building permits. Local libraries or archives may provide information on the
city growth and its history. Then, the surveyor should plan the visit to the site con-
sidering: (i) weather conditions that do not hinder inspection procedures and allow
observing any issues reported ahead; (ii) the availability of the building, possibly
requiring someone to provide access. Then, equipment used in the inspection should
be prepared, with particular concern for any equipment running on batteries that
may need charging or a spare set. A basic set of equipment should include, if possi-
ble: tape measure, spirit level, rubber hammer, camera, binoculars, flashlight/torch
(e.g. for attic inspection), compass (to identify the orientation of building elements),
clipboard with inspection forms and notebook, and pen or pencil. Finally, a surveyor
should always have a set of personal protective equipment at hand, including a safety
helmet, safety shoes, high visibility vest, face mask, gloves and goggles. In each sit-
uation, according to the assessment of risks before starting the inspection, a suitable
protective equipment should be worn.
So, before the actual on-site inspection begins, the risks for the surveyor should be
assessed according to the building’s safety conditions, considering the likelihood of
occurrence of fire, flooding, collapse, electrocution, falling from elevated locations,
stepping on pointed objects, bumping into blunt objects and finding asbestos and
7.5 Analysis of the Inspection Procedures 447
contaminated air. According to this assessment, preventive measures should be put

in place, like wearing personal protective equipment or restricting the scope of the
inspection.
The assessment of risks is also associated with the assessment of access means.
The preparation of the on-site building inspection should include preparing any sim-
ple means of access the surveyor may consider to be useful and safe, according to
the assessment of the building’s conditions. Still, a predominantly visual inspection,
which is the object of this book, may require a second visit to the site using more
complex access means, if necessary, authorised and within budget, according to the
observation conditions found to be mandatory to deliver a more accurate diagnosis.
Only after the communication of findings should more detailed diagnosis methods
be performed, if recommended by the surveyor and if the decision-maker follows
that recommendation.
The on-site inspection should be methodical and well organised. First, the weather
conditions should be registered, and the surroundings should be observed and pho-
tographed. Then, the building should be regarded as a whole, taking some general
photographs. Based on the general observation, the next inspection steps should fol-
low the shape of the building in a logical manner. Progressively, all the elements
composing the building envelope, in this case, should be inspected individually. For
each building element, the corresponding section of the inspection form should be
filled with the main features of the element and a general photograph should be
taken. For that building element, all the detected defects should be registered and
characterised in the corresponding section of the inspection form, including, at least,
some notes making an initial diagnosis. It may be useful to use some of the inspec-
tion equipment to help to identify the causes of the defects if the affected area is
accessible. A detailed photograph of each detected defect should be taken. Even if
only inspecting the building envelope, visiting some indoor areas may bring forth
useful information for the assessment of the envelope. For instance, a visit to the
attic or the uppermost floor will allow determining whether any leakages occur.
The analysis of the collected data, after the on-site inspection, allows a more
detailed evaluation of the findings. First, information like photographs and disperse
notes should be organised, matching the photos with written details. Any blank fields
of the inspection form should be filled, including the causes of defects, based on the
photographs, notes and on the defects–causes correlation matrix or on the defects’
files. Any further diagnosis methods considered useful should also be registered,
according to the defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix. And, according to
the defects–repair techniques correlation matrix, the adequate repair techniques for
the detected defects should be registered in the inspection form. Additionally, while
analysing the collected data, more defects may be detected, considering a more
serene assessment and the inter-defects correlation matrix. For each detected defect,
according to the information in the inspection form and with the help of the atlas of
defects, the urgency of repair should be determined.
The last step of inspection occurs after all the information has been gathered and
studied. It consists in communicating the findings to a client. That communication
is usually a report based on all the data, providing key indicators that will allow
448 7 Case Studies
the client to choose the adequate course of action. For instance, if roof leakages
of undetermined origin are reported, and if the client is the owner of the building,
performing the recommended diagnosis methods may be considered the way to go
next. On the other hand, in the same situation, but if the inspection has been requested
by a potential buyer of the building, this information may determine the cancellation
of the acquisition. In another instance, if extensive peeling of paint mainly associated
with ageing is reported, the owner of the building (the client) may consider that it
is better to immediately repaint the whole building, as no maintenance actions had
been performed for long.
7.6 Advantages and Limitations of Using an Inspection

System
The use of an inspection system to support building inspection procedures may help
to deconstruct, and, in a second stage, harmonise, the complex task of inspecting and
diagnosing the degradation condition of a building.
One of the main advantages of an inspection system such as the one proposed is
gathering a vast set of information on building pathology in a structured way, easy to
consult, and based on solid knowledge and experience. It should fill any gaps in the
surveyor’s expertise, assisting the procedures. It should also increase the objectivity
of observation, as some well-defined criteria guide the analysis of defects, such as
those limiting the levels of urgency of repair.
Nevertheless, a building inspection is still a complex task, and even with the help
of an inspection system some issues may arise. For instance, the on-site procedure is
physically tricky due to the combination of operations. In other words, simultaneously
observing the building elements, taking pictures, performing simple tests, taking
notes and, on top of that, filling an inspection form that may have several pages is
hard. So, the inspection form may serve as guidance during the inspection, but, if the
information is easy to fill afterwards, it might be left blank during fieldwork.
During the inspection of the case studies presented in Sects. 7.2–7.4, all the
detected defects could be framed within the proposed classification of defects of
the inspection system. That fact shows that the harmonisation of several specific
lists of defects into a broader list did not eliminate information. However, for some
detected defects with unusual characteristics, using the defects–causes correlation
matrix was not enough to determine their probable causes. It was necessary to go
through the list of causes and find those that applied to the each specific situation.
Weather conditions significantly influence the inspection, as they may highlight
or hide some defects. For instance, inspecting after a rainy period may reveal cracks
that, under direct sunlight, are almost undetectable. The classification of defects of
the inspection system helps one to be more alert towards the signs of those defects.
The inter-defects correlation matrix has a similar effect, as it warns the surveyor of
the high probability of detecting a given defect when another is also identified.
7.6 Advantages and Limitations of Using an Inspection System 449
The scope of the inspection system may be an issue during fieldwork. The pro-
posed inspection system is limited to six façade claddings, door and window frames
and roof claddings (flat and pitched roofs). Within that scope, the degradation mech-
anisms of some very specific or innovative materials may not have been considered,
especially if using the inspection system outside the geographical context for which
it was developed (in this case, Portugal). But, even in that geographical context, some
façade cladding materials are not included in the system, as they are not so common.
Still, it is possible to inspect buildings whose set of façade claddings is not entirely
covered by the proposed inspection system. In those cases, the surveyor should
take notes and try to use the classification lists to frame the detected degradation.
Additionally, the surveyor should refer to literature about that material/element.
Moreover, the surveyor, in any type of inspection, is always limited by the avail-
ability of means of access to the areas that need to be inspected and safety conditions
to use them, as mentioned in Sect. 7.5. Permission to visit some areas or to analyse
and photograph them, even if accessible, may also be necessary, depending on the
building.
Building inspections, once again like any type of inspection, may be limited by the
lack of information about some subjects (e.g. date and scope of the last maintenance
operations, or if any occurred) and may require the surveyor to investigate and carry
out some research (as mentioned in Sect. 7.5), with or without the help of owners,
tenants and public authorities.
7.7 Examples of How to Convey Information
After collecting all the information about the characteristics and degradation condi-
tion of a building, the surveyor should prepare a report based on that information.
That report should be objective and rationally structured, presenting information to
decision-makers in such a way that maintenance decisions are easier to make and
prioritise.
Pictures and statistical analyses in tables and charts are appealing means to
communicate data.
The study of the deterioration of an inspected building element should be presented
in a few lines of text, identifying the detected defects and their causes and advising
on the execution of supplemental tests to improve the diagnosis, if applicable, as
well as on adequate repair techniques to mend the pathological phenomena. Still,
that text would make a more significant impact on the reader if illustrated with a set
of general and detailed photographs representing the analysed building element and
its degradation (Fig. 7.34).
Tables are a structured means of presenting information and analyses. They may
represent a complete set of data that is only partially mentioned in the text. That way,
decision-makers are given all the details and can autonomously deepen the analysis
as needed. Tables 7.1 and 7.2 exemplify types of inspection data that can be shown
in tables. The examples refer to information gathered during the inspections of the
450 7 Case Studies
a b
c d e
Fig. 7.34 Set of pictures illustrating an ETICS surface: a general view; b detail of the lower tail-
end with visible cracking; c detail of the intersection with a parapet wall with visible cracking;
d rectangle-shaped cracked area with efflorescence; and e gap in the base and finishing coats
case studies presented in Sects. 7.2–7.4. In Table 7.1, an analysis according to the
orientation of façades is shown, highlighting the high levels of affected area in façades
facing southeast, east and north. As for Table 7.2, it shows how different types of
building elements are affected by different extents of defects. External claddings of
pitched roofs, ETICS and adhesive ceramic tiling are highlighted.
Charts contain graphical information that is very engaging for readers, as great
disparities or homogeneous distributions, for instance, are immediately perceived.
According to the size of the sample, the statistical analyses represented in charts may
be more simple or complex. For example, a simple analysis of the absolute frequency
of recommendation of the different types of diagnosis methods may be represented in
a bar chart (Fig. 7.35, part a). Additionally, a bar chart may also represent the relative
frequency of recommendation of those types of methods in the sample of detected
defects (absolute frequency divided by the number of detected defects) (Fig. 7.35,
part b). The examples provided in Fig. 7.35 refer to the sample of case studies in
Sects. 7.2–7.4. Many detected defects did not need the execution of further tests to
improve the diagnosis (0.82 diagnosis methods were advised per defect), so, many
types of diagnosis methods were not considered in the sample. Additionally, this
result may be associated with a small sample (only three buildings and 31 building
elements) and a limited variety of detected defects.
Table 7.1 Area of inspected façade building elements according to the orientation of the façade
Type of data Orientation of inspected façade building elements
N NW W SW S SE E NE Total
7.7 Examples of How to Convey Information
Inspected area (m2 ) 297.76 105.19 0.00 128.08 0.00 173.37 21.73 90.69 816.82
Area affected by defects (m2 ) 365.97 42.70 0.00 42.73 0.00 337.62 26.70 36.11 851.83
Relative area affected by defectsa (%) 123 41 0 33 0 195 123 40 104
a As defects may overlap, the relative affected area may be higher than 100%
451
452 7 Case Studies
Table 7.2 Area of inspected

Type of Inspected Affected area Relative
building elements according
building area [m2 ] [m2 ] affected
to the type of building
element areaa [%]
element
NSC 92.2 38.74 42
ACT 48.3 45.011 93
WR 92.2 1.564 2
PF 92.2 5.58 6
ETICS 446.4 708.39 159
ACS 33.0 50.71 154
DWF 12.6 1.832 15
ECPR 198.0 346.5 175
FR 570.0 424.73 75
Total 1584.8 1623.1 102
a Asdefects may overlap, the relative affected area may be higher
than 100%
a NSC natural stone claddings; ACT adhesive ceramic tiling;
WR wall renders; PF painted façades; ETICS external

thermal insulation composite systems; ACS architectural concrete
surfaces; DWF door and window frames; ECPR external
claddings of pitched roofs; FR flat roofs
In a similar type of chart, the urgency of repair of detected defects may also be
represented (Fig. 7.36). This analysis distributes the number of detected defects of
each type by the levels of urgency of repair, according to the observations. In the case
referring to the sample of cases studies, in Fig. 7.36, it is shown that while all A-A1,
A-D7 and A-D13 defects need immediate intervention, all A-C3, A-C5, A-C6 and
A-C8 defects only need intervention in the long-term. Additionally, no observations
of levels 0 and 4 of urgency of repair (the most and the least urgent, respectively)
were detected.
A pie chart may be useful to understand, for instance, the groups of causes that
are influencing the degradation of the sample (Fig. 7.37). In the example, using the
sample of case studies, environmental errors are the type of causes most associated
with the detected defects, constituting more than half of the total number of causes.
Another type of bar chart, organising results by groups of defects, may show
how the different groups of causes contribute to the occurrence of each group of
defects. The example in Fig. 7.38 shows how, in the sample of case studies, about two
environmental causes are associated with each detected defect of physical nature. The
numbers are even more impressive in defects of chemical nature, each one associated
with about 2.5 environmental causes.
Finally, charts may represent more specific analyses, such as those referring to
a single type of defect and representing, for instance, the frequency of recommen-
dation of repair techniques to eliminate that type of defect. An example is shown
in Fig. 7.39. Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris” was the most common
7.7 Examples of How to Convey Information 453
D-J3 1 D-J3 1%
D-J2 2 D-J2 3%
D-J1 D-J1
D-I2 D-I2
D-I1 D-I1
D-H1 D-H1
D-G9 D-G9
D-G8 D-G8
D-G7 D-G7
D-G6 2 D-G6 3%
D-G5 D-G5
D-G4 D-G4
D-G3 D-G3
D-G2 D-G2
D-G1 D-G1
D-F4 9 D-F4 13%
D-F3 D-F3
D-F2 4 D-F2 6%
D-F1 D-F1
D-E1 D-E1
D-D3 D-D3
D-D2 D-D2
D-D1 1 D-D1 1%
D-C3 D-C3
D-C2 D-C2
D-C1 21 D-C1 30%
D-B6 D-B6
D-B5 D-B5
D-B4 D-B4
D-B3 D-B3
D-B2 D-B2
D-B1 1 D-B1 1%
D-A8 D-A8
D-A7 D-A7
D-A6 D-A6
D-A5 9 D-A5 13%
D-A4 1 D-A4 1%
D-A3 4 D-A3 6%
D-A2 3 D-A2 4%
D-A1 D-A1
0 10 20 30 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
a b
Fig. 7.35 Absolute frequency of recommendation of each type of diagnosis method (a) and relative
frequency of recommendation of each type of diagnosis method according to the number of detected
defects (b)
in the sample of case studies, being detected in 71% of inspected building elements
(22 observations). To mend such defects, only four types of repair techniques were
considered: “R-A1 Cleaning”, “R-A2 Application of a protective coat (paint, var-
nish, water-repellent, antifungal, biocide)”, “R-A12 Application of a new (adequate)
cladding/finishing coat over the existent/replacement” and “R-D14 Correction of
geometrical construction details”. Of those, R-A1 was recommended in all instances
of A-A3 and R-A2 was prescribed for more than half of that sample (Fig. 7.39).
454 7 Case Studies
A-D10
A-D6
A-C8
A-C6
A-C3
A-C1
A-B4
A-B2
A-A5
A-A3
A-A1
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
0 1 2 3 4
Fig. 7.36 Estimated urgency of repair of each type of defect detected in the sample. 0—imminent
danger, contingency measures needed; 1—need of immediate intervention; 2—need of intervention
in the short-term; 3—need of intervention in the long-term; 4—no urgent need, assess in the next
inspection
Regardless of the means chosen to communicate the inspection results, the sur-
veyor should make an effort to present the data appealingly and precisely. The col-
lected information allows making analyses to characterise the inspected sample in
terms of construction features, degradation and future course of action. Complement-
ing the text with pictures, tables and charts will provide decision-makers with more
complete and understandable information.
In this chapter, with the inspection of three buildings of different sizes and func-
tional programmes, the use of the proposed inspection system is implemented and
demonstrated. The analysis of a coffee house, detached house and museum follows
the structure of the information records defined by the inspection form. The build-
ings and their surroundings are characterised, and then information about each type
of building elements is given in more detail. The most urgent or particular defects
detected in each type of element are highlighted.
Then, a general guide for inspecting buildings with the help of an inspection
system is provided. And, considering the experience of inspecting the case studies, a
11%
20% C-A
C-E
12%
C-B
C-C 5%
C-D
51%
Fig. 7.37 Relative frequency of occurrence of the groups of causes. C-A—design errors; C-B—exe-
cution errors; C-C—mechanical actions; C-D—environmental actions; C-E—use and maintenance
errors
3.0
2.54
2.5
2.03
2.0
1.5
1.25
0.92 1.00 1.00
1.0
0.82
0.69 0.71 0.71
0.58 0.58
0.5 0.46
0.26 0.33 0.29
0.23
0.10
0.0
A-A A-B A-C A-D
C-A C-B C-C C-D C-E
Fig. 7.38 Relative contribution of the groups of causes to the occurrence of each group of defects.
A-A—defects of physical nature; A-B—defects of chemical nature; A-C—defects of mechani-
cal nature; A-D—other defects; C-A—design errors; C-B—execution errors; C-C—mechanical
actions; C-D—environmental actions; C-E—use and maintenance errors
456 7 Case Studies
Fig. 7.39 Relative Defect “A-A3 Dirt and accumulation of debris”

frequency of
recommendation of repair
techniques in the 22 R-D14
observations of defect “A-A3
Dirt and accumulation of
debris”. R-A1—cleaning;
R-A2—application of a R-A12
protective coat (paint,
varnish, water-repellent,
antifungal, biocide);
R-A12—application of a R-A2
new (adequate)
cladding/finishing coat over
the existent/replacement;
R-A1
R-D14—correction of
geometrical construction
details 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
set of advantages and limitations associated with the use of the proposed inspection
system is outlined.
Finally, using the sample of case studies, and considering the need of commu-
nicating the findings of a building inspection, examples of how information can be
conveyed are provided.
References
Barros AN de (1989) Subsídios para uma monografia de S. Pedro de Moel (Subsidies for a
monograph of S. Pedro de Moel), 2nd ed. Artur Neto de Barros, Marinha Grande, Portugal
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dgterritorio.pt/a_dgt/outras_estruturas/programa_polis/. Accessed 30 Aug 2019
European Committee for Standardization (2010) EN 1991-1-4:2005/A1:2010 Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures—Part 1–4: General actions—Wind actions. European Committee for Standardiza-
tion, Brussels, Belgium
European Committee for Standardization (2016) EN 206:2013 + A1:2016 Concrete—Specification,
Belgium
Google Images, Maxar Technologies (2019) Google Maps 39°45 27.9 N 9°01 41.2 W. In: Google
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Chapter 8
The Way Forward
Abstract The final chapter of the book defines future development paths that may
be followed to keep on upgrading and adjusting the proposed building inspection
system. It is suggested to: create a user-friendly intuitive computational tool based
on the inspection system; add service life prediction and maintenance planning capa-
bilities to that tool; customise the building inspection system according to different
inspection objectives; and adapt the system to the specificity of more regions.
8.1 Introduction
This book proposed an inspection system for the building envelope. More than con-
sidering it a crystallised and immutable solution, the inspection system may always
be susceptible to improvement, updates and adaptations. Additionally, the authors
intend to inspire the development of other inspection systems in line with different
needs.
Chapter 1 introduced building inspection as the main subject of the book and
contextualised it within the life-cycle of buildings. In that context, building inspection
are relevant for the operation and maintenance stage, and, considering the focus of
the book, the building envelope was highlighted. The methodology to develop the
proposed global inspection system for the building envelope was described in Chap. 1.
In Chap. 2, the technology associated with each type of building element included
in the scope of the research was presented. At least general, and many times more
detailed, technological and practical construction concepts are necessary to make
a technical inspection of buildings focusing on building pathology. Hence, the
main materials, design and execution guidelines associated with nine types of non-
structural elements applied on the building envelope are described. This perspective
was intended for surveyors to improve the understanding of building pathology and
degradation mechanisms.
Building pathology was the core of Chap. 3. Considering the scope of the pro-
posed inspection system for the building envelope, classification lists of defects and
of probable causes were proposed, and the criteria to build them were also described.
Then, a correlation matrix between defects and probable causes of defects was put

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42446-6_8
458 8 The Way Forward
forward, intertwining effects and their origin. Additionally, an inter-defects corre-

lation matrix was proposed, conveying the simultaneous or sequential occurrence
of defects, expressed in terms of probability of occurrence. Throughout Chap. 3,
building pathology phenomena were discussed and the mechanics of classification
lists and correlation matrices and of their application were analysed.
Chapter 4 was dedicated to elaborating on diagnosis methods that may be useful
for more accurate findings and that may be performed on site. A classification list
of in situ diagnosis methods was proposed within the scope of the global building
inspection system, as well as a defects–diagnosis methods correlation matrix. Some
of the most relevant diagnosis methods listed in the proposed classification were
described, as well as some of the correlations between diagnosis methods and defects.
As in Chap. 3, the criteria, mechanics and application of the classification list and
correlation matrix were discussed.
Repair techniques were the theme of Chap. 5. Within the scope of the inspection
system for the building envelope that the book proposes, a classification list of com-
mon repair techniques and a correlation matrix between defects and repair techniques
were put forward. Like in Chaps. 3 and 4, the criteria to build the classification list
and the correlation matrix were discussed, as well as their practical details and use.
Moreover, some of the broadest repair techniques were described, and relationships
between defects and the recommendation of repair techniques were analysed.
In Chap. 6, additional elements that are part of the proposed global inspection
system for the building envelope were presented. As elements to support inspection
procedures, the inspection system considers: individual files of each listed defect,
diagnosis method and repair technique; an atlas of defects, which illustrates and
records how to determine the urgency of repair of each type of defect classified in
each type of building element considered in the inspection system; the proposal of
an inspection form to be used during fieldwork, standardising the collection of data.
In Chap. 7, three case studies are used to illustrate how the proposed building
inspection system may be used. The non-structural building envelope of a coffee
house, a detached house, and a museum were inspected using the proposed standard-
ised inspection methods and system and an overview of the findings is presented.
The chapter also includes an analysis of: inspection procedures; and advantages and
limitations of using inspection systems such as the one proposed in the book. Finally,
examples of information presentation, supporting the communication of inspection
findings, are provided.
To sum up, the research presented in this book is a step forward in research
associated with building inspection and building pathology evaluation. To the best of
the authors’ knowledge, the proposed inspection system is the first in the literature
providing a more inclusive and standardised approach to the building envelope and
not restricted to a single building typology, providing knowledge- and experience-
based tools to the surveyor with the objective of obtaining more technically reliable
and unbiased inspection results.
8.1 Introduction 459
In the following sections, some ways of giving a logical sequence to the developed
work are suggested.
8.2 Development of a Software Tool
The proposed building inspection system has a methodological approach to the

inspection and diagnosis of the building envelope. The most relevant parameters
involved in building pathology are orderly defined and associated, allowing to
transpose the inspection system’s model to a digital tool.
Considering the proposed structure of collection of information (the inspection
form), the building inspection software should enable the creation of a database
storing all the relevant information about: (i) the inspection; (ii) the surroundings of
the building; (iii) the characteristics of the building; (iv) the characteristics of the
building elements; (v) the degradation of the building elements, including defects,
their causes and urgency of repair; and (vi) recommended diagnosis methods and
repair techniques. As a source of data for that first database, another one should
contain: (a) the classification of defects, probable causes, diagnosis methods and
repair techniques; (b) the correlation matrices between defects and probable causes,
diagnosis methods and repair techniques, as well as the inter-defects correlation
matrix; (c) files of defects, diagnosis methods and repair techniques; (d) the atlas
of defects. Then, the building inspection software should be able to automatically
generate a preliminary report for each inspection, supporting the surveyor’s criteria
and findings.
The envisioned building inspection software (Fig. 8.1) should take advantage of
the capabilities of mobile devices with internet access (Ferraz et al. 2016), making
(e)
computer
device (b)
server internet server internet
connection connection
(g)
(a)
(f)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 8.1 Provisional diagram of the building inspection software tool. (a) digital interface for
building inspection processes; (b) digital interface for the production of reports; (c) execution of
building inspection processes; (d) execution of reports’ production processes; (e) processes to access
the building inspection system; (f) processes to update the building inspection system; (g) datablocks
with the inspection system information
it possible to use such tools during fieldwork to collect information, which may
be analysed afterwards, possibly in another device. The use of building inspection
software through the internet should allow the databases to be centralised. This way,
access to the user’s database of inspections is provided anywhere with an internet
connection. Additionally, the system may be easily updated and its normal operation
conditions monitored.
Although building pathology analysis or inspection tools using information tech-
nology can be found in the literature (Flourentzos et al. 2000; Brandt and Rasmussen
2002; Flourentzou et al. 2002; Ribeiro and Cóias e Silva 2003; de Angelis and Ferro
2004; Freitas et al. 2007; Kim et al. 2008; Fong and Wong 2009; Chew 2010; Park
et al. 2013; Cacciotti et al. 2013; Chang and Tsai 2013; Agence Qualité Construction
2015; TNO et al. 2015; Lee et al. 2016; Society for the Protection of Ancient Build-
ings 2017), the proposed building inspection software would be distinguished by: (i)
the combination of elements aiding inspection procedures, like classification lists,
correlation matrices and detailed files; (ii) the inclusion of diagnosis methods and
repair techniques to determine the best course of action according to findings; (iii) the
integration of costs and time needed for repair activities; (iv) the standardisation of
procedures by using a comprehensive inspection form; (v) having been based on sta-
tistically validated relationships of defects with probable causes, diagnosis methods
and repair techniques.
This branch of research has already started, developing a web-based application in
Portuguese, as a starting point, using Java Programming Language. Some screenshots
of pages included in the application under development are shown in Figs. 8.2 and
8.3.
8.3 Integration with Service Life Prediction Methodologies
The information collected with the building inspection software may also be used
for service life prediction. Several methodologies have been developed, currently
comprehending (Silva et al. 2016):
• Deterministic models, which are based on simple and multiple, linear and non-
linear, regression analyses;
• Stochastic models, using logistic regression and Markov chains to provide prob-
abilities of observing different degradation conditions over time, as well as of
reaching the end of the service life;
• Computational models, like artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic systems,
allowing to replicate automated intelligent behaviours;
• Factor models, which are proposed by ISO 15686-8:2008 (International Orga-
nization for Standardization 2008) to estimate the service life of building and
components, comprising the classic and stochastic approaches.
An additional module could be added to the building inspection software that
would estimate the service life of building elements integrating the inspection data
8.3 Integration with Service Life Prediction Methodologies
Fig. 8.2 Translated screenshot (from Portuguese) of the first developments of the software tool: identification of a new inspection and weather conditions
461
462
Fig. 8.3 Translated screenshot (from Portuguese) of the first developments of the software tool: characterisation of an inspected building element
8 The Way Forward
8.3 Integration with Service Life Prediction Methodologies 463
(Silva and de Brito 2019). The building pathology data would be turned into an
overall degradation index representing the global performance of a given building
element and, then, be used in the application of one or more methodologies of service
life prediction. The development of an algorithm implementing those methodologies
would overcome the users’ limitations in understanding the most sophisticated meth-
ods, potentially more accurate, leaving it to the users only to choose in an informed
way those to apply.
The module of service life prediction would require the identification of the type
of building element and output (an absolute value or a probabilistic distribution, for
instance), to select the adequate model. The output, in terms of service life predic-
tion, refers to the kind of information the software user expects to obtain; e.g. a
value of the remaining service life may be wanted, although aware that deterministic
values are associated with a non-specified level of uncertainty. On the other hand, for
instance, the software user may want values of the remaining service life associated
with probability. Hence, the questions could be “How likely is that building element
to reach the end of its service life five years from now? And ten years from now?”.
If the software user knows the type of information (output) that is useful for the
case at stake, and the kind of information that needs to be gathered for that purpose,
then the service life prediction model may be selected. The module of service life
prediction would also allow the user to adapt the results to the established minimum
performance requirements of each case, defining the maximum acceptable degrada-
tion level. Finally, the module of service life prediction would have to incorporate
the clarification of all the concepts associated with the implemented methodologies,
including examples of use.
Service life prediction of building elements may be useful to understand the most
probable moment in which a building element will fail (stochastic models), given
its characteristics, allowing setting measures in motion to prevent such failure. In
maintenance planning comprising preventive strategies (Flores-Colen and de Brito
2010), knowledge on the expected durability of building elements provides a starting
point to schedule activities. Furthermore, the use of more precise information on
the service life of building components to define boundaries in life-cycle costing
and assessment (LCC and LCA) enables the optimisation of investments and the
minimization of environmental impacts, respectively (Teo and Harikrishna 2006;
Islam et al. 2015; Silvestre et al. 2015).
Different methods of service life prediction have been developed by (Silva et al.
2016, 2018; Mousavi et al. 2017; Serralheiro et al. 2017; Ferreira et al. 2018, 2019a,
b; Marques et al. 2018; Ramos et al. 2018; Fernandes et al. 2019; Jardim et al.
2019; Maia et al. 2019; Tavares et al. 2020; Pereira et al. 2020), all applicable to
non structural construction elements of the building envelope. Those elements were
integrated in the global inspection system proposed in this book. Still, to integrate
service life prediction methods with the building inspection system, it is necessary to
harmonise concepts and match data from building inspections with data required for
service life prediction. A simple example is corresponding the classification of defects
part of the service life prediction methodology with the classification of defects of
the building inspection system. Another is ensuring that the area affected by a defect
identified using the building inspection system equals the sum of areas affected by
different levels of degradation of the same defect identified on the same inspected
building element. Moreover, the information on the building, building maintenance
and building elements shall be integrated.
Considering that service life prediction models provide quantitative information
and building inspection systems provide detailed data on pathological phenomena,
further methods of diagnosis and recommended techniques to repair defects, the
integration of both would be a step forward for building management.
8.4 Integration with Maintenance Planning
The building inspection system, transposed to a software tool incorporating a service

life prediction module, may also be the basis for decision making on the management
of buildings by adding a module of maintenance planning to the software.
Such module would use: (i) the recommended techniques according to the inspec-
tion diagnosis to define the scope and cost of maintenance activities; (ii) the service
life prediction models to determine the adequate frequency of maintenance activities
(Pereira et al. 2018); and (iii) stochastic service life prediction models to assess risks
and optimise maintenance planning (Ruparathna et al. 2018).
The maintenance planning module would allow formulating different probabilistic
economic models of maintenance management throughout the service life of build-
ings. Additionally, insurance policy models considering the characteristics, dura-
bility, maintenance and probable repair or replacement costs of building elements
could be outlined using the maintenance planning module (Mayer and Wornell 1999;
Macedo et al. 2019).
Building inspection systems may be used occasionally, according to random
requests from decision-makers. In those cases, the approach may tend to be more
case-based or even customised to the needs. But if inspection systems are used within
planned building maintenance, or building management, a preliminary database
of quantification of maintenance needs’ costs and associated risks and benefits is
paramount.
On the one hand, service life prediction of building elements after the execution
of maintenance operations may quantify how much longer a building element will
fulfil its requirements and with which level of performance. On the other hand, the
estimation of costs associated with predetermined types and frequency of mainte-
nance operations is essential to inform decision-makers about the financial losses
associated with qualitative gains.
Furthermore, according to the variable results of building inspection, and, in this
case, if several building elements were found too degraded, the decision-maker may
also want to confront the costs of a maintenance plan considering the building as it was
when inspected with the costs of rehabilitation and another maintenance plan. Reha-
bilitation implies providing the building with answers to new requirements, whether
8.4 Integration with Maintenance Planning 465
functional, aesthetical, economical, and so on. The objectives of maintenance plan-

ning differ from those of rehabilitation in terms of the level of improvement and
intervention it is expected from it, notwithstanding its essential role to prolong the
service life of buildings.
To achieve the objective of quantifying the level of improvement that maintenance
operations represent in terms of service life, associating that purpose with monetary
values, a standardised approach is required. First, operational maintenance costs and
repair techniques costs must be analysed in detail together with a quantification of
their benefits, even if in well-justified abstract terms. Operational maintenance and
repair techniques may be combined and defined as maintenance needs, as a broader
concept. From this point of view, defining standardised levels of maintenance may
be useful. Those standardised levels would have to include (i) the determination of
which defects would be solved, and (ii) to what extent would those defects be solved
(e.g. a very degraded stone façade may not restore its initial appearance after an
adequate and comprehensive set of cleaning operations).
That said, the predetermined standardised levels of maintenance need to corre-
spond to gains in terms of remaining service life of the building element. Those gains
would provide an estimate of when new maintenance operations would be required,
and if those maintenance operations should be on the same standardised level of
maintenance of the one done before, or in a lower or higher level.
Ideally, the integration of a building inspection system, service life prediction
models and maintenance planning would result in a timeline of benefits vs. costs,
which would help decision makers select the best course of action according to their
objectives. Mathematical stochastic and computational models are fundamental tools
to reach such timeline.
8.5 Objectives-Based Customisation
The proposed building inspection system was developed in an academic environment

while having the goal of being used, in the future, by several different actors in the
construction sector. However, the specificity of the building inspection objectives
associated with the activity of each actor may require adaptations of the building
inspection system.
For instance, the system may be used by insurance companies as a way of char-
acterising the object of insurance policies in several stages of the policy period (e.g.
at the beginning and to renew/renegotiate premiums). Considering the inherent busi-
ness model, the inspection tool could adopt a scale of results whose different levels
would correspond to premium intervals.
The building inspection system may also be used by property owners with a vast
number of buildings, integrating maintenance management of properties encom-
passing predictive maintenance strategies (Flores-Colen et al. 2010) by gathering
information to adapt maintenance activities to the real condition of building ele-
ments. If the property owner’s buildings constitute a very homogeneous set, some
types of building elements could be excluded from the inspection system and others
could be added. New capabilities could also be added to the system. Some govern-
ment sectors—like education, health and defence (Foltz and Mckay 2008)—are good
examples of property owners with vast building stocks with specific typologies and
corresponding needs.
Municipalities may also be potential users of the building inspection system. It
may be utilised to characterise the degradation condition of different neighbourhoods
so that policies are adapted to those conditions, to attract investment and the renewal
of population, for instance. In this sense, it could be useful to integrate access to
information from building records and urban master plans in the system.
So, future research works may be oriented towards finding differentiated partners
interested in using an inspection system and customising the system according to
particular needs.
8.6 Region-Based Customisation
The proposed building inspection system was developed in Portugal for current Por-
tuguese buildings built after 1950, mainly characterised by having are in forced
concrete structure and brick non-loading bearing walls. That geographical context
does not completely restrict the use of the inspection system in other locations, as
many other countries apply identical construction methods, due to having histori-
cally evolved with the same influences or to more recent effects of the globalisation
of western cultures. Still, it is prudent to assume that, for a more reliable use of
the building inspection system, it needs to be reviewed in terms of region-specific
assumptions, concepts and means.
Consequently, the developments around the building inspection system should
move in the direction of adapting contents to regional parameters, like construc-
tion methods, building codes, economies (e.g. maintenance costs, depending on the
minimum acceptable performance level; and the existence, or not, of the building
manager’s role), climates, and cultures.
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Report by Lil Squid from the Noun Project
Tablet by Luis Prado from the Noun Project

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Jorge

José D. Silvestre Inês Flores-Colen

José D. Silvestre Inês Flores-Colen

ISBN 978-3-030-42445-9 ISBN 978-3-030-42446-6 (eBook)

Lisbon, Portugal Jorge de Brito

4 Diagnosis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

6.3.1 Structure of the Atlas of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Jorge de Brito is a Full Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico, University of

Clara Pereira is a Ph.D. Student at Instituto Superior Técnico, University of

José D. Silvestre is an Assistant Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico, University

Inês Flores-Colen is an Associated Professor at Instituto Superior Técnico,

Fig. 2.1 Blocks of limestone rock in a quarry (a) and quarry

Fig. 2.16 Examples of types of ﬁnishes for ETICS: a mixed binder

Fig. 2.32 Different types of doors. a—side-hung door; b—folding door;

Fig. 2.50 Comparison of the temperature proﬁle (warm weather case) in

Fig. 3.7 Examples of defects of mechanical nature: a A-C7 flatness

Fig. 3.25 Associating defects through causes to build an inter-defects

Fig. 4.14 Examples of the mechanical method “D-G6 Pull-off test”:

Fig. 5.7 Example of an attempt to repair a cracked stone plate with

Fig. 5.21 Proportions of the three-dimensional defects–repair techniques

Fig. 8.1 Provisional diagram of the building inspection software tool.

Table 1.1 Expert building inspection systems developed at IST-UL . . .. 7

Table 2.40 Main characteristics of sandwich panels for roof claddings

Table 3.5 Classiﬁcation of probable causes in the category

Table 4.6 Diagnosis methods–building elements/materials matrix in a

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

performed accordingly. Otherwise, maintenance is done following degradation esti-

1.2 Building Envelope

1.3 Maintenance and Inspection

Effectively managing a building implies implementing a maintenance plan to opti-

Preventive maintenance strategies act before the occurrence of significant changes

1.4 Overview of Building Inspection Systems

1.4.1 Expert Individual Inspection Systems

1.5 From Individual Elements to the Building Envelope

Table 1.1 Expert building inspection systems developed at IST-UL

1.6 Book Overview

This book is organised in eight chapters, as follows:

• Chapter 5 addresses repair techniques and, considering the advantages of classifi-

Carvalho C, de Brito J, Flores-Colen I, Pereira C (2018) Inspection, diagnosis, and rehabilita-

Nacional de Argamassas de Construção. Associação Portuguesa dos Fabricantes de Argamassas

Abstract Considering that the development of a building inspection system should

Understanding the technology of claddings and building elements is essential to better

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 15

2.2 Natural Stone Claddings

2.2.1 Materials Used in Natural Stone Claddings

2.2.1.1 Raw Material

Rock is a cohesive aggregate of minerals or solid substances resulting from natural

Classification of Natural Stone

Characteristics of Natural Stone

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.2 Important

Environmental Impact of Extracting the Raw Material

2.2.1.2 Natural Stone Joints

Fig. 2.2 Different types of joints in natural stone claddings

2.2.2 Design of Natural Stone Claddings

2.2.2.1 Functional Requirements of Natural Stone Claddings

Besides the appearance of façades, façade claddings assume an important role in

2.2.2.2 Classification of Façade Claddings

Direct Fastening of Natural Stone Claddings

Fig. 2.4 Staining emphasising the perimeter of natural stone plates

Indirect Fastening of Natural Stone Claddings

Fig. 2.7 Two types of kerf anchor clips’ profiles

2.2.2.3 Types of Finishes