COURSE MODULE

EAB2103 CONSTRUCTION SCIENCE

2020

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EAB2103 CONSTRUCTION SCIENCE
45 Contact hours
Purpose of the Course
By the of this unit, the learner should be able to;
i. Understand basic construction materials.
ii. Explain general and physical properties of building materials.
iii. Perform basic structural design.

LESSON TOPIC TO BE COVERED REMARKS

1 Introduction. 100%
Building materials: Timber.
2 Building materials: Paints 100%
and varnishes.
3 Building Materials: Plastics 100%
and metals.
4 Building materials: 100%
Concrete & Glass.
5 Heat – transmission, effects 100% 
& basic calculations.
6 Thermal insulation, draught 100% 
control & basic calculations.
7 Sound transmission & 100% 
acoustic materials.
8 Elasticity of materials. 100% 
9 Lifting & hoisting loads. 100% 
10 Reactions of simply 100% 
supported beams with point
loads.
11 Moments & Shear Forces. 100% 
12 Drawing & interpretation of 100% 
bending moment diagrams.
13 Design calculations: Sizing 100% 
of members.
14 Design calculations: Trusses 100% 

Course content
Building Materials-Outline uses of timber, metal and plastics in Building Construction in
relation to their properties Outline uses of Concrete, Glass and Asbestos in Building
Construction in relation to their properties List types of paints and varnishes and explain

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reasons for their application in buildings. Heat & Sound Definition of terms used in heat
transmission Effects of heat on Building materials Effects of acoustic materials in
Buildings-Basic calculations of specific heat capacity of a given building material. -
Thermal insulation and draught control in buildings -Thermal conductivity of different
materials -Calculations of heat gain and heat loss in buildings Mechanics -Define
elasticity of a material in terms of stress and strain- Explain stress in beams and columns
-Reactions of simply supported beams with point loads -Methods of lifting and hoisting
loads in construction work.-measures taken while lifting and hoisting loads. -Explain
moment and shear force.-show how to determine shear forces and bending moments -
Drawing and interpretation of bending moment diagrams. Determine sectional sizes of
joists and studs by use of formulae. Calculation of forces acting in each member of a truss.
Course Textbooks
1. Cameron, C. (1989). Charles Baillairgé: Architect and Engineer. McGill-Queen's
University Press. ISBN: 978-0-7735-6155-7

2. González-Viñas, W., & Mancini, H. (2004). An Introduction to Materials Science.

Princeton University Press. ISBN: 978-1-4008-8005-8

3. Walker, A. (1991). Construction. In Land, Property & Construction in the People's

Republic of China (pp. 65-100). Hong Kong University Press. ISBN: 978-988-220-192-
7

Reference Textbooks
1. Batty, M. (2013). The New Science of Cities. MIT Press. ISBN: 978-0-262-31823-5

2. Tauranac, J. (2014). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. Cornell
University Press. ISBN: 978-0-8014-7109-4

Course Journals
1. Murphy, R. (1994). The Sociological Construction of Science without
nature. Sociology, 28(4), 957-974. ISSN: 00380385

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 2. Angell, G., &Raskin, A. (1956). The Philosophy of Test Construction in Science. The
Science Teacher, 23(4), 175-203. ISSN: 00368555

3. Lapadat, J. (2000). Construction of Science Knowledge: Scaffolding Conceptual Change

Through Discourse. The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 35(2), 1-14. ISSN: 07494025

Reference Journals
1. TG. (2015). Building Construction: Uplifting Technology. ASEE Prism,24(5), 12-12.
ISSN: 10568077

2. Pollalis, S., &Bakos, J. (1996). Technology in the Design Process. Journal of Architectural
and Planning Research, 13(2), 152-162. ISSN: 07380895

Lesson 1: Introduction to Construction Science and Building Materials -

Timber.

Objectives.

1. Introduction to basic construction science terms.

2. Understand the use of timber as a material used in construction.

Introduction to Construction Science.

Construction science or Building science is the collection of scientific knowledge

that focuses on the analysis of the physical phenomena affecting buildings. Building
physics, architectural science and applied physics are terms used for the knowledge
domain that overlaps with building science.

Building science traditionally includes the study of indoor thermal environment,

indoor acoustic environment, indoor light environment, indoor air quality, and
building resource use, including energy and building material use. These areas are
studied in terms of physical principles, relationship to building occupant health,

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comfort, and productivity, and how they can be controlled by the building envelope
and electrical and mechanical systems.

The practical purpose of building science is to provide predictive capability to

optimize the building performance and sustainability of new and existing buildings,
understand or prevent building failures, and guide the design of new techniques and
technologies.

Building Materials – Timber.

Timber has been used as a building material for thousands of years, being second
only to stone in terms of its rich and storied history in the world of construction. The
chemical properties of wood are inherently complex, but even in spite of this
challenge, human beings have successfully harnessed the unique characteristics of
wood to build a seemingly unlimited variety of structures. This exceptionally
versatile material is commonly used to build houses, shelters and boats, but it is also
extensively used in the furniture and home decor industry as well.

Advantages of timber as a construction material.

Timber has many important attributes. It has a warm texture and attractive

appearance and is often used for internal finishing as well for the main structure

(Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Timber as used in various aspects in construction.

It is easy to work with and can be produced in a wide range of shapes and sizes. It

has a high strength-to-weight ratio and has good thermal insulation properties.

Timber can be used compositely with concrete and steel. It is the only construction

material that does not contribute to greenhouse emissions and is a fully renewable

and largely recyclable material. Because it is a naturally grown material, timber is a

complex building material. Its properties are highly variable and are sensitive to

environmental and loading conditions.

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It is a highly anisotropic material with high strength and stiffness parallel to the grain

but low properties perpendicular to the grain. These factors must be taken into

account in the design of timber structures.

Types of timber used in construction.

Many species with differing characteristics are used in construction for many
purposes. Tree species are normally grouped into two categories, namely softwoods
and hardwoods. The softwood species are coniferous and include spruces, pines, and
firs. These trees generally retain their needle-like leaves throughout the year. The
hardwood species are deciduous and include oaks, birches, and maples. They have
broadleaves, which they lose in winter. The wood from both species is used for
structural timber, but softwoods are much more common due to their greater
availability and lower costs.

In East Africa, the hard word group includes such species as Mvule, E.A. Camphor,
African Mahogany, Muninga and many others most of which are more used for
joinery than building though certain properties such as a locally favourable supply
and durability may encourage their use in some circumstances. These timbers occur
in natural forests though there are a few plantations.

The indigenous coniferous soft wood available in East Africa are two species Pedo
and Cedar both of which are declining in importance in Kenya as they become
worked out. Both grow on the slopes of the higher mountains mainly in Kenya and
N. Tanzania. Cedar may be classified as a scarce timber in large sizes but Podo is
still available in Kenya and is fairly common in North Tanzania.

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However, there are exotic breeds of broad leafed hard-wood. The main species are
ubiquitous saligna gum and grevillea from Australia. Other eucalypts are also grown
in plantations and there is some teak in Tanzaniao. The eucalypts have mainly been
used for poles and not great deal in converted form in construction though there is
no reason why this should not be done.

Exotic conifers also exist. These include Cypress and Pine and are grown extensively
in the Kenya Highlands and parts of Tanzania. Cypress is the main construction
timber over much of East Africa and this market will be shared with Pine as
increasing quantities of the latter become available.

General Properties of Timber.

Performance: Wood performance is dependent on a wide range of characteristics,

the importance of which depends on how the piece is intended to be used. When
wood is used as a raw material in the manufacture of more refined wood products,
the performance characteristics may be more related to factors in the manufacturing
process than to the intrinsic qualities of the natural wood. Thus, an important rule is
that the more a product is changed from natural wood, the less relevant is information
regarding the properties of the natural wood.

Wood is very strong in tension and compression parallel to the grain direction.
However, the properties perpendicular to the grain direction tend to be poor. The
actual strength values vary significantly not only between species but also between
individual trees within a species and indeed within an individual tree. The
differences between trees can result from different environmental conditions and
forestry practices. Within an individual tree, the difference is due not only to local
density variations but also due the presence of knots, spiral grain and reaction wood.

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Non-Isotropic characteristics - The properties of wood are strongly influenced by
direction because of the arrangement of its fibres and the orientation of the
microfibrils in the cell walls. In particular, wood is orthotropic as three orthogonal
directions of symmetry can be identified. The longitudinal (L) direction, or the
direction parallel to grain, is aligned with the axis of the tree trunk. The radial (R)
direction lies along the radius of the tree cross-section while the tangential (T)
direction is tangential to the growth rings (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Orthotropic direction for wood properties

The radial and tangential directions are referred to as directions perpendicular to
grain. The wood strength, modulus of elasticity and other characteristics such as
shrinking and swelling differ in the three directions. The load carrying capacity in
the direction parallel to grain is significantly greater than in the perpendicular
direction.
The dimensional stability or resistance to distortion under fluctuating moisture
content is also greater. Structural timber is normally sawn into boards with the long
axis of the board aligned parallel to grain.

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Moisture and wood - Wood is a hygroscopic material in that it exchanges moisture
with its surroundings and its properties vary significantly with moisture content.
When wood is harvested and processed, the wood dries from the green state to a
moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of
the surroundings. This is known as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). As the
wood dries, the free water in the cell cavities is lost first. After this the bound water
in the cell walls is lost. The moisture content at which all of the free water has been
removed and the cell walls are still saturated is known as the fibre saturation point
(FSP). The physical and mechanical properties of the wood change significantly as
the moisture content is reduced below the FSP, with strength and stiffness values
increasing with decreasing moisture content. Above the FSP most properties remain
constant. Changes in moisture content below the FSP also result in swelling and
shrinkage of the wood. If these moisture induced deformations are prevented in a
structure, stresses will develop. For this reason, it is important that, before
installation, structural timber is dried to a moisture content close to that which it will
experience in service – normally its EMC.

Physical Properties of Timber.

Density - The density of wood is determined mainly by the amount of wood
substance per unit volume and the moisture content. The higher the proportion of
wood substance is the greater the density and also the higher the mechanical
properties. Mean values for the density of softwoods and hardwoods range from
about 400 to 650 kg/m3 and 500 to 1200 kg/m3, respectively. Wood of high density
tends to shrink and swell more with changes in moisture content than wood of low
density.

Shrinking and swelling - Below the fibre saturation point, wood shrinks and swells
as its moisture content falls and rises. The rate of shrinkage/swelling varies with
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direction. Values in the parallel to grain direction are 5 to 10% of those in the
perpendicular to grain direction while values in the tangential direction can be 1 to
2 times those in the radial direction. Because of these differences in shrinkage rate,
cross-sections can distort during drying. Splits can occur in large cross-sections
when the drying rate is too high. In the region of knots, the grain direction is distorted
which can result in warping of the specimen during drying.

Thermal properties Timber has low thermal conductivities and coefficients of

thermal expansion (CTE). The degree of anisotropy in thermal properties is less than
in structural properties.
The thermal conductivity parallel to grain is about 2 to 3 times that perpendicular to
grain. The average value for softwoods is 1.2 W/mK. The CTE parallel to grain is
about 10 to 20% of the perpendicular to grain value and is typically of the order of
3:5 x 10-6 per degree Celsius.

Durability - Wood is susceptible to attack by a variety of organisms. Fungi, which

use the wood as a source of food, cause decay that can result in a reduction in
mechanical properties. These fungi require moist conditions for growth and can be
prevented by ensuring that the moisture content of the wood is kept below 20%. A
number of insects and borers attack wood and destroy it, including termites or white
ants. In many cases, keeping wood dry will prevent damage from their attack so it is
important in designing with wood to minimize the absorption of water by wood. If
the moisture content cannot be controlled, then the timber should be treated with
preservative or a species of timber with a high level of natural durability should be
used.

Grading of Timber.

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The grading of timber for structural purposes is essential to ensuring that the material
is reliable and has defined properties that can be used in design. As the timber cannot
be tested to failure during a grading process, non-destructive evaluation procedures
are used. This grading procedure is essentially a sorting process that assigns each
individual piece of timber to a strength grade/class by defining grade limits for
characteristics (known as grading parameters) that are correlated to the strength of
the timber. Grade limits are related to a reference moisture content of 20%. Two
main methods of grading are currently in use, namely visual grading and machine
grading. Visual stress grading is the oldest form of strength grading. It involves
carrying out a visual inspection of the strength reducing defects in a board. Different
grading rules have developed in different countries with different numbers of grades,
grade limits and ways of measuring the grading characteristics. The grading process
involves a visual examination of the four faces of each piece. The following
characteristics are assessed: knots, slope of grain, rate of growth, wane, fissures,
resin and bark pockets and distortion. Machine stress grading operates on the
principle that the strength of the timber is strongly correlated with one or more
properties of the timber that can be measured by the machine – most commonly,
minor axis deflection. By setting limits to these properties, timber is graded directly
to a strength class.

Processing of timber.

Logging and conversion - For reasons of handling the normal maximum length of
sawn timber is about 6mo Longer lengths may be obtained with some difficulty and
should be avoided as their cost is higher than normal lengths and there may be
delays. The normal maximum width sawn is 300mm. There is no reason for widths
greater than this not being available other than lack of demand and any restrictions
imposed by the size of the log. Boards up to 400mm can be obtained from mills

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converting mature cypress and pines but require special orders. Wide boards should
not contain pith or pine corewood as they may split.
Timber drying (Seasoning) – After being sawn, the timber is either dried in the open
air or kiln-dried, as this provides a stable product for use in a range of construction
uses. This drying process is called seasoning. Air drying is a long but low energy
process whereas kiln-drying requires high energy input.

Uses of timber in construction.

Timber in construction can be used for such uses as:-

1. Structural members such as columns, beams, floor joists, trusses, etc.

2. For scaffolding and form-works.
3. For timber partitions.
4. In doors and windows.
5. Finishes like ceilings, shelves, wardrobes, kitchen units in the form of wood
products like laminated timber, wood panels, ply-boards and medium density
fibre (MDF) boards.

Storage of timber on construction sites.

 Store the timbers in stacks upon well treated and even surfaced beams sleepers
or brick pillars so as to be above the ground level by at least 150 mm.
 Store members of different length and material separately.
 Materials of equal length are piled together in layers with wooden batters,
called crossers, separating one layer from another.
 If crossers are not available, smaller section of the available structural timber
can be used in their place.
 Provide an air space of about 25 mm between adjacent members.

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  Place the longer pieces in bottom layer and shorter pieces in the top layer, but
keep one end of the stack in true vertical alignment.
 Suitable width and height of a stack are recommended to be about 1.5 m to
2.0 m.
 Distance between adjacent stacks is recommended to be at least 450 mm. (see
Figure 3).

Figure 3: Stacking of timber on a construction site.

 Protect the stacks from hot dry winds, direct sun and rain.
 It is recommended to place heavy weight, such as metal rails or large section
of wood, on top of the stack to prevent distortion or warping of the timber in
the stack.
 If it is required to store the timber for about a year or more, then coat the ends
of all members with coal tar, aluminum leaf paints, micro crystalline wax; to
prevent end cracking in the material.

Questions.

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 1. Briefly state and explain the general and physical properties of timber.
2. Describe the types of timber used in construction with relation to East Africa.

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Lesson 2: Building Materials – Paints and Varnishes.

Objectives.

1. Explain the function and importance of paints and varnishes.

2. Describe the properties of good paints and varnishes.
3. Describe the process of painting and varnishing.

2.0 Paints and varnishes.

The paints and varnishes are provided as a part of the final treatment to all the
surfaces of walls, ceilings, floors, wood work etc., both internally and externally.
Some more forms of finishes/treatments are also used depending upon requirement.
These building treatments perform two major functions:

(i) They provide a protective coating to the surfaces. This helps in preserving
and protecting the materials used in the building construction from
environmental effects like heat, frost and rain water.

(ii) They provide decorative finish or treatment which adds to the aesthetic
appearance of the surfaces and the building.

2.1 Paints.

Paint is a substance used as the final finish to all surfaces and as a coating to protect
or decorate the surface. Paint is a pigmented opaque material that completely covers
and hides the surface to which it is applied. Paint is available in oil-based and water-
based formulae. Paints are used to protect metals, timber or plastered surfaces from
the corrosive effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases etc. and also to improve
their appearance.

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Functions of paint

Paint performs following functions:

(i) It protects wood from decaying.

(ii) It prevents corrosion of metals.

(iii) It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.

(iv) It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.

(v) It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric agencies.

Qualities of good paint.

An ideal paint should have the following characteristics:

1. The paint should be cost effective.

2. It should be easy and harmless to the user.
3. It should retain its original colour for a long time.
4. It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum
quantities.
5. The painted surface should dry neither too slowly nor too rapidly.
6. When applied, the paint should form a thin uniform film on painted surface.
7. The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
8. The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
9. It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
10. The painted surface should not show any cracks.
11. The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing
appearance.
12. Atmospheric agencies should not be able to affect the painted surface.

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Types of paints

The paints are of following types:

Aluminium Paint

The paint is prepared by holding very finely ground aluminium in suspension either
in quick drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as per the requirements of
the surface to be painted. The suspension liquid is spirit or oil, evaporates and a thin
metallic film of aluminium is left on the surface. This paint is used for painting wood
work and metal surfaces. It is widely used for painting hot water pipes, gas tanks,
marine piers, oil storage tanks, radiators, etc.

Anti-corrosive Paint

These paints are used mainly to protect the surface of metallic structural steel work,
against the negative effects of acids, corrosive chemicals fumes etc. There are
several paints which exhibit these properties. These paints essentially consist of the
linseed oil, as vehicle and red lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide, zinc dust, zinc chromate
etc. as their base. These paints are cheap, durable and are usually black in colour.

Asbestos Paint

This paint is used for stopping leakage of metal roofs and painting gutters, spouts,
flashings etc. to prevent their rusting. The paint is also used as damp proof coat to
cover the outer face of the basement walls. This paint can withstand the effects of
acidic gases and steam.

Bituminous Paint

This paint consists of asphalt, bitumen or pitches, dissolves in any type of oil or
petroleum. The paint is always black in colour but its colour can be modified by

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mixing certain pigment like red oxide etc. in it. The paint is used mostly for painting
iron-works under water. These paints deteriorate when exposed to direct sun. It is
also used for water proofing.

Bronze Paint

These paints are prepared by disbursing aluminium bronze or copper bronze in nitro-
cellulose lacquer as vehicle. They produce a very reflective type of surface and hence
very useful for being applied on radiators. These paints are equally effective for
painting interior or exterior metallic surfaces.

Cellulose Paint

This type of paint is prepared from cellulose sheets, nitro-cotton and photographic
films. This paint dries very quickly and provides a flexible, hard and smooth surface.
The paint does not harden by oxidation but by evaporation of thinning agent. The
surface of the paint can be easily washed and cleaned. It remains unaffected by hot
water, smoky or acidic atmosphere. This paint is used for painting cars, aeroplanes
etc.

Casein Paint

Casein is a product extracted from milk curd. Casein paint when mixed with base
like whiting, titanium, lithophone, etc. forms the paint which is usually available in
powder or paste form. This paint has high capacity and can be applied on new plaster
work. It is usually used on walls, ceilings wallboards, cements block construction
etc. to increase the appearance of the surface.

Cement Paint

This paint is available in powder form. It consists of white or coloured cement as its
base and water acts as a vehicle. No oil or varnish is added to it. This paint is
available in variety of shades. It is durable and water-proof. This paint proves to be
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useful for surfaces which are damp at the time of painting and are also likely to
remain damp after painting.

Enamel Paint

This paint is prepared by adding base like white lead or zinc white to a vehicle which
is a varnish. To obtain the desired colour, colouring pigments may also be added.
This paint dries slowly and forms a hard, durable, smooth, glossy, solid thin film.
Enamel paints can be used both for interior as well as exterior painting.

Emulsion Paint

This paint consists of synthetic resin like polyvinyl acetate. It can be applied easily.
It retains its colour for a very long time. The surface of the paint is tough and can be
cleaned by washing with water. This paint has excellent resistance against action of
alkali. It dries very quickly in about one to two hours.

Graphite Paint

It is black in colour. It is used over the surface which come in contact with ammonia,
chlorine, sulphur gases, etc. It is very much used in underground railways.

Plastic Paint

This paint contains a variety of plastics in suspension and is available in the market
under different trade name. It is mostly used in show rooms, display rooms, and
auditorium etc. It can be applied by spray or by brush.

Silicate Paint

It is prepared by mixing calcium and finely ground silica with resinous materials. It
forms a very hard and durable film on painted surface. It can be directly applied on
brick, concrete or plastered surface, but only after wetting them.

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Luminous Paint

This paint is prepared by mixing calcium sulphide with varnish. This paint shines in
darkness like radium dials of watches. This paint should be applied on surface which
have been rendered free from corrosion or lead paints in particular.

Inodorous Paint

This paint consists of white lead or zinc white mixed with methylated spirit. No
turpentine is used in this paint. White lead or zinc white is ground in oil. Shellac
with same quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is dissolved in methylated spirit and
this mixture is mixed with lead or zinc white paste prepared in linseed oil. This paint
dries quickly, but is not durable

Rubber Paint

This paint is prepared by treating rubber with chlorine gas (chlorinated rubber) and
then dissolving it in suitable solvent. This paint can be used on new concrete and
lime plastered surfaces. This paint dries quickly. It is little affected by weather and
sunlight. It is resistant against chemical actions, water, etc.

The process of painting

Application of paint to a surface either with a brush, roller or by spraying is known

as painting. The surface to be painted should be perfectly smooth, clean and dry.
Presence of moisture between the paint and surface to be painted or between
successive coats of paints causes blisters. Painting should as far as possible be
carried out in dry weather.

Brush of only good quality, the hair of which do not come off while painting, should
be used.

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The paint is applied on the surface in two, three or four coats. The first coat is known
as priming coat and last one as finishing coat. All the intervening coats are known
as under coats.

Prime coat forms a thin film which helps in adhesion of the paint with the surface.
It also protects the surface from weathering action. Materials for priming coat should
be selected keeping in view the nature of the surface to be painted.

Under coats serve as foundation on to the finishing coat. These coats fill all the
irregularities of the surface.

Finishing coat is lastly applied as per the requirements.

2.2 Varnishes.
Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine. The
process of covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing. Varnishing is
done only on wooden surface.

Functions of Varnish

Varnish performs the following functions:

(i) It brings about brilliance to the painted surface.

(ii) It protects the surface against adverse effects of the atmosphere.

(iii) It increases the durability of the paint film.

(iv) It beautifies the surface without hiding the beautiful grains of the wood.

Varnish plays an important part in finishing wooden surfaces of doors, windows,

floors, furniture, etc.

Properties of Good Varnish

A good varnish should possess the following properties:

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 (i) It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.

(ii) It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.

(iii) It should make the surface glossy.

(iv) It should dry rapidly.

(v) It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing
appearance.

(vi) The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface should be
tough, hard and durable.

(vii) The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when varnished
surface is exposed to atmospheric action.

Types of varnish.

The varnishes can be classified into following categories depending upon the solvent
used :

(i) Oil Varnish

(ii) Spirit Varnish

(iii) Turpentine Varnish

(iv) Water Varnish

(v) Asphalt Varnish

(vi) Spar Varnish

(vii) Flat Varnish

Process of Varnishing

Following operations are required to be carried out while varnishing a wooden

surface:

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Preparation of Surface

The surface to be varnished should be thoroughly rubbed smooth by means of sand

paper and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.

Knotting

It is the process by which knots on the surface of wood work are killed by applying
certain substance over the knots. All the knots should be covered with a hot
preparation of red lead or glue size.

Stopping

After knotting, the surface of wood work is stopped by means of hot weak glue size.
This coat fills all the pores of the surface. After stopping when surface becomes dry,
it is rubbed again with sand paper.

Applying Varnish Coats

After stopping process, varnish is applied on the surface in very thin coats. Next coat
is applied only when previously applied coat has dried. For varnishing, fine brittle
varnishing brush should be used.

QUESTIONS.

1. Name, define and explain the use of five types of paint.

2. Describe the process of painting.
3. Define five properties of a good varnish.

Lesson 3: Building Materials – Plastics and Metals.

Objectives.

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Outline uses of plastic and metals in construction as related to their properties.

3.1 Plastics

Many construction companies are using plastic materials. The components used
include everything from plastic screws and hinges to bigger plastic parts that are
used in decoration, electric wiring, flooring, wall covering, water proofing and so
on. Typically, construction professionals select plastic materials based on the
following properties:

Durability

Many plastic materials are as strong as if not stronger than certain metals. Plastic
hardware is also frequently corrosion resistant, allowing it to survive outside in
inclement weather indefinitely.

Cost Effectiveness

As is the case in most industries these days, cost is an important factor in any
construction project. Many plastic materials are very economical.

Recycling

Unlike metals, some plastics can be recycled without losing any chemical properties
and hence can be used over and over again.

Energy Saving

Plastic consumes less heat than metal. The insulating effects of some plastics can
also decrease sound pollution level.

Safety

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 Plastic materials are typically much lighter than metals. The lightness of the material
makes it easier to carry and lift into place.

Easy to install

A while back we posted about an FRP bridge that was installed in just a few days.
The lightweight of plastic materials allows for quick and easy installation.

Easy to clean and maintain.

They are ideal for household and hospital surfaces or floor coverings that must
remain hygienic.

Use of Plastics in Different Aspects of the Construction Industry

 Flooring

Plastic materials like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to make
flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level and
can be cleaned easily.

 Roofing

To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different plastic
materials are required. The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic olefin or
vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which consumes less
energy and keeps the interior of a house cooler.

 Insulation

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 Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green or low
energy buildings (Refer to Figure 1). Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high
thermal resistance which promotes temperature consistency. Polyurethane foam is
also popular because it is lightweight, chemical resistant, and flame retardant. Due
to its closed cell nature, polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier, resulting
in significant energy savings.

Figure 1: Spraying of Polyurethane.

 Wall

A structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwich of expanded polystyrene amidst two

slim layers of oriented strand board. This type of pre-fab, composite wall board can
be transferred to the work place easily for a particular task and provide good support
to columns and other associated essentials during renovation.

 Pipes

Commonly made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile butadiene

styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in weight,

27 
 
 making them easy to install. All of these plastic materials are also highly chemical
and water resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments.

 Windows

Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material is

strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered more
burglar-proof than regular glass windows. Two plastics materials, vinyl and
fiberglass, are used commonly in the production of window frames. Fiberglass is
extremely strong while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive.

 Doors

Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam core with
a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure of these doors
makes them incredibly strong.

QUESTIONS.

1. Name and explain five characteristics of plastics that make them

appealing for construction.
2. State and explain four uses of plastics in construction.

28 
 
 3.2 Metals

Introduction.

Metals have been used by humans for over 6000 years. The first metals were simply
picked up off the ground, but in time people learnt to extract metals from their ores.
Nowadays the technology has become quite complex and not only can many metals
be extracted from their ores, but the properties of metals can be modified by various
types of finishing processes or by mixing with other metals to form alloys. For
building purposes, most metals are alloys.
The major base metals used are iron, copper, lead, zinc and aluminium. Metals using
iron as their base are called ‘ferrous’ metals while the others are termed ‘nonferrous’.
Brass is an important nonferrous metal used in building, being an alloy of the base
metal copper.

Metals are substances that can either be hammered (the quality called malleability)
or drawn out as wire (the quality called ductility) or melted and formed into shapes
in moulds. Most metals can be polished. All metals are, to greater or lesser degrees,
conductors of forms of energy such as heat and electricity. Other characteristics
possessed by metals may vary considerably from metal to metal. Some metals (e.g.
stainless steel) have good strength qualities, whereas others (e.g. tin) have very little
strength. All metals, however, will lose strength when repeated force is applied to
them—a process known as metal fatigue.

There are two types of metals uses in construction – Ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Ferrous metals and alloys.

Ferrous metals are those metals that contain a large amount of iron. The main types
of ferrous metal are:
 cast iron
29 
 
  wrought iron
 steels
Iron ore, as mined, is a combination of iron and oxygen and various other substances.
The first step in processing the ore is to reduce it to metallic iron (often called ‘pig
iron’). The metallic iron, at this stage, contains a relatively high proportion of carbon
(about 4 per cent). To make steel, the carbon content of the metallic iron must be
lowered to less than 1 per cent by an oxidation process in the steelmaking furnace.
At the same time, the metal is given whatever special chemical and physical
properties may be required by the addition of other metals. The quantities and timing
of the additions of carbon and various other elements are carefully controlled to
make the wide range of irons and steels that are available.
Ferrous alloys, notably steel but initially also cast and wrought iron, represent the
most important family of metallic materials. Iron-based materials account for by far
the greatest proportion of manufactured metal items. Characteristics that make
ferrous metals popular are:-
1. Relatively cheap
2. Relatively plentiful.
3. Range of properties – many ferrous alloys can be created by adding different
components to fit well with the requirements of the manufactured world.
4. They are relatively easy to form – manufacturing processes for ferrous alloys
are simple as compared to other alloys.
5. They are tough and forgiving in service – they are long-lasting in use.
6. Resist wear and damage – they have a high resistance to mechanical wear and
damage.
7. Can be made resistant to corrosion.
8. They are recyclable – 75% of ferrous alloy feedstock comes from scrap.

30 
 
 9. Heat resistance – they have a high melting point compared to non-ferrous
metals.

Effects of added elements.

Carbon is the principal hardening element in steel. In plain carbon steels, it is used
as the controlling element to regulate physical properties. When the carbon content
is increased, hardness and tensile strength are improved but ductility and weldability
are reduced (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Influence of carbon on the properties of ferrous metals.

Manganese increases strength and hardness but to a lesser degree than carbon. It also
improves the toughness and abrasion resistance of steel.
Chromium increases hardening ability and tensile strength and improves corrosion
and abrasion resistance. It is usually associated with nickel additions to form
‘stainless steel’.

Ferrous metals, by-products and uses.

A. Blast furnace slag

31 
 
Blast furnace slag is the waste from the smelting process. It is an important by-
product which can be used for concrete aggregate, road metal and slag wool for
insulation.
B. Steel scrap
This is a major source of metallic iron for steel making. Scrap may either be residue
left from the steelmaking process or purchased from discarded or obsolete
constructions. About half of the crude steel produced annually in the world will
eventually be returned to the steel-making furnaces.
Recycling and waste minimisation should be practised by all sectors of the building
industry.
C. Cast iron
Cast iron is produced by re-melting pig iron with steel and cast iron scrap. The cast
iron has a high carbon content which makes it free-running and, therefore, very
suitable for moulding intricate shapes. Cast iron has been used in the past for the
decorative iron lace on buildings which is often wrongly called ‘wrought iron’.
Cast iron is used for fire grates; for soil waste pipes and ventilating pipes; for
drainage gratings and frames; and for baths and basins (with a vitreous enamel
finish).
D. Wrought iron
This is a low carbon iron which is excellent for forging but cannot be cast, tempered
or welded (by gas or arc). Wrought iron was very popular for decorative finishes
(such as balustrades and balcony railings) in the 1950s but has since lost popularity.
E. Steels
Steels are produced by removing impurities from pig iron and then accurately
adjusting the quantities of all the ingredients.
Steels are noted for their high strength compared to their production costs, and also
for their poor performance in building fires. Ordinary steels do not resist corrosion
32 
 
well, but special steels (e.g. stainless steel) are produced today with excellent
corrosion resistance.
Steel, an alloy of iron (Fe), is used not only as a part of structural systems in buildings
but, when exposed, as part of the architectural ornamental expression. Exposed
structural systems used include space frames and arches to span large, unobstructed
floor areas such as halls, exhibition spaces, and sports arenas. Other uses include
cable-supported structures, and low buildings where fireproofing is not mandatory
by building codes and the steel frame may be left exposed.
Steel is also used for ornamental metalwork to enhance the appearance of buildings.
Some structures are famed for their beautiful grille work, stairs, railings, sculpture
and ornamental metalwork.
The classification and identification of steel is rather complex and involves, among
other things:
• chemical composition
• method of manufacture
• mechanical properties
• heat treatment
• reference to a recognised standard.
For building purposes, carbon steel, structural steel and stainless steel are the
primary steels used.
i. Carbon steel
Classification
Steels are classified as carbon steels when:
• the amount of carbon does not exceed 2%
• the amount of iron exceeds 95%.

33 
 
Carbon steels are likewise classified by grade on the basis of their carbon content.
Amounts of up to 0.8% carbon increase the strength and hardness of carbon steel
and decrease the ductility.
Physical properties
Carbon steel used for building purposes include mild steel, medium steel, and very
mild steel. Of these, the mild steels are the most widely used and are generally
carried in stock by warehouses and fabricators. Mild steels:
• have a tensile strength in the range of 36,000 to 65,000 psi
• form easily
• retain true sections when fabricated.
Shapes
Bar sizes of carbon steel include channels, angles, tees and rolled sections having a
maximum dimension of the cross-section of less than 75 mm.
Structural size shapes are rolled, flanged sections having at least one dimension of
the cross-section of 75 mm or greater.
Pipe and tubing - Pipe and tubing are available for a variety of building purposes.
They may be obtained in standard weight, extra-strong, and double extra-strong.
Sheet and strip - Sheet and strip are used for components of buildings such as:
• curtain walls and fascias
• roofs
• interior walls and partitions
• doors and windows
• floors and ceiling systems
• and signage
Steel sheet and strip are made up of carbon steels, high-strength, low-alloy steels.

34 
 
Hot rolled sheet and strip are produced by squeezing hot steel ingots with huge rolls
repeatedly until the desired thickness is reached. Cold-rolled sheets are formed by
further rolling hot-rolled sheets after they have been allowed to cool and have been
pickled to remove scale.

The most popular steel sheet and strip for are:

• hot-rolled carbon steel
• cold-rolled carbon steel
• high-strength, low alloy (weathering steel)
• zinc cured steel
ii. Structural steel
Structural steel products are available in hot rolled sections and cold formed
sections.
 Hot rolled sections
These are formed while the steel is at elevated temperatures and include profiles like
universal beams, universal columns, taper flange beams, channels, angle sections,
merchant bars (round and square), plates, hollow sections (SHS & RHS), Zed
sections, etc.
 Cold formed sections
These are formed while the material is cold as distinct from materials that are shaped
or worked while under the effect of heat. Unlike hot rolled sections, cold formed
sections have constant thickness.
Cold formed sections may be formed by:
Rolling in a rolling mill (for material up to 20 mm in thickness), the product being
what is known as ‘cold rolled sections’. Pressing by means of a press brake (for
material up to 20 mm in thickness), the product being what is known as ‘pressed
steel sections’

35 
 
Use of structural steels
Cold rolled sections are used for:-

Figure 3: Uses of cold rolled sections.

Pressed steel is used for:

• door and window frames
• metal trims (such as skirtings)
• wall panels

36 
 
Note: Pressed steel sections are limited to the size of the break press; or, with swivel
bending, are able to be produced economically in small quantities.

iii. Stainless steel

Stainless steel is far harder than mild steel and silvery in appearance. It has wide
applications in commercial buildings and has been used extensively for domestic
sinks. More recently it has been used for bench tops and as a termite barrier where
it takes the form of a very fine mesh which termites cannot penetrate.

Non-ferrous metals and alloys.

Most nonferrous metals are more costly to produce than ferrous metals. However,
they often have much better working properties and resistance to corrosion. The
more common nonferrous metals are copper, aluminium, zinc, lead, nickel, tin and
cadmium.
i. Copper
Copper has been in use for at least 10 000 years: nearly 5000 years ago it was being
beaten into sheets, pipes, and other building products.
Copper is a pinkish coloured metal and is easily hammered into sheets. It is much
more expensive than some alternatives but its extreme resistance to corrosion
outweighs this disadvantage in certain applications. Upon exposure to the
atmosphere, copper forms a protective copper oxide coating which is light green in
colour.
Uses - Its resistance to corrosion has made it popular for use as water pipes and
tanks. It also conducts electricity very well, hence its use for electrical wiring. Other
uses include roofing, roof plumbing, flashing and damp courses.

ii. Brass

37 
 
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, and is an attractive golden colour.
Uses - Brass is used for plumber’s hardware (e.g. pipe connectors and fittings; taps
and outlet spouts, often chrome finished). Screws, nails, grilles, hinges, door locks
and latches and chains are often made from brass.
iii. Aluminium
Aluminium is a light-weight metal (approximately one-third the weight of iron) and
is silver-white in colour. Aluminium was introduced as a building material after
World War Two in competition with traditional building metals, such as steel and
copper. Probably the major characteristic that has helped aluminium gain
widespread acceptance in the building industry is its suitability for extrusion
production methods. This means that very complicated shapes can be produced
economically.
Uses - Aluminium products are extensively used in the building industry—for
domestic windows, doors and insect screens; for commercial windows and curtain
walls for residential and industrial roofing and rainwater goods; for balustrades and
railings and for reflective insulation.
Corrosion resistance - One of the most significant properties of aluminium is its
excellent resistance to atmospheric corrosion. On exposure to the atmosphere, a
whitish coating of aluminium oxide forms which then protects the surface from
further corrosion. The structural integrity is not impaired as a result of this process.
Thus, untreated aluminium can be used for roofing, cladding and so on, but where
long-term appearance is important the aluminium should be finished.

iv. Zinc
Zinc is a soft, greyish metal which can be hammered or rolled into sheets: such sheets
have been used for roofing rainwater goods. Today, zinc’s most important function
in the building industry is as a protective coating on steel.

38 
 
The zinc coating acts first as a barrier to corrosion. However, should the coating be
scratched or damaged, exposing the steel, the zinc surrounding the damaged part will
itself corrode instead of the steel. Thus by sacrificing the zinc the steel is protected
and will not rust until all available zinc is used.
Zinc-aluminium coating
Research has produced a protective coating for steel which combines zinc and
aluminium in an alloy. It is easily applied, by hot dipping, and holds to the metal
better than zinc galvanising, thus giving much better protection. It is used on sheet
steel and cladding.
v. Lead
Lead is soft and easily worked, but its great density makes it heavy to handle, and
thin sheets and pipes will not even support their own weight. Lead has been used for
thousands of years: lead water pipes were used by the Romans, and our word
‘plumber’ comes from the Latin word plumbum meaning lead.
Due to its toxic properties, however, lead is no longer used for water pipes. In the
past, it was used for roofing and roof plumbing, but today its use is limited—
although in certain roof plumbing situations, its weight and malleability still make it
a useful and preferred material.
Uses - Lead is used:
• for flashing and damp coursing
• for solder (as an alloy with other metals)
• as sheet lead lining for sound proofing

vi. Nickel
Nickel is a hard, silvery-white, malleable metal. It is resistant to corrosion.
Nickel is used:

39 
 
• on steel as a base for chromium plating
• as a constituent of stainless steel
• as a nickel alloy (known as ‘Monel metal’)

vii. Tin
Tin is a very costly, soft, weak metal with a low melting point (232°C), but extremely
resistant to corrosion.
Uses - Tin is used:
• as a coating on sheet steel (tin plate)
• for solders

viii. Cadmium
Cadmium is a white, malleable metal that looks like tin.
Uses - Cadmium is used:
• for electroplating steel components (such as screws, latches, handles, locks)
• as plating on brass plumbing fittings, locks, latches, handles and other such fittings

ix. Chromium
Chromium is well known for its high resistance to corrosion as a plating, and as a
constituent of stainless steels and other corrosion-resistant alloys. It is extremely
hard and scratch resistant.

Further applications of metals in construction.

 Metal frame construction

40 
 
Domestic and commercial buildings can both be of metal frame construction. This
type of construction is versatile, light, strong, time and labour saving, economical,
and stable. Walls, roofs and floors can all be constructed this way.
The metal frames made from steel are pre-fabricated in the workshop or before being
erected (See Figure 4). They can be joined together using rivets, welds, screws or
bolts.

Figure 4: Metal Frame Construction.

 Fasteners - The wide range of metal fasteners used to join or fix building
materials and components includes:
 Nails - Nails are manufactured in a wide variety of sizes, shapes and finishes,
according to their particular use.

41 
 
  Screws- Screws are available in a range of sizes, shapes and coatings for use
with wood or masonry. The four most common types of wood screw are:
o countersunk head
o round head
o raised head
o coach screws
 Bolts, nuts and washers - Bolts, nuts and washers are normally made of plain
steel, alloy steel or a non-ferrous metal, and may have a protective metal
coating (such as zinc or cadmium). The bolt heads are usually either dome
headed with a square shank; dome headed with a slot; hexagonal or square
headed. The nuts may be square or hexagonal and the washers are flat discs
with a central hole.
 Masonry anchors - Masonry anchors are used in concrete or masonry. A
strong fixing is provided by the casing expanding into the hole as the nut or
bolt is tightened. A masonry anchor may be placed into a mortar joint but is
far more effective if placed in the body of the masonry.

QUESTIONS.
1. Comprehensively discuss the use of steel in construction.
2. State and describe six non-ferrous metals used in construction explaining their
application in construction.

42 
 
Lesson 4: Building Materials – Concrete and Glass.

Objectives.

Outline uses of concrete and glass in construction as related to their properties.

4.0 Concrete.

Concrete is a human-made composite, the major constituent of which is natural stone

aggregate such as gravel, sand or crushed rock. The other principal constituent of
concrete is the binding medium used to bind the aggregate particles together to form
a hard composite material. The most commonly used binding medium is the product
formed by a chemical reaction between cement and water. When this chemical
reaction takes place (also known as hydration), heat is given off (also known as heat
of hydration). In its hardened state concrete is a rock-like material with a high
compressive strength but a low tensile strength. Compressive and tensile strengths
in concrete are measured in N/mm2 (Newtons per square millimetre) or MPa (Mega
Pascals). The tensile strength of normal concrete is low and this can be improved by
incorporating steel bars to resist tension (reinforced concrete). The density of
concrete is measured in Tonne/m3 (Tonne per cubic metre) or kN/m3 (kiloNewtons
per cubic metre).
The ingredients of concrete with the functions and requirements are:-

a. Cement
 It fills up the voids in the fine and coarse aggregates.
 Makes the concrete impermeable.
 It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
 It binds the aggregates into a solid mass by virtue of its setting.
 Hardens when mixed with water

43 
 
 b. Aggregates
The aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or iron-
blast furnace slag. It is graded by passing it through a set of sieves with progressively
smaller mesh sizes. All material that passes through sieve #4 [0.187 in. (4.75 mm)
openings] is conventionally referred to as fine aggregate or sand, while all material
that is retained on the #4 sieve is referred to as coarse aggregate, gravel, or stone. By
carefully grading the material and selecting an optimal particle size distribution, a
maximum packing density can be achieved, where the smaller particles fill the void
spaces between the larger particles. Such dense packing minimizes the amount of
cement paste needed and generally leads to improved mechanical and durability
properties of the concrete. The aggregate constitutes typically 75% of the concrete
volume, or more, and therefore its properties largely determine the properties of the
concrete. For the concrete to be of good quality, the aggregate has to be strong and
durable and free of silts, organic matter, oils, and sugars. Otherwise, it should be
washed prior to use, because any of these impurities may slow or prevent the cement
from hydrating or reduce the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate
particles.
i. Sand (fine aggregates)
 Fills the voids in the coarse aggregates.
 Reduces the shrinkage in concrete.
 Reduces the cost of concrete because it is a filler material.

ii. Coarse Aggregates (gravel or stone)

 It makes a solid and hard mass of concrete together with sand and cement.
 It reduces the cost of concrete since it occupies more volume.
 It increases the strength of concrete.

44 
 
 c. Water
 Water wets the surface of aggregates.
 It facilitates the spreading of cement over the aggregates and makes the
concrete workable.
 It initiates the hydration process of the cement with the sand and aggregates
subsequently starts the setting and hardening process.
 It controls the heat generated by the hydration process of the cement.

Production of concrete.
The properties of the end product depend not only on the various constituent
materials listed above but also on the way they are proportioned and mixed, as well
as on the methods of placing and curing the composite.

Mix design - It is not possible to predict the strength and other concrete properties
solely based on the properties and proportions of the mix components. Therefore,
mixes are designed on an empirical basis, often with the help of trial mixes. The
objective of the mix design is to assure that the product has specified properties in
both the fresh and hardened state. The most important mix design variable is the
weight ratio between water and cement, referred to as the w/c ratio. There is a
theoretical minimum amount of water needed for the cement to completely hydrate,
which can be determined using the equations of hydration chemistry. Any excess
water creates pores which, together with any air-filled pores, do not contribute to the
material strength. The result is a drastic decrease in strength as a function of
increasing the w/c ratio. On the other hand, too low w/c ratios cause poor workability
of the concrete. For practical reasons, the w/c ratio typically varies between 0.4 and
0.6. The other important mix design variables are the cement-to-aggregate ratio and

45 
 
the fine-to-coarse aggregate ratio. Also, the maximum aggregate size is of
importance. And since cement is the most expensive bulk ingredient, the mix design
will generally aim at the least amount of cement necessary to achieve the design
objectives.
Construction practice - The material obtained immediately upon mixing of the
various concrete ingredients is called fresh concrete, while hardened concrete results
when the cement hydration process has advanced sufficiently to give the material
mechanical strength. Concrete that is batched and mixed in a plant and then
transported by truck in its fresh, or plastic, state to the construction site for final
placement is called ready-mixed concrete. If the resulting structure or highway
pavement, for example, remains in place after placement, the concrete is referred to
as cast-in-place concrete, whether mixed on-site or off-site. Precast concrete refers
to any structure or component that is produced at one site, typically in a pre-casting
plant, and then transported in its hardened state to its final destination. The controlled
environment of a pre-casting plant generally permits higher quality control of the
product than is possible with cast-in-place concrete produced at a construction site.
A proper mix design assures that the concrete mix is well proportioned. The mixing
time and mixing method/equipment should be sufficient to assure a uniform mixture.
When placing the concrete, care should be taken to avoid segregation. For example,
if dropped too far, the heavy or big aggregate particles can settle and lighter mix
components, such as water, tend to rise. The concrete is conveyed from the mixing
truck to its final destination in dump buckets by cableways or cranes or by pumping
through pipelines. In modern high-rise building construction, concrete has been
pumped as high as a thousand feet (330 m). During placement, large amounts of air
are entrapped in the mix, which lowers the strength of the hardened concrete. Much
of the air is removed by compaction, which is achieved by either immersing high-

46 
 
frequency vibrators into the fresh concrete or attaching them to the outside faces of
the formwork (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Vibration of concrete.

Care must be taken to avoid excessive vibration; otherwise the heavy aggregate
particles settle down and the light mixing water rises to the surface.
Curing - Once the concrete has been placed and compacted, it is critical that none of
the mixing water needed for cement hydration is lost. This is the objective of curing.
For example, in hot or dry weather large exposed surfaces will lose water by
evaporation. This can be avoided by covering such surfaces with sheets of plastic or
canvas or by periodically spraying them with water. In precast concrete plants,
concrete elements are often steam-cured, because the simultaneous application of
hot steam and pressure accelerates the hydration process, which permits high
turnover rates for the formwork installations.
Quality control - To assure that the finished material has the specified properties,
quality assurance and quality control procedures need to be implemented. From a

47 
 
public safety viewpoint, strength is the most important property. To assure adequate
strength, such as determining the time of safe formwork removal, concrete batches
are sampled by casting test cylinders at the same time and place as the structure
being built. These cylinders are then tested by accredited laboratories to determine
their strength. If the in-situ strength of existing structures needs to be evaluated,
concrete cores may be drilled from selected parts of the structure and tested in the
laboratory. There are also nondestructive test methods available to determine various
properties of hardened concrete.

Properties of fresh concrete.

Workability - The most important property of fresh concrete is its workability or

flowability, because this determines the ease with which it can be placed. This also
allows it to be easily cast into any desired shape. Workability is determined using a
slump test, in which a standard truncated metal cone form is filled with fresh
concrete (Fig. 2).

48 
 
Figure 2: Cone test for workability

The mold is then lifted vertically, and the resulting loss in height of the concrete
cone, or the slump value, is indicative of the concrete’s workability. For very liquid
mixes, the flow test is performed, which is similar to the slump test, except that the
mean diameter of the cake formed by the fresh concrete (or mortar) is measured.
A short while after casting, the concrete stiffens and loses its plasticity. The time of
setting can be determined by repeatedly dropping a calibrated needle into the fresh
concrete and measuring the time when the needle no longer sinks in.

Properties of hardened concrete.

49 
 
Compressive strength- By far, the most important property of hardened concrete is
its compressive strength. Since this strength continues to increase with continuing
cement hydration, it is a function of age which is the time after casting. The strength
is determined 28 days after casting by loading standardized test cylinders or cubes
up to failure (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Cube concrete samples in a standard steel mould

Most commercially produced concrete has compressive strengths between 20 and

40 MPa. If loaded in tension, the material fails at a stress much lower than that,
typically of the order of 10% of the compressive strength. Because of this low (and
unreliable) tensile strength, concrete is usually reinforced with steel bars.

50 
 
Durability - Durability is the ability of a material (or structure) to maintain its various
properties throughout its design or service life. Concrete is very durable. Some
concrete structures built by the Romans served for over 2000 years. A material that
loses its strength in time, for whatever reason, cannot be considered durable.

Thermal properties - The heavy weight of concrete [its specific gravity is typically
2.4 g/cm3] is the source of large thermal mass. For this reason, massive concrete
walls and roof and floor slabs are well suited for storing thermal energy. Because of
this heat capacity of concrete, together with its reasonably low thermal conductivity,
concrete structures can moderate extreme temperature cycles and increase the
comfort of occupants.

Waterproof property - Well-designed concrete mixes are impermeable to liquids and

therefore suitable for storage tanks without the need for impermeable membranes or
liners.
Fire resistant - It is a non-combustible material, making it f ire resistant and able to
withstand high temperatures.

Low maintenance – Concrete once hardened needs no maintenance and thus is

considered desirable as compared to other materials. Concrete does not rot, rust or
decay and is resistant to wind, water, rodents and insects.

Easily Engineered – Concrete can be modified to yield special purpose concrete e.g.
lightweight concrete, heavyweight concrete, architectural concrete, fiber-reinforced
concrete, ultra-high-strength concrete, self-levelling concrete, etc.

Uses of concrete
Concrete is the most common building material used in today's construction
industry. It is used in the following industries:-

51 
 
Bridges - More than 70% of the bridges throughout the world are constructed of
concrete. These bridges perform year round in a wide variety of climates and
geographic locations. With long life and low maintenance, concrete consistently
outperforms other materials as a choice for bridge construction.
Buildings - Concrete has been used for all manner of buildings. More than 50% of
buildings in both developing and developed countries have concrete within their
components. Reinforced concrete construction for high-rise buildings provides
inherent stiffness, mass, and ductility. Occupants of concrete towers are less likely
to perceive building motions than occupants of comparable tall buildings with non-
concrete structural systems.
Pavements - Concrete pavements generally provide the longest life, least
maintenance, and lowest life-cycle cost of all alternatives. Such pavements include
streets, roads and runways.
Water structures – Concrete is used in dams, water retaining walls, water tanks,
sewer-lines and in water channel-ways.
Nuclear reactor facilities – Concrete has equally been used in nuclear facilities for
its good shielding properties against neutrons and gamma-rays. Due to its intrinsic
water content and relatively high-density, respectively, make it the most widely used
material for radiation shielding also.
Railways systems – Concrete is used in construction of overhead rail systems in most
cities around the world e.g. SGR in Kenya.
Grain storage facilities – Concrete is used to construct silos for agricultural products
like maize and wheat.
Tunnels – Concrete in the form of shotcrete has been used in the construction of
tunnel facilities in mining, roads, railways, ports, etc.

QUESTIONS.
52 
 
 1. Discuss the constituents of concrete.
2. State and explain four properties of hardened concrete.
3. Briefly discuss the uses of concrete in construction.

4.1 Glass

Glass is an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well

as hard, brittle, and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into
practical and decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still very important in
applications as disparate as building construction, housewares, and
telecommunications. It is made by cooling molten ingredients such as silica sand
with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals.

Properties of glass

Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world. Its
transparency can be permanently altered by adding admixtures to the initial batch
mix. By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in buildings can be made
opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)
U-value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred through the
window. The lower the U-value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the
better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.
Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology,
certain laminates and admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture (ability to resist
deformation under load).
Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short
wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass through glass and are absorbed, but
the longer infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are unable to pass through

53 
 
the glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a higher resultant temperature.
Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or
pressed. It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless,
diffused and stained. Glass can also be welded by fusion.
Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass
gathered for re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass manufacture, as
aggregates in concrete construction etc.
Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually
enters a building through the entire window assembly as heat gain.
Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes
through the glass.
Energy efficiency and acoustic control: Energy-efficient glazing is the term used to
describe the double glazing or triple glazing use in modern windows in homes.
Unlike the original single glazing or old double glazing, energy-efficient glazing
incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat escaping through the
windows. The air barrier also enhances acoustic control.

Types of glass
Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced
by annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-
6000 psi. Stronger than Rocky Balboa taking punches from 2000 psi punches man
Ivan Drago. It is available in standard thickness ranging from 2mm to 20mm. and
has weight range in 6-26kg/m2. It has too much transparency and can cause glare. It
is used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.
Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear glass
without compromising its strength. Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint;
sulphar in different concentrations can make the glass yellow, red or black. Copper

54 
 
sulphate can turn it blue, etc.
Toughened Glass This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low
visibility but it breaks into small dice-like pieces at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi.
Hence it is used in making fire resistant doors etc. They are available in same weight
and thickness range as float glass.
Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a
protective layer. It is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as
well. It is tough and protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%.
Used in glass facades, aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made.
This type of glass does not from sharp edged pieces even when broken. Used in
skylight, window, flooring, etc
Extra clean glass: This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them
without leaving any marks and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with
Nanoparticles that attack and break dirt making it easier to clean and maintain.
Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes
in order to reduce the heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount
of heat gain and up to 30% of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy
efficient glass can reduce this impact.
Chromatic glass: This type of glass can control daylight and transparency
effectively. These glass are available in three forms- photochromatic (light sensitive
lamination on glass), thermochromatic (heat sensitive lamination on glass) and
electrochromatic (light sensitive glass the transparency of which can be controlled
by electricity switch.) It can be used in meeting rooms and ICUs
Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and
flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package" air, and consequently make good
insulating materials. Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also
55 
 
for soundproofing.
Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and,
while the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The
resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks
provide visual obscuration while admitting light.

Polycarbonate: This elastic is 300 times stronger than glass, is resistant to most
chemicals, is twice as lighter than class, has high abrasion and impact resistance. It
can transmit as much light as glass without many distortions. Applications include
window, green house glazing etc.
Acrylic: Acrylic is made of thermo plasticsis weather resistant, is 5 times stronger
than glass but is prone to scratches. It has excellent optics, is softer than glass but
can accumulate a lot of dust. This is extensively used in to make playhouses, green
house etc.
GRP panels: Glass-reinforced Plastics (GRP) is manufactured by combining
hundreds of glass strands together using a pigmented thermosetting UV resin. Glass-
reinforced plastics are also used to produce house building components such as
roofing laminate, canopies etc. The material is light and easy to handle. It is used in
the construction of composite housing and insulation to reduce heat loss.
ETFE: Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene is a plastic with high strength and corrosion
resistance. It has high energy radiation resistance properties, it is strong, self
cleaning and recyclable.

The versatility of glass keeps on increasing as scientists find new applications to this
wonder material. Glass is now being used in the building industry as insulation
material, structural component, external glazing material, cladding material; it is
used to make delicate looking fenestrations on facades as well as conventional

56 
 
windows. With the advent of green technology in construction, glass is constantly
undergoing transformation. Solar power glass, switchable glass projection screens
are a few of the newer uses.

QUESTIONS.

1. State and describe five properties of glass.

2. Discuss six types of glass and their uses in construction.

57 
 
Lesson 5: Heat – transmission, effects and basic calculations.

Objectives

1. Understand basic terms used in heat transmission.

2. Understand the effects of heat on building materials.
3. Undertake basic calculations on heat transmission.

Heat transmission methods.

Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat transfer occurs. Heat transfer will
only occur from a place of high temperature to a place of low temperature. Heat
transfer may occur rapidly, such as through a cooking pan, or slowly, such as through
the walls of a house on a cold night.

We can control rates of heat transfer by choosing materials (such as warm clothing
for the cold season), controlling air movement (such as the use of filling material on
spaces around a door), or by choice of color (such as wearing white clothes to reflect
sunlight). So many processes involve heat transfer, so that it is hard to imagine a
situation where no heat transfer occurs. Yet every process involving heat transfer
takes place by only three methods:

1. Conduction is heat transfer through stationary matter by physical contact.

(The matter is stationary on a macroscopic scale—we know there is thermal
motion of the atoms and molecules at any temperature above absolute zero.)
Heat transferred between the electric burner of a stove and the bottom of a pan
is transferred by conduction.
2. Convection is the heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of a fluid. This
type of transfer takes place in a forced-air furnace and in weather systems, for
example.

58 
 
 3. Heat transfer by radiation occurs when microwaves, infrared radiation,
visible light, or another form of electromagnetic radiation is emitted or
absorbed. An obvious example is the warming of the Earth by the Sun. A less
obvious example is thermal radiation from the human body.

Figure 1 show the three methods within the structure of a house. Cold air comes into
the house through the window and door by convection, heat from the fire-place
spreads in the air within the room through radiation, the fire heats the floor through
conduction and hot air leaves through the chimney by convection.

Figure 1: Illustration of heat transfer methods.

59 
 
Effects of heat on building materials.
Most of the times, thermal (heat) effects are understood to focus just on materials
(understood as solid materials), and to deal with the effects of a non-comfort working
temperature (cold or hot) on some material properties (structural, electronic, etc.),
including the thermal processes used to produce, change or dispose of those
materials. Sometimes it is also said ‘the effect of heat on materials’, meaning the
effect of heating so as to increase the internal energy. Of course, the effects of
cooling are also relevant thermal effects.

The traditional thermal (heat) effects are:

 Phase change, basically melting and boiling (phase transition temperatures).
 Glass transition temperature.
 Dimensional change, basically thermal expansion (in general, contraction if
negative).
 Elasto-plastic changes, due to thermal stresses.
 Brittle/ductile transition temperature.
 Chemical change, decomposition, oxidation, ignition.
 Other physical changes as drying, segregation, outgassing, colour change, etc.
 Thermal effects due to non-thermal causes: frictional heating, electrical
heating, chemical heating, nuclear heating.

A general idea to keep in mind is that materials cannot resist very high temperature,
say over 1000 K, without decomposition; materials resistant to high temperatures
(from 1000 K to 3000 K) are called refractories. On the other hand, the effect of very
low temperatures (cryogenics) is mainly an increase in fragility (most materials
break or even shatter after a knock at cryogenic temperatures).

60 
 
Specific heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy needed to
raise 1Kg of a substance by 10C. Different materials have different specific heat
capacities. Table 1 shows the specific heat capacities of several materials.

Calculations.
Calculate the energy needed to raise the temperature of 5kgs of aluminium from
200C to 1000C. Specific Heat Capacity of Aluminium = 9.2 x 102J/Kg/0C.
∆ ∆
= 5 x (9.2 x102) x (100 – 20)
= 368,000J.
QUESTIONS.
1. State and explain the three methods of heat transmission.
2. State and explain using examples how building materials are affected by heat.
3. Air has a density of 1.2kg/m3. How much heat in Joules is needed to raise the
temperature of the air in a 3.0m x 5.0m room by 50C?

61 
 
Lesson 6: Thermal insulation, draught control and basic calculations.

Objectives

1. Understand the basics of thermal insulation and draught control in buildings.

2. Undertake basic calculations in thermal insulation.
Thermal insulation and draught control.
Basic definitions.
Thermal Insulation - Thermal insulation is the process of insulating material from
transferring heat between the materials that are in thermal contact. Thermal
insulation is measured by its thermal conductivity. Low thermal-conductive
materials are used for thermal insulation. Besides thermal conductivity, density and
heat capacity are also important properties of insulating materials.

Thermal Envelope

A thermal envelope is “everything about the house that serves to shield the
living space from the outdoors.”

The thermal envelope includes the wall and roof assemblies, insulation,
air/vapor retarders, windows, and weather-stripping and caulking.

It also is called the heat flow control layer. In simplest terms, what makes up
the thermal envelope are the parts of a house (or building) that separate the
heated/cooled area from the outside (or a non-heated/cooled area, such as a
garage or attic).

Exterior walls, doors and windows can all be part of the building’s thermal
energy. They each play a role in the overall air flow and energy balance of a
building.

62 
 
 When you picture a house, think of a “mabati” building that’s hot during a
sunny day and freezing cold at night because of draughts. Whereas a well-
insulated structure will be comfortable throughout despite external weather
extremities.

A house with a “tight” thermal envelope won’t lose much heating or cooling.
A “loose” envelope results in a draughty home.

Insulation levels, energy-efficient windows, weather-stripping, caulking and

a vapor retarder (which inhibits the movement of moisture) all play a role in
improving a building’s energy efficiency.

Even buildings with “tight” thermal envelopes must deal with “heat bridges.”
A heat bridge (also called a “thermal bridge, “cold bridge” or “thermal
bypass”) is an area where it’s easier for heat or cooling to move in or out.

Heat bridges occur in locations such as where the door meets the wall, or
where a wall meets a window. Any place with potential gaps could be a heat
bridge.

Draught control – A draught is a noticeable current of air inside a building that can
make its occupants uncomfortable and result in unnecessary heat loss. Draught
proofing, also known as draught exclusion, is a technique for controlling draughts.

Generally it is possible to feel draughts, however, they can also be detected with
thermal detectors or located with candles. Once located, remedies might include:

 Refurbishing doors and windows.

 Installing secondary or double glazing.

63 
 
 Installing or repairing weather seals around windows and doors.
 Filling gaps around penetrations through walls.
 Sealing gaps between floor boards.
 Closing gaps in wall constructions.
 Closing off open chimneys (although it is important in this case that the chimney
remains vented, both at the top and the bottom, and is filled for example with
vermiculite, to prevent the accumulation of moisture).
 Installing or sealing internal doors or other openings to reduce the movement of
air within the building.
 Changing operations so that doors remain closed (such as loading bays or
receptions).
 Changing building services installations.

However, it is important that intended ventilation paths are not blocked. Air bricks,
trickle vents, ventilation to under floor cavities and roof spaces, are provided for a
reason, removing or blocking them can cause damp, mould and rot, as well as
allowing the build-up of contaminants. Some appliances, such as wood-brining
stoves must have ventilation provided if they have an output of more than 4.5kw.
Figure 1 shows a house with potential thermal gains and losses indicated.

64 
 
Figure 1: Thermal losses and gains in an ordinary house.

During construction, the overall aim is to ensure the highest quality of workmanship
on site. Materials and products in isolation very rarely fail; similarly drawings and
specifications rarely fail. Generally, problems arise due to poor workmanship.

Thermal Insulation Calculations.

Thermal Conductivity - Thermal conductivity (often denoted by k, λ, or κ) refers

to the intrinsic ability of a material to transfer or conduct heat. It is one of the three
methods of heat transfer, the other two being convection and radiation. Heat transfer
processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations. The rate equation
in this heat transfer mode is based on Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Thermal conductivity occurs through molecular agitation and contact, and does not
result in the bulk movement of the solid itself. Heat moves along a temperature
gradient, from an area of high temperature and high molecular energy to an area with
a lower temperature and lower molecular energy. This transfer will continue until
65 
 
thermal equilibrium is reached. The rate at which heat is transferred is dependent
upon the magnitude of the temperature gradient, and the specific thermal
characteristics of the material.

Thermal conductivity is also defined as the amount of heat per unit time per unit area
that can be conducted through a plate of unit thickness of a given material, the faces
of the plate differing by one unit of temperature. Thermal conductivity is quantified
using the International Systems of Unit (SI unit) of W/m•K (Watts per meter per
degree Kelvin), and is the reciprocal of thermal resistivity, which measures an
objects ability to resist heat transfer. Thermal conductivity equation can be
calculated using the following:

∗

2 1

Where:
Q = heat flow (W or J/S)
L = length or thickness of the material (m)
A = surface area of material (m2)
T2−T1 = temperature gradient (K)

R-Value - The ability of a material to resist heat flow or the thermal resistance of a
material is measured in R-Value. R-Value is the inverse of U-Factor (R=1/U). The
higher the R-Value, the slower the heat flow through the material. The formula for
calculation of thermal resistance (R) is:-

Where:
d = thickness (depth) of material layer.

66 
 
λ = thermal conductivity of the material layer.
U Value – U Value is the thermal transmittance. It is the reciprocal of all resistances
of the materials found in the building element. To calculate the U-Value of the
building element the R-Value of all the different components that make up that
element will be considered. U-Value (of building element) = 1 / (Rso + Rsi + R1 + R2
…) A single pane of glass, for example, has a U-Factor of 1.13. A double pane has
a U-Factor of .45. The rate of heat flow through the single pane of glass is more than
double that through the double pane. The higher the U-Factor, the quicker the heat
flows.

Thermal Transmittance (U-Value) calculation for a simple construction.

67 
 
Example.
A concrete wall is 100mm thick. Calculate the thermal transmittance of the wall if
the thermal conductivity of concrete is 1.33W/mK.
Thermal Resistance (R) = d/ λ = 0.100/1.33W/mK = 0.075m2K/W
Thermal transmittance (U-Value) = 1/R = 1/0.075m2K/W = 13.33W/m2K

QUESTIONS.
1. Explain the term thermal envelope.
2. List and explain the remedies for controlling draught in a simple house.
3. The outer surface of a boiler is covered with insulating material of thermal
conductivity 0.04W/mK. It is 125mm thick and has a surface area of 50m2.
The inside edge of the insulating material has an average temperature of 423K
and the temperature of the outside surface is 303K. Using the thermal
conductivity equation, calculate the heat loss through the insulation per hour.

68 
 
Lesson 7: Sound transmission and acoustic materials.

Objectives

1. Understand the transmission of sound in buildings.

2. Understand acoustic materials and the use in construction.

Sound transmission in buildings.

Introduction.
Acoustic properties of buildings are often neglected by designers, developers,
contractors, and even home buyers. Noises from both the internal and external
environments affect occupants' daily lives. The loudness of noise is objectively
measurable with appropriate equipment, but the annoyance to occupants cannot be
measured directly. The acceptable level of background noise inside a room is
established when the noise from sources outside the room are not discernible when
normal activities are in operation within the room

Indoor acoustic condition has a huge impact on people’s health, well-being, and
general performance. Persistent environmental noise above 40 dBA will cause
annoyance and disturb sleep, while also increasing the risk of a range of issues; e.g.,
ischemic heart disease, hearing impairment, and mental health problems. The most
significant noise sources include road traffic noise, construction noise, neighborhood
noise, elevator noise, and industrial noises.

Sources of sound nuisance in buildings.

Some of the sources of unwanted noise in buildings are:-

1. Human sources (e.g., voice, steps, movements, radio, or television).

2. Individual equipment (e.g., apartment heaters and washing machines).
3. Domestic equipment and activities (e.g. flushing of toilets).

69 
 
 4. Collective equipment (e.g., heaters, lifts, transformers, or air conditioners).
5. Outdoor noise (e.g., automobiles, buses, railway, aircraft noise, or industrial
noises).

Elements that allow sound transmission through buildings.

Acoustical comfort also depends on building characteristics. Sound waves can be

transmitted through:-

1. Walls.
2. Windows.
3. Floors especially in flats and apartments.
4. Ducts.
5. Shafts.
6. Openings.
7. Vibrations through the structure.
All the above will determine the sound pressure level and if not done in a way to
provide acoustic comfort, it results in a room filled with sounds from both the indoor
and outdoor sources.
Acoustic materials in construction.

There are two types of acoustic materials in construction:-

1. Materials that absorb the sound thus reducing the noise levels. These include:-
a. Acoustical ceiling tiles (Figure 1).

70 
 
 Figure 1: Acoustic ceiling tiles

b. Acoustic boards (Figure 2) – used on floors and partitions.

Figure 2: Noise acoustic boards.

c. Melamine foam sound absorbers (Figure 3) – Used on ceilings and

walls.

71 
 
 Figure 3: Melamine foam sound absorbers

d. Absorptive/Noise barrier quilted curtains (Figure 4) – used to enclose

areas with noise or work places.

Figure 4: Noise barrier quilted curtains.

2. Materials that reflect the sound in such a way as to produce pleasant sound.
These include:-
a. Silent screen panels (Figure 5) – Installed on walls and partitions.

72 
 
 Figure 5: Silent screen panels

b. Vista panels (Figure 6) – When some degree of visibility is required for

safety or monitoring purposes, Acoustical Panels can incorporate a high
strength Lexan-type material which has a clarity rivaling glass, but is
much stronger. VISTA panels also are abrasion and ultraviolet
resistant.

Figure 6: Vista Panels.

c. Reflective panels (Figure 7) – Installed on walls, partitions and as a

noise wall or acoustic barrier.

73 
 
 Figure 7: Reflective panels.

d. Mass loaded vinyl barrier (Figure 8) – installed to cover existing walls,

ceilings, partitions, machinery enclosures, ducts, floors, etc.

Figure 8: Mass loaded vinyl barrier.

QUESTIONS.

1. State and explain five sources of noise nuisance.

2. What four elements in a building allow transmission of unwanted noise?
3. Using examples, explain sound absorbent and sound reflective acoustic
materials.

74 
 
Lesson 8: Elasticity of materials.

Objectives

Define the elasticity of a material in terms of stress and strain.

Elasticity of Materials.

Elasticity is the property of solid materials to return to their original shape and size
after the forces deforming them have been removed.

Hooke’s Law.

For relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement or size of the

deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load i.e.

∝ ∆

Hooke’s law can be generalised as stress is proportional to strain where:-

Strain = change in a spatial dimension (length, angle or volume) compared to its

original value.

Stress = Cause of the change (a force applied to the object).

Since ∝

75 
 
 ∆
∴ ∝

Imagine a piece of dough. Stretch it. It gets longer and thinner. Squash it. It gets
shorter and fatter. Now imagine a piece of granite. Try the same mental experiment.
The change in shape must surely occur, but to the unaided eye it's imperceptible.
Some materials stretch and squash quite easily. Some do not.

The quantity that describes a material's response to stresses applied normal to

opposite faces is called Young’s elastic modulus or Young’s modulus of elasticity.

∴ ∝

Becomes

.
∴ ∆ .∆

Where:-

E Young s modulus of elasticity

Questions.

Derive the equation showing the relationship between stress, strain and elasticity.

76 
 
Lesson 9: Lifting and hoisting loads.

Objectives.

1. Understand methods of lifting and hoisting loads in construction.

2. Understand measures taken while lifting and hoisting loads in construction.

Lifting and hoisting loads in construction.

Introduction.

Hoisting and moving heavy materials from one point to another around a job site
requires the use of specialized machinery. In some cases, a crew may need to
suspend the materials when building large-scale projects such as industrial buildings,
dams or skyscrapers. The invention of cranes made material handling on a large scale
easier for work crews.

Hard-to-reach locations where trucks and other construction vehicles cannot traverse
may need steel, heavy equipment and supplies. Engineers developed these pieces of
heavy equipment to provide stability, distribute weight and offer safety when
handling heavy loads at shorter distances. Crews often affix these simple machines
to a platform, either mobile or static, to offer a mechanical advantage over other
types of man-powered, pulley-based or motor-driven hoisting methods. Cranes
represent essential components to construction, and crews primarily use them for the
heaviest of lifting tasks.

Equipment for lifting and hoisting loads in construction.

Here’s a look at some of the most common hoisting and material handling devices,
including different types of cranes and conveyor systems you may see on a job site.

1. Mobile Cranes: easy to relocate on short-term projects

77 
 
 Mobile cranes provide easy relocation at different areas of a job site (Figure 1).
Wheels or tracks house most mobile cranes, and they offer adequate weight
distribution and maneuverability over rough terrain. However, the design of mobile
cranes also presents some safety issues:

 They are not capable of lifting loads as heavy as some other types of cranes
 They can be prone to overloading because of a lack of safety features

Figure 1: Mobile crane

Mobile cranes, however, are the best choice for short-term projects and maximum
mobility throughout a varying job site. Their mobility gives them an advantage and
can save on the costs of setting up and relocating a more static crane.

2. Derrick Cranes: lifting up to 200 tons

These unique cranes feature a mast, a boom and a wheel-driven rotation (Figure 2).
When constructing very large, high structures such as multiple-level apartment
complexes, hospitals or other industrial buildings, derrick cranes may be employed.
As common with most industrial construction equipment, to operate a derrick crane,
you need to be certified based on OSHA’s rules.

78 
 
 Figure 2: Derrick crane

These cranes do offer the ability to lift up to 200 tons and have full 360-degree
rotation features. They operate under diesel power and electric power. For longer-
term projects, derrick cranes are more common than mobile cranes, which are
employed on a short-term basis.

3. Tower Cranes: a bigger version of the derrick crane

Tower cranes are similar to derrick cranes, but they’re mounted on a large steel tower
for maximum height and stability (Figure 3). Crews employ them for the
construction of skyscrapers and large high-rise buildings. Unlike mobile cranes,
tower cranes get deployed for large, long-term projects and are considered some of
the safest cranes in use.

79 
 
 Figure 3: Tower crane

Like the derrick crane, they offer incredible capacity for heavy loads and rotation
from a single bull-wheel base. A tower crane’s load capability depends on the height,
reach, lifting power and counterweights — and the placement of the load in relation
to the jib.

4. Conveyors: moving materials from one place to another

While they may get overlooked because of their simplicity, conveyors fulfill
essential functions for heavy equipment utilized at building sites (Figure 4). They
offer incredible versatility in transporting large quantities or heavy materials from
one area to another.

80 
 
 Figure 4: Conveyors

They can convey material in a variety of directions, either vertically, horizontally or

on an incline, using a consecutive chain belt to push materials through quickly. In
most mining operations, and for the movement of concrete, crews employ
conveyors. Advantages to their use include:

 Saving time
 Increasing overall output
 Running continuously

Belt conveyors operate using a rubber belt that runs over a series of drums or pulleys.
These types of conveyors handle all kinds of materials, both wet and dry, and can
convey thousands of tons of material per hour over long distances. They are also
lightweight and have speed control functions to increase or decrease output.

For more grain-sized materials, crews may use screw conveyor systems instead.
Screw conveyors cost less, but do not handle the large quantities belt conveyors do
cost less. They operate by a motor that drives a screw or helix over a bearing from
one end. Material enters one side and pushes through the conveyor before being
carried to the other end by the rotation of the screw.

81 
 
You may also see a bucket conveyor, another common type. Through a series of
buckets moving vertically or on an incline, material rises from a lower level to a
higher level. Also referred to as bucket elevators, these machines are very common
in the coal industry to transport coal from one point to another.

5. Forklifts: Moving Heavy Materials Back and Forth

Forklifts might not come to mind when you think of a piece of heavy equipment for
construction work, but these little workhorses offer versatility and maneuverability
in lifting and moving heavy materials or supplies from one place to another (Figure
5). Depending on the application, forklifts have different load capacities, mostly
between one and five tons. However, some may be designed for larger load
capacities.

Figure 5: Fork Lift

6. Hoists.

82 
 
The lifting force is provided by a drum (or wheel) on which wraps a rope (wire or
fibre) or a chain (Figure 6). There are different types of hoists – Electro-hydraulic,
manual or lever operated, base mounted, or pendant cranes. These hoists are
different in the way they move, but the precautions that should be taken when
working with them are similar.

Figure 6: Hoist

7. Elevators.

Elevators are vertical transport systems that transport people between floors of a
building. An elevator system consists of a hoisting mechanism that is connected to
a car or platform. This car or platform then moves vertically, in most cases, on
guides that are attached to the fire-resistant sides of a hoistway.

8. Electric Winch.
A winch is a mechanism in the shape of a cylinder or drum, over which rope or chain
is wound (Figure 7). If a winch is used only for raising and lowering, it is sometimes
referred to as hoist. The winches are of two types:

 hand winches
 power winches

83 
 
 Figure 7: Electric Winch.
Measures taken while lifting and hoisting loads in construction.

While undertaking the lifting and hoisting during construction, there are standards
developed according to Occupational Safety Health Act (OSHA). These are meant
to safeguard against risks. The following are practices observed for the safe lifting
using equipment:-

1. Design – the lifting equipment is expected to be of a standard and acceptable

design with specifications showing maximum load, safe design, quality
workmanship, manual for safe operations, etc.
2. Testing certification – The equipment should have been tested at the factory
and a certificate issued to ensure that it is safe for use.
3. Maintenance – The employer should ensure regular maintenance to avoid
accidents while in use.
4. Personnel handling – the lifting equipment should be handled only by trained
and certified personnel.
5. Observance of loading limits – Lifting equipment should never be overloaded
since it may cause failure and a safety hazard to workers. Some of the
equipment like cranes are supposed to have load indicator gauges.

84 
 
 6. Communication equipment – Hoisting equipment operators are expected to
have communication equipment to ensure that at all times they can receive
instructions on hauling and safety observations from guides.
7. Safety devices – the hoisting equipment should have safety devices to ensure
observance of safety. Such may include manual overrides, emergency shut-
down controls, etc.
8. Fire extinguishing equipment – The hoisting equipment should have fire
extinguishing equipment at all times.
9. Working environment – The location and working environment of the
machine and operators should be such as to not be hazardous to either the
operator or other workers.

QUESTIONS.

1. State and describe five lifting and hoisting equipment used in construction.
2. Discuss the OSH conditions necessary for use of hoisting and lifting
equipment.

85 
 
Lesson 10: Reactions of a simply supported beam with point loads.

Objectives.

To derive the expressions for the reactions with point loads on a simply supported
beam.

Beams and reactions.

Introduction.

1. The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loading; that is,
the applied force are perpendicular to the bar.
2. In a beam, the internal force system consist of a shear force and a bending
moment acting on the cross section of the bar. The shear force and the bending
moment usually vary continuously along the length of the beam.
3. The internal forces give rise to two kinds of stresses on a transverse section
of a beam:
 normal stress that is caused by bending moment and;
 shear stress due to the shear force.
4. Knowing the distribution of the shear force and the bending moment in a beam
is essential for the computation of stresses and deformations.
Supports and loads.
Beams are classified according to their supports. A simply supported beam, shown
in Figure 1. The pin support prevents displacement of the end of the beams, but not
its rotation. The term roller support refers to a pin connection that is free to move
parallel to the axis of the beam; this type of support suppresses only the transverse
displacement.

86 
 
Figure 1: Simply supported beam with point load.
A concentrated load, such as P in Figure 1. In contrast a distributed load is applied
over a finite area. If the distributed load acts on a very narrow area, the load may be
approximated by a line load.
The intensity w of this loading is expressed as force per unit length (lb/ft, N/m, etc.)
The load distribution may be uniform, as shown in Figure 2, or it may vary with
distance along the beam, as in Fig. 3.
The weight of the beam is an example of distributed loading, but its magnitude is
usually small compared to the loads applied to the beam.

Figure 2: Cantilever beam Figure 3: Overhanging beam

Static Analysis.
Since a simply supported beam is a determinate structure, it is possible to obtain its
static response using just equilibrium equations. These equations enforce that the
sum of all forces and moments, acting upon the structure, in any direction, including

87 
 
both applied loads and support reactions, must be zero. For a plane structure, with
in plane loading, the equilibrium equations are:-

Σ 0

Σ 0

Σ 0

The first two equations, enforce force equilibrium in directions x and y, (a Cartesian
system of axes that can be arbitrarily defined, depending on the case). The third
equation enforces the equilibrium of all moments around a certain point, which can
be any point of the plane.

Support reactions of a simply supported beam with a point load 

Determine the support reactions of a centrally loaded simply supported beam, with a point load
P, at the middle

Assigning the unknown support reactions to variables RA, HA and RB, as shown in the figure, the
three equilibrium equations are defined this way:

 Along direction x, there is no imposed force applied to the structure. There is only the unknown
support reaction HA. Thus the first equilibrium equation is:

 ∑FX = 0 → HA = 0

 Along direction y, the imposed force P is applied to the center of the beam, as well as support
reactions RA and RB. Thus the first equilibrium equation is:

 ∑FY = 0 → RA + RB – P = 0

88 
 
  For the third equation we have to choose one point around which the moments are calculated.
It is often more convenient to select a point through which some of the forces are directed (such
as point A in our example), because, the resulting moments for these forces would be zero. So,
around point A, support reactions HA and RA have no lever arm, imposed force have a lever
arm equal to half the beam length and support reaction have a lever arm equal to the beam
length. Assuming counter-clockwise positive rotation, the third equation becomes:

 ∑ MA = 0 → HA0 + RA0 – PL/2 + RBL = 0

There are three unknowns, and we have three equations, therefore it is possible to solve the system
of equations and obtain the unknown support reactions. HA is directly found from the first equation
equal to zero. Unless there is an imposed load along the beam longitudinal axis, this reaction will
always be zero. From the third equation we can directly obtain RB:

- PL/2 + RBL = 0 →

RB = P/2

And finally, substituting RB to the second equation, RA should be found too:

RA + P/2 – P = 0 →

RA = P/2

CALCULATION EXAMPLE.

89 
 
QUESTIONS.

1. Using a simply supported beam with a point load in the middle, derive
equations for the support reactions.

90 
 
 2. Using a simply supported beam carrying an eccentric point load, derive
equations for the support reactions.
3. Determine the reactions at support A and B for the overhanging beam
subjected to the loading as shown.

91 
 
Lesson 11: Moments and shear forces.

Objectives

To derive the expressions for moments and shear forces on a simply supported beam.

Moments and shear forces on a simply supported Beam.

Introduction

Shear Forces occurs when two parallel forces act out of alignment with each other.
For example, in a large boiler made from sections of sheet metal plate riveted
together (Figure 1), there is an equal and opposite force exerted on the rivets, owing
to the expansion and contraction of the plates.

Figure 1: Shear Forces on a sheet metal plate.

The shearing force (SF) at any section of a beam represents the tendency for the
portion of the beam on one side of the section to slide or shear laterally relative to
the other portion.

92 
 
Bending Moments are rotational forces within the beam that cause bending. At any
point within a beam, the Bending Moment is the sum of: each external force
multiplied by the distance that is perpendicular to the direction of the force.

For the purposes of calculating shear force and bending moment diagrams, forces
acting upwards are considered positive and those acting downwards to be negative
drawn on a 2-D Cartesian plane of x and y (refer to Figure 2). On the other hand,
moment acting in a clock-wise direction are considered positive and those acting in
a counter-clockwise direction are considered negative when drawn on a 2-D
Cartesian plane.

Figure 2: Annotation of forces and moments based on direction.

93 
 
Shear Forces acting on a simply supported beam.

Figure 3: Simply Supported beam.

Taking the simply supported beam on Figure 3, the shearing force at any section of
a beam is the algebraic sum of the lateral components of the forces acting on either
side of the section. Where forces are neither in the lateral or axial direction they must
be resolved in the usual way and only the lateral components are used to calculate
the shear force.

Shear Force at point A:

From the equilibrium equation:

Σ 0

(S.F.)A = P/2

Shear Force at point AB:

From the equilibrium equation:

Σ 0

(S.F.)AB = P/2 – P = - P/2

Shear Force at point B:

94 
 
From the equilibrium equation:

Σ 0

(S.F.)B = -P/2 – P/2 = 0

Moments acting on a simply supported beam.

Bending Moment at AB is defined as the algebraic sum of the moments about the
section of all forces acting on either side of the section. Bending moments are
considered positive when the moment on the left portion is clockwise and on the
right anticlockwise. This is referred to as a sagging bending moment as it tends to
make the beam concave upwards at AB. A negative bending moment is termed
hogging.

Bending Moment at point A and point B:

For a simply supported beam, the bending moment at the supports A and B is 0 since
there are no forces acting on the outer side of the supports. Hence the equilibrium
equations on either support is:-

∑ MA = 0 → RA0 – PL/2 + RBL = 0

∑ MB = 0 → RB0 - PL/2 + RAL = 0
(B.M.)A = (B.M.)B = 0

Bending Moment at point AB:

At Point AB, the beam is subjected to a sagging moment on either side of the point
load.

(B.M.)AB → RA × L/2 = P/2 × L/2 = PL/4

QUESTIONS.

1. Using a diagram define the term Shear Force and Bending Moment.
95 
 
 2. Using a simply supported beam with a point load at the middle, derive the
equation for shear forces and bending moments at the supports and at the point
load.
3. Using a simply supported beam carrying an eccentric point load, derive the
equation for the shear forces and bending moments at the supports and at the
point load.

96 
 
Lesson 12: Drawing and interpretation of bending moment diagrams.

Objectives.

Learn how to draw and interpret shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The loading on most beams is such that the stress resultant on planes perpendicular
to the axis of the beam consists of a shear force, V, and a bending moment, M. In
determining beam responses, it is very convenient, if not essential, to first determine
the shear and bending moment diagrams. The basic procedure for determining the
shear and moment diagrams is to determine the values of V and M at various
locations along the beam and plotting the results.

In doing so, we will determine critical sections within the beam. A critical section is
one where a critical or maximum stress occurs. Section of Maximum Shear – Since
the shear, V, at any transverse section of the beam is the algebraic sum of the
transverse forces to the left of the section, the shear, in most cases, can be evaluated
at a glance. Section of Maximum Moment – It can be shown mathematically, that
when the shear force is zero or changes sign; the bending moment will be either a
maximum or relative maximum.

Drawing Shear Force Diagrams (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagrams (BMD).

97 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
QUESTIONS.
Calculate the shear force and bending moment for the beam subjected to a
concentrated load as shown in the figure, then draw the shear force diagram (SFD)
and bending moment diagram (BMD).

100 
 
Lesson 13: Design Calculations - Sizing of members.

Objectives.

Determine sectional sizes of joists and studs by use of formulae.

Design of joists and studs.

Introduction.
A joist is a length of timber or steel supporting part of the structure of a building,
typically arranged in parallel series to support a floor or ceiling. A stud is an upright
timber in the wall of a building to which laths and plasterboard are nailed. Basically,
a joist is a beam and a stud is a column.

Design of a joist section.

The design of a timber joist section requires the following information:-

1. Type and magnitude of loading – these are usually obtained from manuals
related to the type of building as well as finishes that will be installed on top
of the joist. It may also involve knowledge on how many joists will be
installed if the load is given per square meter.
2. The length or span of the joist.
3. The maximum allowable stress of the wood to be used – this is dependent on
the type of timber used and the grade of timber used. This is obtained from
standard tables.
4. The cross-sectional modulus of the different beams that could be used for the
joist. The cross-sectional modulus is dependent on the cross-sectional
geometrical shape of the joist, whether square or rectangular.

The process of designing a timber joist.

101 
 
 This involves several steps:-

1. Calculate the maximum bending moment based on the loading and span of
the joist.
2. Choose the size of the timber to be used in terms of its cross-section e.g.
50mm x 50mm, 50mm x 100mm, 50mm x 75mm, 50mm x 150mm, etc.
3. Based on the cross-section to be used, obtain the formula for the cross-
sectional modulus (Z).
4. Obtain the maximum allowable stress for the type and grade of timber to
be used.
5. Calculate the moment capacity (MC) of the joist. The moment capacity is
obtained by multiplying the cross-section modulus with the maximum
allowable stress.
6. Compare the moment capacity (MC) with the maximum bending moment
obtained in step 1 above. If the moment capacity is higher than the
maximum bending moment, the timber beam is capable of carrying the
load and can therefore be used. However, it the moment capacity is lower
than the maximum bending moment, the beam has failed the test and
therefore a bigger cross-sectional size should be tested through the same
steps.

Example.

A floor joist with a span of 2m is subjected to a concentrated load of 2kN/m.

Assuming C24 timber with a maximum allowable stress of 7.5 N/mm2, calculate the
most appropriate timber beam section size to be used.

Solution.

The beam is simply supported and can therefore be expresses as Figure 1.

102 
 
 Figure 1: Simply supported beam with concentrated load.

Step 1.

The maximum bending moment (BM) for a concentrated load is:

BM = WL2/8 = (2kN/m × (2m)2)/8 = 1kNm.

Step 2.

Choose the size of the section to be tested. Assuming a section of size 150mm x
50mm is chosen.

Step 3:

The formula for a rectangular section modulus is Z = bd2/6 where b is the width
and d is the depth.

Step 4:

The maximum allowable stress (σ) for the timber is given as 7.5N/mm2

Step 5:

Moment Capacity, MC = σ × bd2/6 = 7.5N/mm2 × (50mm × (150mm)2)/6 = 1.41×

106 Nmm = 1.41kNm.

Step 6:

103 
 
Comparing the beams MC with the Maximum Bending Moment on step 1.

1.41kNm ˃ 1kNm hence the section is appropriate and can be used for the joist.

QUESTIONS.

1. Outline the important prerequisites for the design of a timber joist section.
2. A 5m timber joist is subjected to a point load of 10kN located 2m from one of
the supports. Assuming C24 timber with a maximum allowable stress of 7.5
N/mm2, calculate the most appropriate timber beam section size to be used.

104 
 
Lesson 14: Design Calculations - Trusses.

Objectives.

Analyse forces acting on a truss using the method of joints.

Truss analysis using method of joints.

If a truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints must be in equilibrium.

The method of joints consists of satisfying the equilibrium equations for forces
acting on each joint.

Σ 0

Σ 0

1. Recall, that the line of action of a force acting on a joint is determined by the
geometry of the truss member.
2. The line of action is formed by connecting the two ends of each member with
a straight line.
3. Since direction of the force is known (Figure 1 and Figure 2), the remaining
unknown is the magnitude of the force.

Figure 1: Compression Force Figure 2: Tension Force

Figure 3 shows the various members in a truss. The upper chord members are always
under compression while the lower chord members are under tension.

105 
 
Figure 3: Members of a truss.

Procedure for analysis - the following is a procedure for analyzing a truss using the
method of joints:
1. If possible, determine the support reactions
2. Draw the free body diagram for each joint. In general, assume all the force
member reactions are tension (this is not a rule, however, it is helpful in
keeping track of tension and compression members).
3. Write the equations of equilibrium for each joint,
Σ 0
Σ 0

4. If possible, begin solving the equilibrium equations at a joint where only two
unknown reactions exist. Work your way from joint to joint, selecting the new
joint using the criterion of two unknown reactions.
5. Solve the joint equations of equilibrium simultaneously, typically using a
computer or an advanced calculator.
Example 1:
Consider the truss in Figure 4, determine the force on each of the members.

106 
 
 Figure 4: A loaded truss
First determine the support reactions for the truss.

Then the equations of equilibrium for joint A.

Then the equations of equilibrium for Joint B.

107 
 
Zero Force Members.
 Truss analysis may be simplified by determining members with no loading or
zero-force.
 These members may provide stability or be useful if the loading changes.
 Zero-force members may be determined by inspection of the joints
Case 1:
If two members are connected at a joint and there is no external force applied to the
joint.

Case 2:

If three members are connected at a joint and there is no external force applied to the
joint and two of the members are collinear

108 
 
Example 2:

If required to determine the forces in each of the members on the truss in Figure 5:-

1. Using Case 1, FAG, FCG, FEF and FCF are zero-force members.
2. Using Case 2, FBG and FDF are zero-force members.

Figure 5: Truss example with zero-force members

The remaining non-zero-force members can be found using the method of joints.

109 
 
QUESTIONS.

1. Explain the two cases under which members have zero-force.

2. Determine the forces in each of the members in truss a and b.

110 
 
 a.

b.

111