FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS  - biomimetics and

biomaterials
What is materials science?  Energy/Environmental - Next generation
 It involves investigating the relationships that energy conversion
exist between the structures and properties  Information Technology - Materials
of materials. informatics

What about materials engineering?

 On the basis of these structure–property Four Components of Materials Science
correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties.
What about materials engineering?

Materials Development
 Materials are probably more deep-seated
in our culture than most of us realize.
 Transportation, housing, clothing,
communication, recreation, and food
production—virtually every segment of our
everyday lives is influenced to one degree
or another by materials. Historically, the
development and advancement of
societies have been intimately tied to the
members’ ability to produce and
manipulate materials to fill their needs.

1. Stone Age (beginning life – 3000 BC)

 using naturally occuring materials with only
changes in shape
2. Bronze Age (3000 BC – 1200 BC) – Copper
and Tin Alloy
 Ability to modify materials by refining (using
heat), chemical modifications (alloying)
and mechanical deformation (cold working)
3. Iron Age (1200 BC – Present)
 Casting and alloying weren’t perfected until
16th century Mastery of Steel (Iron alloy)
technology enables Industrial Revolution in
the 18th and 19th century
 Ability to heat treat at high temperature,
control microstructure at different length
scale and ability to design specific
microstructures for specific properties
4. Plastic Age (1940 – Present)
 Discovery of polymers, and the ability to
synthesize and process polymers.
5. Silicon Age (1950 - Present)
 Commercialization of silicon technology
(integrated circuits, electronic devices, etc.)
leads to the information age, which gives
boost to human productivity
 Ability to control alloying accurately, ability
to make thin films. 1.1 TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
6. Future CONCEPTS
 - Synthesis and  Engineering materials refers to the group of
characterizations of nano-materials and materials that are used in the construction
nanostructure of manmade structures and components.
The primary function of an engineering
 material is to withstand applied loading
without breaking and without exhibiting
excessive deflection.
 For example, the computer or the pen we
use, are manufactured through controlled
engineering processes. These gadgets
make use of materials like HDPE, PP, Pb-
Silica glass, copper, aluminum, tin, etc. in
their fabrication. Civil construction works like
bridges, dams, houses, roads, pavements
are carried out with raw materials like stone,
chips, cement, clay, paint, bars, etc.
 Everything we use in our daily life can be
tailored to use for specific cases. This can
be done efficiently if we know the property
of each material beforehand. Hence,
materials have been extensively tested for
their properties and classified into broad
groups. From this grouping one can know
about the gross property of any group of
material. The major classifications of
engineering materials include metals,
polymers, ceramics, and
composites.
Materials are classified as:
1. Metallic
 those material that exhibit electrical and
thermal conductivity. Play a most significant
role in the industrial operations with which
the engineer is
concerned
2. Non-metallic
 include wood, stone, brick, cement, resins
(plastics), rubber, leather, ceramics and so
forth
Metals
➢ Normally combinations of metallic element
➢ Quite strong, yet deformable which account
for their extensive use in structural applications
➢ forms cations and ionic bonds with non-
metals
➢ have a crystalline structure in which the atoms
are arranged in orderly manner
➢ relatively strong and ductile at room
temperature and maintain good strength even
at high temperature
➢ extremely good conductors of electricity and
heat
➢ Ferrous -include steel, cast iron, wrought iron,
malleable cast iron and iron-base metal
➢ Non-ferrous include all other metals and their
combination such as copper, tin, zinc,
aluminum, magnesium and titanium
Ceramics
➢ Compounds between the non-metallic and
non-metallic elements chemically bounded
together
➢ Most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides
➢ Composed of clay minerals, cement, and
glass
➢ Can be crystalline and non-crystalline but
some consists of mixture of both
➢ Advantages in engineering application
include light weight, high strength and
hardness, good heat and wear resistance,
reduces friction and insulative properties
➢ Typically, insulative to the passage of
electricity and heat and are more resistant
to high temperature and harsh environment
than polymers and metal
➢ Use ceramic tile for the space shuttle comes
from the Greek word "κεραμικός" (keramikos),
"of pottery" or "for pottery", from "κέραμος"
(keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery" which is
said to derive from the Indo-European word,
cheros (unattested), meaning heat.
Polymers
 include familiar plastics and rubber
materials
 Chemically based on carbon, hydrogen
and another non-metallic element
 Low density and may be extremely flexible
 The word polymer is derived from the Greek
words πολύ- - poly- meaning "many"; and
μέρος - meros meaning "part".
 Polymeric material is non-crystalline but
some consists of mixture of crystalline and
non-crystalline
 The strength and ductility of materials vary
greatly
 Some of materials are good insulator and
are used for electrical insulation application
 A variety of other natural polymers exist,
such as cellulose, which is the main
constituent of wood and paper. The list of
synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber,
Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene,
polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many
more.
 Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon,
polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone have
formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer
industry
Composite materials
 Mixture of two or more materials
 Consists of selective filler or reinforcing
material and a compatible resin binder to
obtain specific and properties desired
 Fiberglass is a familiar example (properly
known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or
glass-reinforced plastic) (acquire strength
from the glass and flexibility from the
polymer
 Designed to display a combination of the
best characteristics of each of the
component materials
 Plywood is a commonly encountered
composite material
Semiconductor materials
 Solid or liquid material which is able to
conduct electricity at room temperature
more readily than an insulator but less easily
than a metal
 Have electrical properties that are
intermediate between the electrical
conductors
and insulator
 At low temperatures, pure semiconductors
behave like insulator
The common semi-conductors include
chemical elements and compounds such
as silicon, germanium, selenium, gallium,
arsenide, zinc selenide and lead telluride
 This means conductivity roughly in the range
of 103 to 10−8siemens per centimeter.
 Are the foundation of modern electronics,
including radio, computers, telephones,
and many other devices
 Such devices include transistors, solar cells,
many kinds of diodes including the
light-emitting diode, the silicon-controlled
rectifier, and digital and analog integrated
circuits.
 Silicon is used to create most
semiconductors commercially. Dozens of
other materials are used, including
germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon
carbide.
Biomaterial
 Employed in components into the human
body for replacement of diseased or
damage body parts
 These materials that does not produce toxic
substances and must be compatible
with body tissues
 All the above materials can be used as
biomaterials can generally be produced
either in nature or synthesized in the
laboratory using a variety of chemical
approaches utilizing metallic components
or ceramics
 Biomaterials are used in:
• Joint replacements
• Bone plates
• Bone cement
• Artificial ligaments and tendons
• Dental implants for tooth fixation
• Blood vessel prostheses
• Heart valves
• Skin repair devices (artificial tissue)
• Cochlear replacements
• Contact lenses
• Breast implants
Nanoengineered Materials
 materials of which a single unit is sized (in at
least one dimension) between 1 and
1000 nanometers (10−9 meter) but is usually
1—100 nm. Materials with structure at the
nanoscale often have unique optical,
electronic, or mechanical properties.
 To develop mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, and other properties that are not
otherwise possible. We call this the “bottom-
up” approach, and the study of the
properties of these materials is termed
“nanotechnology”; the “nano” prefix
denotes that the dimensions of these
structural entities are on the order of a
nanometer (10- 9 m)—as a rule, less than
100 nanometers (equivalent to
approximately 500 atom diameters)
 One example of a material of this type is the
carbon nanotube. In the future we will
undoubtedly find that increasingly more of
our technological advances will utilize
these nanoengineered materials.
1.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
COMPOSITIONCONCEPTS
Atomic Structure
 Each atom consists of a very small nucleus
composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons. Both
electrons and protons are electrically
charged, the charge magnitude being 1.60
x10 -19 C, which is negative in sign for
electrons and positive for protons; neutrons
are electrically neutral. Masses for these
subatomic particles are infinitesimally small;
protons and neutrons have approximately
the same mass, 1.67 x 10 -27 kg, which is
significantly larger than that of an electron,
9.11 x10 -31 kg.
 Each chemical element is characterized by
the number of protons in the nucleus, or the
atomic number (Z).1 For an electrically
neutral or complete atom, the atomic
number also equals the number of
electrons. This atomic number ranges in
integral units from 1 for hydrogen to 92
for uranium, the highest of the naturally
occurring elements.
 The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may
be expressed as the sum of the masses of
protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
Although the number of protons is the same
for all atoms of a given element, the
number of neutrons (N) may be variable.
Thus, atoms of some elements have two or
more different atomic masses, which are
called isotopes. The atomic weight of an
element corresponds to the weighted
 Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional; that
average of the atomic masses of the
is, the magnitude of the bond is equal in all
atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.
directions around an ion. It follows that for
ionic materials to be stable, all positive ions
 The atomic mass unit (amu) may be used
must have as nearest neighbors negatively
for computations of atomic weight. A scale
charged ions in a three-dimensional
has been established whereby 1 amu is
scheme, and vice versa. The predominant
defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of the
bonding in ceramic materials is ionic.
most common isotope of carbon, carbon
12 (12C) (A = 12.00000). Within this scheme,
2. Covalent Bonding
the masses of protons and neutrons are
 In covalent bonding, stable electron
slightly greater than unity.
configurations are assumed by the sharing of
 The atomic weight of an element or the electrons between adjacent atoms. Two atoms
molecular weight of a compound may be that are covalently bonded will each contribute
specified on the basis of amu per atom at least one electron to the bond, and the
(molecule) or mass per mole of material. In shared electrons may be considered to belong
one mole of a substance there are 6.023 x to both atoms.
10 23 atoms or molecules. These two atomic
 Covalent bonding is schematically
weight schemes are related through the
illustrated in Figure 3 for a molecule of methane.
following equation:
The carbon atom has four valence electrons,
1 amu/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mol
whereas each of the four hydrogen atoms has
a single valence electron. Each hydrogen atom
1.3 CHEMICAL BONDING can acquire a helium electron configuration
(two 1s valence electrons) when the carbon
Primary Interatomic Bonds
atom shares with it one electron. The carbon
1. Ionic Bonding
now has four additional shared electrons, one
 Ionic bonding is perhaps the easiest to
from each hydrogen, for a total of eight
describe and visualize. It is always found in
valence electrons, and the electron structure of
compounds that are composed of both
neon. The covalent bond is directional; that is, it
metallic and nonmetallic elements,
is between specific atoms and may exist only in
elements that are situated at the horizontal
the direction between one atom and another
extremities of the periodic table. Atoms of a
that participates in the electron sharing.
metallic element easily give up their
valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
In the process all the atoms acquire stable
or inert gas configurations and, in addition,
an electrical charge; that is, they become
ions. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the classic
ionic material. A sodium atom can assume
the electron structure of neon (and a net
single positive charge) by a transfer of its
one valence 3s electron to a chlorine atom.
After such a transfer, the chlorine ion has a
net negative charge and an electron Figure 3 Schematic representation of covalent
configuration identical to that of argon. In bonding in a molecule of methane (CH4)
sodium chloride, all the sodium and chlorine
exist as ions. This type of bonding is
illustrated schematically in Figure 2. 3. Metallic Bonding
 Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding
type, is found in metals and their alloys. A
 relatively simple model has been proposed
that very nearly approximates the bonding
scheme. Metallic materials have one, two,
or at most, three valence electrons. With this
model, these valence electrons are not
bound to any particular atom in the solid
and are more or less free to drift throughout
the entire metal. They may be thought of as
belonging to the metal as a whole, or
forming a “sea of electrons” or an “electron
cloud.” The remaining nonvalenced
electrons and atomic nuclei form what are
called ion cores, which possess a net
positive charge equal in magnitude to the
total valence electron charge per atom.
primary or chemical ones; bonding energies
are typically on the order of only 10 kJ/mol
(0.1 eV/atom). Secondary bonding exists
between virtually all atoms or molecules,
but its presence may be
obscured if any of the three primary
bonding types is present. Secondary
bonding is evidenced for the inert gases,
which have stable electron structures, and,
in addition, between molecules in
molecular structures that are covalently
bonded.

 Secondary bonding forces arise from

 Figure 4 is a schematic illustration of metallic
atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an
bonding. The free electrons shield the
electric dipole exists whenever there is some
positively charged ion cores from mutually
separation of positive and negative portions
repulsive electrostatic forces, which they
of an atom or molecule. The bonding results
would otherwise exert upon one another;
from the coulombic attraction between the
consequently, the metallic bond is
positive end of one dipole and the negative
nondirectional in character. In addition,
region of an adjacent one. Dipole
these free electrons act as a “glue” to hold
interactions occur between induced
the ion cores together. Bonding energies
dipoles, between induced dipoles and
and melting temperatures for several metals
polar molecules (which have permanent
are listed in Table 1. Bonding may be weak
dipoles), and between polar molecules.
or strong; energies range from 68 kJ/mol (0.7
Hydrogen bonding, a special type of
eV/atom) for mercury to 850 kJ/mol (8.8
secondary bonding, is found to exist
eV/atom) for tungsten. Their respective
between some molecules that have
melting temperatures are -39 and 3410 0C( -
hydrogen as one of the constituents.
38 and 6170 oF)

 Metallic bonding is found in the periodic

table for Group IA and IIA elements and, in
fact, for all elemental metals. Some general
behaviors of the various material types (i.e.,
metals, ceramics, polymers) may be
explained by bonding type. For example,
metals are good conductors of both
electricity and heat, as a consequence of
their free electrons. By way of contrast,
ionically and covalently bonded materials
are typically electrical and thermal Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
insulators, due to the absence of large  A dipole may be created or induced in an
numbers of free electrons. atom or molecule that is normally
electrically symmetric; that is, the overall
spatial distribution of the electrons is
SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS symmetric with respect to the positively
BONDING charged nucleus. All atoms are
 Secondary, van der Waals, or physical experiencing constant vibrational motion
bonds are weak in comparison to the that can cause instantaneous and short-
lived distortions of this electrical symmetry
 for some of the atoms or molecules, and the
creation of small electric dipoles, One of
these dipoles can in turn produce a
displacement of the electron distribution of
an adjacent molecule or atom, which
induces the second one also to become a
dipole that is then weakly attracted or
bonded to the first; this is one type of van
der Waals bonding. These attractive forces
may exist between large numbers of atoms
or molecules, which forces are temporary
and fluctuate with time.
 The liquefaction and, in some cases, the
solidification of the inert gases and other
electrically neutral and symmetric
molecules such as H2 and Cl2 are realized
because of this type of bonding. Melting
and boiling temperatures are extremely low
in materials for which induced dipole
bonding predominates; of all possible
intermolecular bonds, these are the
weakest. Bonding energies and melting
temperatures for argon and chlorine are
also tabulated in Table 1.
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
 Permanent dipole moments exist in some
molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical
arrangement of positively and negatively
charged regions; such molecules are
termed polar molecules.
 Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in
adjacent nonpolar molecules, and a bond
will form as a result of attractive forces
between the two molecules. Furthermore,
the magnitude of this bond will be greater
than for fluctuating induced dipoles
Permanent Dipole Bonds
Key Points for Reviewer:
 Van der Waals forces exist between
adjacent polar molecules, and their
bonding energies are significantly greater
than those for induced dipole bonds.
 The strongest type of secondary bonding is
the hydrogen bond, which is a special case
of polar molecule bonding. It occurs
between molecules where hydrogen is
covalently bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or
nitrogen (e.g., HF, H2O, NH3).
 In a hydrogen bond, the single hydrogen
electron is shared with the other atom,
creating a positively charged bare proton
on the hydrogen end of the bond,
unscreened by any electrons.
 The highly positively charged end of the
molecule creates a strong attractive force
with the negative end of an adjacent
molecule, essentially forming a bridge
between two negatively charged atoms.
 The magnitude of the hydrogen bond is
generally greater than that of other types of
secondary bonds and can be as high as 51
kJ/mol (0.52 eV/molecule).
 Hydrogen bonding leads to abnormally high
melting and boiling temperatures for
substances like hydrogen fluoride and water,
despite their low molecular weights.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
A material’s physical properties denote the
physical state of materials that are exclusive
of their chemical or mechanical components.
In particular, these properties encompass
texture,density, mass, melting and boiling points,
and electrical and thermal conductivity. All
such physical properties are measurable or
observable. These properties are not constant
(will change when subjected to certain
variables such as heat).
Density
Density implies the weight of a material, with
higher density rates implying heavier materials.
Density of the material can be determined
using the formula below:
Melting Point
Melting point of the material is the minimum
required temperature for a solid material to
change into liquid.
Color
Color is the reflective property of a material.
Boiling point
Boiling point is the minimum required
temperature for a liquid material to change into
gas. The boiling point of water in standard
condition is 1000C or 212oF
Size and shape
Dimension of any metal reflect shape and size
of material, length, width, height, depth etc.
Also, it determines specific rectangular, circular,
spherical, or any other section.
Specific Gravity of Materials
It is defined as ratio of density of material with
respect to density of reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite.
Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For
gravity calculation, water is considered as
reference substance.
Porosity of Materials
When material is in melting condition, it contains
some dissolved gases with in material.
When material is solidifies these gases get
evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of
materials represents quantity of voids in solid
materials.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 The mechanical behavior of a material is
determined by its response to applied loads
or forces.
 Mechanical properties of materials are
assessed through laboratory experiments
like tensile, compression, shear, torsion,
impact, and hardness tests.
 Experimental factors like the type and
duration of the applied load and
environmental conditions should be
carefully considered.
 Applied loads can be tensile, compressive,
or shear, and they may vary in magnitude
over time.
 Professional societies like ASTM play a
significant role in coordinating the
publication of standards for mechanical
properties of metals.
Stress and Strain
The mechanical behavior of the material may
be ascertained by a simple stress-strain test.
These tests are the most commonly conducted
for metals at room temperature. One of the
instruments used for conducting this test is the
Universal Testing Machine. The Universal testing
machine can be shown in figure 1 and in figure
2 is the sample specimen for the test.
Engineering stress (σ)
Stress is defined as the instantaneous load
divided by the original specimen cross-
sectional area. Stress can be determined using
the formula:
Tension test
During this test, gradually increasing tensile load
is applied uniaxially along the long axis
of a specimen. Tensile stress (σt) can be
calculated using this formula:
Figure 3 shows the schematic illustration of how
a tensile load produces elongation and
positive linear strain.
Compression Test
A compression test is conducted in a manner
similar to the tensile test, except that the
force is compressive and the specimen
contracts along the direction of the stress.
Shear Test
Shear test performed using a pure shear force, the
shear stress (τ) is computed according
to:
Torsion Test
Torsion test is a variation of pure shear in which a
structural member is twisted. Torsional
stress (τ) can be computed using this formula:
Flexural or Bending Test
Also known as transverse beam testing, it
measures the behavior of materials subjected
to simple beam loading. The bending/flexural
stress can be determined using the formula
below:
Engineering strain (ϵ )
Using tensile and compression testing, strain is
expressed as the change in length (in the
direction of load application) divided by the
original length. Strain can be determined using
the formula:
The shear strain(ɣ ) in pure shear is defined as
the tangent of the strain angle θ while in torsion,
the shear strain is related to the angle of twist (ø)
Elastic deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior
The degree to which a structure deforms or
strains depends on the magnitude of
an imposed stress. For most metals that are
stressed in tension and at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each
other through the relationship:
This equation is based on Hooke’s Law, where
the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Elastic Deformation is the deformation in which
stress and strain are proportional.nFigure 7
shows a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain
(abscissa) results in a linear relationship. The
slope of this linear segment corresponds to the
modulus of elasticity E. The greater the value of
modulus, the stiffer the material is. Elastic
deformation is nonpermanent, which means
that when the applied load is released, the
piece returns to its original shape.
Elastic Properties of Materials
Poisson’s ratio (ν)
It is defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial
strains. It can be determined using the
formula below:

Poisson’s ratio will always be positive, since ϵ x
and ϵ y will always be of opposite sign. For
many metals and other alloys, values of
Poisson’s ratio range between 0.25 and 0.35. For
isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are
related to each other and to Poisson’s ratio
according to:
Shear modulus of elasticity is the slope of the
linear elastic region of the shear stress–strain
curve.
Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation occur when the stress is
removed, the material does not return to its
previous dimension, it is a permanent,
irreversible deformation.
Tensile properties
Tensile properties can be determined using
tensile testing. The properties can be easily
explain using the stress-strain diagram. Figure 8
shows the sample stress-strain diagram for
ductile materials.
Proportional Limit
It is the region in the strain curve which obeys
hookes law i.e. within elastic limit the stress
is directly proportion to the strain produced in
the material. In this limit the ratio of stress with
strain gives us proportionality constant known as
young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is
called the proportional limit.
Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the
material returns to its original position when the
load acting on it is completely removed.
Beyond this limit the material cannot return to its
original
position and a plastic deformation starts to
appear in it. In stress strain curve, from point A to
B, the material exhibit elastic properties.
Yield Point or Yield Stress Point
Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as
the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed there is
permanent deformation develops in the
material and which is not reversible. There are
two yield points and it is upper yield point and
lower yield point. The stress corresponding to the
yield point is called yield point stress. The point B
is the upper yield stress point and C is the lower
yield stress point.
Ultimate Stress/ Tensile Strength
It is the point corresponding to the maximum
stress that a material can handle before failure.
It is the maximum strength point of the material
that can handle the maximum load. Beyond
this point the failure takes place. Point D in the
graph is the ultimate stress point.
Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress strain curve at which
the failure of the material takes place. The
fracture or breaking of material takes place at
this point. The point E is the breaking point in the
graph.
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which
indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often
categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This
mechanical property is also an aspect of
plasticity of material and temperature
dependent. With rise of temperature, the
ductility of material increases.
It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be
given either as percent maximum elongation,
Ductility of the material can also be determined
using percent reduction of area. Below are
the formula for the reduction of area.
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the
energy when it is deformed elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when
stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as
the maximum energy that can be absorbed
without permanent deformation. The modulus
of resilience is defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed per unit volume without
permanent deformation. It can be determined
by integrating the stress-strain curve from zero to
elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3. Modulus of
resilience can also be determined using this
formula:
Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb the energy
and gets plastically deformed without fracturing.
Its numerical value is determined by the amount
of energy per unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3.
Value of toughness of a material can be
determines by stress-strain characteristics of
material. For good toughness material should
have good strength as well as ductility. For
example: brittle materials, having good strength
but limited ductility is not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but
low strength are also not tough enough.
Therefore, to be tough, material should be
capable to withstand with both high stress and
strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist to permanent
shape change due to external stress. There
are various measure of hardness – scratch
Hardness, indentation hardness and rebound
hardness
 Scratch Hardness - is the ability of material
to oppose the scratch to outer surface layer
due to external force.
 Indentation Hardness - ability of material to
oppose the dent due to punch of external
had and sharp object.
 Rebound Hardness - is also called as
dynamic hardness. It is
determined by the height of “bounce” of a
diamond tipped hammer dropped from a
fixed height on the material.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the
hardness by heat treatment processing. It is
determined by the depth up to which the
material becomes hard. The SI unit of
hardenability is meter (similar to length).
Hardenability of material is inversely
proportional to the weld-ability of material.
Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily
it gets fractured when it is subjected to a force
or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a
stress is observes very less energy and gets
fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is
converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of
material is temperature depended. Some
metals which are ductile at normal temperature
become brittle at low temperature.
Malleability
Malleability is property of solid material which
indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability
is often categorized by the ability of material to
be formed in the form of a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling. This mechanical property
is an aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability
of material is temperature dependent. With rise
of temperature, the malleability of material
increases.
Creep and Slip
Creep is the property of material which
indicates the tendency of material to move
slowly and deform permanently under the
influence of external mechanical stress. It results
due to long time exposure to large external
mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep
is more severe in material that are subjected to
heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with
high density of atoms.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by
the repeated loading of material. When a
material is subjected to cyclic loading, and
loading greater than certain threshold value but
much below the strength of material (ultimate
tensile strength limit or yield stress limit,
microscopic cracks begin to form at grain
boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack
reached to a critical size. This crack propagates
suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The
shape of structure effects the fatigue very much.
Square holes and sharp corners lead to
elevated stresses where the fatigue crack
initiates.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a
solution. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said
to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater
than 7 are said to be basic or alkaline. In a
solution pH is the negative logarithm (base 10)
of the molar concentration of dissolved
hydrogen ions (H+); a low pH indicates a high
concentration of hydrogen ions, while a high pH
indicates a low concentration.
Hygroscopy
Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to
attract and hold water molecules from the
surrounding environment through either
absorption or adsorption with the adsorbing or
absorbing material becoming physically
'changed,' somewhat, increase in volume,
stickiness, or other physical characteristic
changes of the material as water molecules
become 'suspended' between the material's
molecules in the process.
Hydroscopic substances include sugar, honey,
glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, sulfuric
acid, methamphetamine, many salts (including
table salt), and a huge variety of other
substances. Many engineering polymers are
hygroscopic. These include: nylon, ABS,
polycarbonate, cellulose, and Poly (methyl
methacrylate).
Surface tension
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a
liquid that allows it to resist an external
force. This property is caused by cohesion of like
molecules, and is responsible for many of the
behaviors of liquids.
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules
are responsible for this phenomenon of
surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each
molecule is pulled equally in every direction by
neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net
force of zero. The molecules at the surface do
not have other molecules on all sides of them
and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates
some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces
to contract to the minimal area.
Specific internal surface area
Specific surface area is a material property of
solids which measures the total surface
area per unit of mass, solid or bulk volume, or
cross-sectional area. It is a derived scientific
value that can be used to determine the type
and properties of a material (e.g. soil). It is
defined either by surface area divided by mass
(with units of m²/kg), or surface area divided by
the volume (units of m²/m³ or m-1). It has a
particular importance in case of adsorption,
heterogeneous catalysis,
and reactions on surfaces.
Reactivity
Reactivity then refers to the rate at which a
chemical substance tends to undergo a
chemical reaction in time. In pure compounds,
reactivity is regulated by the physical properties
of the sample. For instance, grinding a sample
to a higher specific surface area increases its
reactivity. In impure compounds, the reactivity is
also affected by the inclusion of contaminants.
In crystalline compounds, the crystalline form
can also affect reactivity. However, in all cases,
reactivity is primarily due to the sub-atomic
properties of the compound.
Corrosion resistance
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to
corrosion than others, either due to the
fundamental nature of the electrochemical
processes involved or due to the details of how
reaction products form. The materials most
resistant to corrosion are those for which
corrosion is thermodynamically unfavorable.
Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend
to decompose spontaneously into pure metal,
which is why these elements can be found in
metallic form on Earth, and is a large part of
their intrinsic value. More common "base"
metals can only be protected by more
temporary means. Some metals have naturally
slow reaction kinetics, even though their
corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These
include such metals as zinc, magnesium, and
cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is
continuous and ongoing, it happens at an
acceptably slow rate.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
Heat Capacity or specific heat
Heat capacity (usually denoted by a capital C,
often with subscripts) is a property that is
indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat
from the external surroundings; it represents the
amount of energy required to produce a unit
temperature rise. In the International System of
Units, heat capacity is expressed in units of
joules per kelvin. It can be expressed as:
Derived quantities that specify heat capacity as
an intensive property, independent of the size
of a sample, are the:
Specific heat capacity, often called simply
specific heat, denoted by a lowercase c, which
is the heat capacity per mole of a pure
substance (J/mol-K) cal/gK and BTU/lbm oF.
Molar Heat Capacity, which is the heat
capacity per mole of a pure substance (J/mol-K)
Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is a material property that is
indicative of the extent to which a material
expands upon heating, and has units of
reciprocal temperature. All materials have this
tendency.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin
moving and become active thus maintaining a
greater average separation. The change in the
linear and volumetric dimension can be
estimated to be:
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity, k, is the property that
characterizes the ability of a material to transfer
heat Thermal conductivity is measured in watts
per kelvin per metre (W/K·m) or BTU/ftoF.
Multiplied by a temperature difference (in
kelvins, K) and an area (in square metres, m2),
and divided by a thickness (in metres, m), the
thermal conductivity predicts the rate of energy
loss (in watts, W) through a piece of material.
Thermal conductivity can be expressed as:
where q denotes the heat flux, or heat flow, per
unit time per unit area (area being taken as
that perpendicular to the flow direction), k is the
thermal conductivity, and dT/dx is the
temperature gradient through the conducting
medium.
Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body
as a result of changes in temperature. An
understanding of the origins and nature of
thermal stresses is important because these
stresses can lead to fracture or undesirable
plastic deformation. Thermal Stress can be
calculated using this formula:
Upon heating where Tf >To, the stress is
compressive because the rod expansion is
constrained. If the specimen is cooled where Tf
<To, a tensile stress is imposed.
Flammability
Flammability is defined as how easily something
will burn or ignite, causing fire or combustion.
The degree of difficulty required to cause the
combustion of a substance is quantified through
fire testing.
The ratings achieved are used in building codes,
insurance requirements, fire codes and other
regulations governing the use of building
materials as well as the storage and handling of
highly flammable substances inside and outside
of structures and in surface and air
transportation.
Ratings:
0 Materials that will not burn.
1 Materials that must be preheated before they
will ignite.
2 Materials that must be moderately heated or
exposed to relatively high
ambient temperatures before they will ignite.
3 Liquids and solids that can ignite under almost
all temperature conditions.
4 Materials which will rapidly vaporize at
atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures,
or are readily dispersed in air and which burn
readily.
Autoignition Temperature
The autoignition temperature or kindling point of
a substance is the lowest temperature at
which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal
atmosphere without an external source of
ignition, such as a flame or spark. This
temperature is required to supply the activation
energy needed
for combustion.
Autoignition temperature of selected
substances:
Diesel: 210 °C (410 °F)
Gasoline (Petrol): 246–280 °C (475–536 °F)
Butane: 405 °C (761 °F)
Paper: 218°-246°C (424-474°F)
Magnesium: 473 °C (883 °F)
Hydrogen: 536 °C (997 °F)
Heat of vaporization
The heat of vaporization, also known as the
enthalpy of vaporization or heat of evaporation,
is the energy required to transform a given
quantity of a substance into a gas at a given
pressure (often atmospheric pressure). It is often
measured at the normal boiling point of a
substance; although tabulated values are
usually corrected to 298 K, the correction is
often smaller than the uncertainty in the
measured value.
Values are usually quoted in J/mol or kJ/mol
(molar enthalpy of vaporization), although
kJ/kg or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and
units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are
sometimes used, among others.
Heat of Fusion
The enthalpy of fusion, also known as the heat
of fusion or specific melting heat, is the change
in enthalpy resulting from the addition or
removal of heat from 1 mole of a substance to
change its state from a solid to a liquid (melting)
or the reverse processes of freezing. It is also
called the latent heat of fusion, and the
temperature at which it occurs is called the
melting point.
The units of heat of fusion are usually expressed
as:
➢ kilojoules per mole (the SI unit)
➢ calories per gram (old metric units now little
used, except for a different, larger calorie used
in nutritional contexts)
➢ British thermal unit per pound or Btu per
pound-mole
Melting Point
The melting point of a solid is the temperature
at which the vapor pressure of the solid and the
liquid are equal. At the melting point the solid
and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. When
considered as the temperature of the reverse
change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as
the freezing point or crystallization point.
Because of the ability of some substances to
supercool, the freezing point is not considered
to be a characteristic property of a substance.
When the "characteristic freezing point" of a
substance is determined, in fact the actual
methodology is almost always "the principle of
observing the disappearance rather than the
formation of ice", that is, the melting point.
Flash Point
The flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest
temperature at which it can vaporize to form an
ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a liquid's flash
point requires an ignition source. At the flash
point, the vapor may cease to burn when the
source of ignition is removed. The flash point is
not to be confused with the autoignition
temperature, which does not require an ignition
source.
The flash point is often used as a descriptive
characteristic of liquid fuel, and it is also used to
help characterize the fire hazards of liquids.
Curie Point
The Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the
temperature at which a ferromagnetic or a
ferrimagnetic material becomes paramagnetic
on heating; the effect is reversible. An iron
magnet will lose its magnetism if heated above
the Curie temperature.
Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnet
is ordered and above it, disordered. The
saturation magnetization goes to zero at the
Curie temperature.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Consideration of the electrical properties of
materials is often important when materials
selection and processing decisions are being
made during the design of a component or
structure. For example, when we consider an
integrated circuit package, the electrical
behaviors of the various materials are diverse.
Some need to be highly electrically conductive
(e.g., connecting wires), whereas electrical
insulativity is required of others
Electrical Conduction
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law relate the current (I) or time rate of
charge passage to the applied voltage (V).
This can be expressed as:
Where: R= resistance of material through which
the current passing
The value of R is influenced by specimen
configuration and for many materials is
independent of current. The electrical
resistivity (ρ) is independent of specimen
geometry but related to R through
the expression:
Electrical Conductivity (σ)
Electrical conductivity indicative of the ease
with which a material is capable of conducting
an electric current. Conductivity is the
reciprocal (inverse) of electrical resistivity, ρ,
and has the SI units of siemens per metre (Ω·m) -
1 and CGSE units of inverse second (s–1):
Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical
Conductivity. Because crystalline defects
serve as scattering centers for conduction
electrons in metals, increasing their number
raises the resistivity (or lowers the conductivity).
The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the
contributions from thermal vibrations, impurities,
and plastic deformation, that is, the scattering
mechanisms act independently of one another.
This may be represented in mathematical form
as follows and sometimes known as
Matthiessen’s rule
Capacitance (C)
When a voltage is applied across a capacitor,
one plate becomes positively charged and
the other negatively charged, with the
corresponding electric field directed from the
positive to the negative plates. The
capacitance is related to the quantity of
charge stored on either plate Q by:
Permittivity
Permittivity is the measure of how much
resistance is encountered when forming an
electric field in a medium. In other words,
permittivity is a measure of how an electric field
affects, and is affected by a dielectric medium.
In SI units, permittivity ε is measured in farads per
meter (F/m).
Permittivity is determined by the ability of a
material to polarize in response to the field,
and thereby reduce the total electric field
inside the material. Thus, permittivity relates to a
material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an
electric field.
Dielectric Constant
The relative permittivity often called as
dielectric constant. It is equal to the ratio of
which is greater than unity and represents the
increase in charge-storing capacity upon
insertion of the dielectric medium between the
plates. The dielectric constant is one material
property of prime consideration for capacitor
design.
Dielectric Strength
The dielectric strength, sometimes called the
breakdown strength, represents the magnitude
of an electric field necessary to produce
breakdown.
Ferroelectricity
The group of dielectric materials called
ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous polarization—
that is, polarization in the absence of an electric
field. They are the dielectric analogue of
ferromagnetic materials, which may display
permanent magnetic behavior.
Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is an unusual phenomenon
exhibited by a few ceramic materials (as well
as some polymers). It sometimes called as
pressure electricity. Electric polarization is
induced in the piezoelectric crystal as a result of
a mechanical strain produced from the
application of an external force. Piezoelectric
materials may be used as transducers between
electrical and mechanical energies.
Piezoelectric constant
Piezoelectric constant is the measure of charge
which accumulates in certain solid materials
(notably crystals, certain ceramics, and
biological matter such as bone, DNA and
various proteins) in response to applied
mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity
means
electricity resulting from pressure.
Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like
quartz, as mentioned above, can
generate potential differences of thousands of
volts.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Materials may be classified by their response to
externally applied magnetic fields as
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic.
These magnetic responses differ greatly in
strength.
Magnetism
Magnetism is the phenomenon by which
materials exert an attractive or repulsive force
or influence on other materials. Iron, some steels,
and the naturally occurring mineral lodestone
are well-known examples of materials that
exhibit magnetic properties.
Magnetic dipoles
Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic
materials, which, in some respects, are
analogous to electric dipoles. Magnetic dipoles
may be thought of as small bar magnets
composed of north and south poles instead of
positive and negative electric charges. The
magnetic field distributions as indicated by lines
of force are shown for a current loop and a bar
magnet in Figure 9.
Magnetic field strength (H)
Magnetic field strength is the externally applied
magnetic field. The units of H are ampere- turns
per meter, or just amperes per meter. Magnetic
field strength can be expressed as:
Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction
represents the magnitude of the internal field
strength within a substance that is subjected to
an H field. The units for B are teslas or webers per
square meter (Wb/m2 ). The magnetic field
strength and flux density are related according
to:
Permeability
Permeability is a property of the specific
medium through which the H field passes and in
which B is measured. The permeability has
dimensions of webers per ampere-meter
(Wb/A-m) or henries per meter (H/m).
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of
magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists
only while an external field is being applied. It is
induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The
magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is
extremely small and in direction opposite to that
of the applied field. In figure 10 shows the
atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic
material with and without a magnetic field. In
the absence of an external field, no dipoles
exist; in the presence of a field, dipoles are
induced that are aligned opposite to the field
direction.
Paramagnetism
For some solid materials, each atom possesses a
permanent dipole moment by virtue of
incomplete cancellation of electron spin and/or
orbital magnetic moments. In the absence of
an external magnetic field, the orientations of
these atomic magnetic moments are random,
such that a piece of material possesses no net
macroscopic magnetization. These atomic
dipoles are free to rotate, and paramagnetism
results when they preferentially align, by rotation,
with an external field.
Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials
are considered nonmagnetic because they
exhibit magnetization only when in the
presence of an external field
Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent
magnetic moment in the absence of an
external field and manifest very large and
permanent magnetizations. These are the
characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are
displayed by the transition metals iron (as BCC
a-ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some rare earth
metals such as gadolinium (Gd).
Antiferromagnetism
Magnetic moment coupling between adjacent
atoms or ions also occurs in materials other than
those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group,
this coupling results in an antiparallel alignment;
the alignment of the spin moments of
neighboring atoms or ions in exactly opposite
directions is termed antiferromagnetism.
Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that
displays this behavior.
Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent
magnetization. The macroscopic magnetic
characteristics of ferromagnets and
ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction lies in the
source of the net magnetic moments.
Optical properties are a material’s response to
exposure to electromagnetic radiation and, in
particular, to visible light.
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is considered to be
wavelike, consisting of electric and magnetic
field components that are perpendicular to
each other and also to the direction of
propagation. Light, heat (or radiant energy),
radar, radio waves, and x-rays are all forms of
electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans
the wide range from g-rays (emitted by
radioactive materials) having wavelengths on
the order of 1012 m (103 nm) through x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and finally radio
waves with wavelengths as long as 105 m.
LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLIDS
The intensity 𝐼𝑜 of the beam incident to the
surface of the solid medium must equal the sum
of the intensities of the transmitted, absorbed,
and reflected beams
Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity expressed in watts per
square meter, corresponds to the energy being
transmitted per unit of time across a unit area
that is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Transparent
Materials that are capable of transmitting light
with relatively little absorption and reflection,
one can see through them. Electrically
insulating materials can be made to be
transparent
Translucent
Materials are those through which light is
transmitted diffusely; that is, light is scattered
within the interior to the degree that objects are
not clearly distinguishable when viewed through
a specimen of the material.
Opaque
Materials that are impervious to the transmission
of visible light.
Refraction
Refraction is the phenomenon in which light
that is transmitted into the interior of transparent
materials experiences a decrease in velocity,
and, as a result, is bent at the interface. The
index of refraction n of a material is defined as
the ratio of the velocity in a vacuum c to the
velocity in the medium v or can be expressed
as:
Reflection
When light passes from one transparent
medium to another having a different index of
refraction, some of it is reflected at the interface.
The degree of the reflectance depends on the
indices of refraction of both media, as well as
the angle of incidence. For normal incidence,
reflectivity may be calculated using:
Absorption
Pure nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically
transparent or opaque. Light radiation is
absorbed in this group of materials by two basic
mechanisms that also influence the transmission
characteristics of these nonmetals. Absorption
of a photon of light may occur by the
promotion or excitation of an electron from the
nearly filled valence band, across the band
gap, and into an empty state within the
conduction band. The intensity of the net
absorbed radiation is dependent on the
character of the medium and the path length
within. The intensity of transmitted or
nonabsorbed radiation I’T continuously
decreases with the distance x that the light
traverses:
Transmission
The phenomena of absorption, reflection, and
transmission may be applied to the passage of
light through a transparent solid. For an incident
beam of intensity 𝐼O that impinges on the front
surface of a specimen of thickness 𝛽 and
absorption coefficient 𝐼T, the transmitted
intensity at the back face is
Where: R is the reflectance, it is assumed that
the same medium exists outside both front and
back faces
Color
Transparent materials appear colored as a
consequence of specific wavelength ranges of
light that are selectively absorbed; the color
discerned is a result of the combination of
wavelengths that are transmitted

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Unit Cell
 small repeating entity of the atomic
structure. The basic building block of the
crystal structure. It defines the entire
crystal structure with atom positions
within.
central atom. In between these planes is
a halfhexagon of 3 atoms.
 There are two lattice parameters in HCP,
a and c representing the basal and
height parameters respectively
 6 atoms per unit cell
 V= 3a²c√3/2

Lattice
 3D array of points coinciding with atom
positions (Center of Spheres)

 The number of nearest neighbor atoms

METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE or ions surrounding an atom or ion

Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

 Atoms are arranged at the corners and
center of each cube face of the cell.
 Closed packed Plane - On each face of
the cube, atoms are assume to touch
 For FCC and HCP systems, the
along face diagonals
coordination number is 12. For BCC it’s 8.
 4 atoms in one unit cell
 a=2R/√2

USEFUL FORMULAS (SUMMARY)

Body Centered Cubic (BCC)  FCC a = 2R/√2
 Atoms are arranged at the corners of  BCC a = 4R/√3
the cube with another atom at the  HCP V = 3a²c√3/2
cube center
Theoretical Density = nMW/Vcna
n= Number of atoms
MW= Molecular Weight
Vc = Volume of the structure
Na = Avogadro's constant

 Close Packed Plane cuts the unit cube

in half diagonally
 2 atoms in one unit cell
 a = 4R/√3

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP)

 cell of an HCP lattice is visualized as a
top and bottom plane of 7 atoms,
forming a regular hexagon around a