HISTORY OF PRESSURE  Measured
Characteristics Of Liquid, Water, And
Evangelista Toricelli (1643)
 He was the first person who discovered
pressure under Galileo Galilei studies.
He discovered the barometer using mercury
that measures atmospheric pressure.
17th century (1662)
 Boyle’s law a relationship between
volume and pressure of gas.
 The foundation for the study of gases
and the concept of pressure.
18th Century
 Development of gas law.
19th Century
 Introduction of absolute pressure. This
development was essential for
engineering applications.
Modern Understanding and Applications
 Provides a Deeper Insight Into The
Behavior Of Gases At Different Pressures
And Temperatures.
 Medicine And Barometric Pressure
Engineering Industry (21st Century – Present)
 Pressure Continues To Be a Central
Concept Invarious Scientific Disciplines
And Technologies.Pressure Sensors And
Measurement Devices Have Become
More Sophisticated.
PRESSURE
 Pressure Is Defined As The Physical Force
Exerted On An Object. The Force
Applied Is Perpendicular To The Surface
Of Objects Per Unit Area. The Basic
Formula For Pressure Is F/A (Force Per
Unit Area). Unit Of Pressure Is Pascals
(Pa). The Weight Of The Air Above An
Object Exerts a Force Per Unit Area
Upon That Object.
Importance
 a Key Concept Of Fluid Mechanics
 Used In The Ideal Gas Law To Describe
The Energy Of a Gas
To Comprehend The
Gasses
Effects Of Pressure
 The Volume Of a Liquid Is Not
Significantly Affected By Changes In
Pressure. Since Any Increase In Pressure
May Only Slightly Lessen The Distance
Between The Tightly Bound Molecules,
Liquids Tend To Be Incompressible.
Effects Of Pressure On States Of Matter
 When Pressure Is Applied To a Gas, It
Compresses Into a Liquid.
 When Pressure Is Applied To a Liquid, It
Solidifies.
 Pressure Has a Negligible Influence On
Solids.
Effects Of Pressure In Equilibrium
 If The Pressure Increases, The Equilibrium
Will Change In Favor Of a Decrease In
The Pressure.
 If The Pressure Decreases, The
Equilibrium Will Change In Favor Of An
Increase.
How Does Pressure Relate to Engineering,
Especially in ME?
 Pressure, as defined previously, is the
average force exerted by a body on
another body over an area. This applies
to both solid mechanical bodies and
working fluids, which are the most
common areas mechanical engineers
work on.
 Some examples of systems that
Mechanical Engineers work on are
Internal Combustion Engines, HVAC
Systems, Industrial Machinery,
Aerospace Systems, Pumps and
Compressors, Machine Tools, and
Automotive Components. As we can
imagine, pressure plays an important
part in such systems.
Pressure Related Factors
 Pressure Vessels
 Structure, Joints, Linkages
 Power Transmission
 Hydraulic Systems
 Power Generation
 Aerodynamic Drag
 Measuring Instruments HISTORY OF TEMPERATURE

15th Century
 Pressure Gauge
 Galileos’s air thermometer (1592)
 Vacuum Pressure or Vacuum Pressure
Gauge
16th Century
 Bourdon Gauge
 Sanctorius Sanctorius (1611)
 Manometer
 Rey’s liquid thermometer (1632)
 Pressure Switch
 Building Management System Sensors
17th Century
 Pressure Transmitters
 Newton Scale(1701)
 Gas Regulators
 RomerScale(1701)
 DanielGabrielFahrenheit(1724)
Units of Pressure
 AndersCelsius(1742)
For Pressure Gauge
18th Century
 We utilize the SI units of measurement,
 William Thomson (later called Lord Kelvin)
which are bar, Pa, kg/cm2, and psi, for
(1848)
pressure gauge. mbar, inWC, kPa,
 William John Macquorn Rankine(1859)
mmhg, and mHd are the units used to
describe low or negative pressures.
Present Day
 Use of infrared/thermal sensors
For Vacuum Pressure or Vacuum Pressure
Gauge
 Since Pascal is the recognized SI unit for TEMPERATURE
vacuum pressure, it is frequently used in
 The temperature is a measure of the
physical sciences.
average heat or thermal energy of the
particles in a substance; the more
For Bourdon Gauge
thermal energy in the sense, the higher
 is measure pressure in bars or psi, which
its temperature.
have a range of 0.6 to 7000 bars or 8 to
 Temperature measurement in today’s
10,000 psi. Units of Pressure
industrial environment encompasses a
 Wide variety of needs and applications.

How Does Temperature Relate to

Engineering, Especially in ME?

 Maintaining proper temperature levels

holds significance from safety and
ecological standpoints. In industry,
temperature is a key factor in every
manufacturing procedure. Managing it
effectively enhances both industrial
operations and the caliber of products.
 Temperature control is necessary to
maintain product quality and a
potential error factor in the production
process.
 Lack of proper temperature control has
been linked to numerous incidents
including potential harm to the
workplace.
 Temperature monitoring systems
improve efficiency of industrial
 processes, thus preventing damage to liquid column inside of it that rises and
equipment and scales. lowers in response to changes in
temperature.
How Does Temperature Relate to
Engineering, Especially in ME?
 Engineering is a science where it
involves proper design and calculation
to create something that improves a
system. It can be either a structure,
engine or machine. Mechanical
engineering leans more on the
machines and engines side of the
engineering field. When machines are
involved, they can either emit or absorb
heat.

Temperature Application
 Poweplants
 HVAC Systems
 Automotive
 Aerospace
Temperature Controller
 is a tool designed to maintain or hold a
desired temperature at a specified
value. This can be in a situation where
an object is required to be heated,
cooled or both and to remain at the
target temperature, regardless of the
changing environment around it.

Hygrometer
 is a tool that can measure the amount
of water vapor in the soil, air, or even
closed spaces. It's used to keep an eye
on and control humidity levels, which
are important in things like farming,
predicting the weather, and even in
industries where changes in moisture
can really matter.

Infrared (IR) Thermometer

 enable you to measure temperature
quickly and at a distance These non-
contact temperature measurement
devices function well in circumstances
where the object is fragile and
dangerous to get near
to, or when other kinds of thermometers are
not practical.

Thermometer
 A thermometer is a device used to
measure temperature. It typically
consists of a small glass tube with a thin
 FLOW particular place in a system do not change
over time.
 The idea of flow, which refers to the
movement or transfer of fluids (liquids and CONTINUITY EQUATION
gasses) or heat, is crucial to the study of  The fundamental idea that mass is
mechanical engineering. conserved in a fluid flow is expressed by the
continuity equation. In mathematics, it is
APPLICATIONS OF FLOW written as
1. Fluid Dynamics and Aerodynamics - When
constructing automobiles, aircraft, and other
aerodynamic structures, it is crucial to
comprehend how fluids behave when they are
in motion. Engineers investigate fluid dynamics
to optimize the forms of things to reduce drag
and boost efficiency.
2. Heat Exchangers - Heat exchangers are the
machinery used to move thermal energy
between two fluids of various temperatures. For
applications including power plants,
VISCOUS FLOW THEORY
refrigeration systems, and chemical processes,
efficient heat transmission is critical, making
Newton’s law of viscosity
proper fluid flow control necessary as well.
 which explains that the velocity gradient
3. Pumps and Turbines - Pumps are created by
(rate of change of velocity with respect to
mechanical engineers to regulate the flow of
distance) and the fluid's dynamic viscosity
liquids, which is crucial in systems for the
are exactly related to the viscous force
treatment of wastewater, chemical synthesis,
between neighboring fluid layers.
and water supply. In hydroelectric power
facilities, for example, turbines are utilized to
Navier-stroke equations
harness the flow of fluids.
 are essential to comprehending viscous flow
and describe momentum conservation in a
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES fluid. They take into consideration how fluid
motion is impacted by pressure, viscosity,
BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE and inertia.
 In a fluid flow, the relationship between
pressure, velocity, and elevation is Reynold’s Number
described by Bernoulli's principle. It claims  is used to forecast the flow regime (laminar
that a fluid's pressure falls as its velocity rises or turbulent) of a fluid inside a pipe, duct, or
and vice versa. The Bernoulli equation all around an object. It bears the name
translates this idea into a mathematical Osborne Reynolds in honor of the British
form engineer who made substantial
contributions to the 19th-century study of
fluid flow.

Re=V/L
Where:
Re - Reynold’s Number
ρ- Density of the fluid
V - Velocity of the fluid
L - is a characteristic of length
μ - dynamic viscosity of the fluid

HOW TO MEASURE FLOW

STEADY VS. UNSTEADY FLOW
 Unsteady flow involves changing qualities
over time, whereas steady flow describes a
situation where the fluid properties at a
1. Volume Flow
 A substance's volumetric flow is defined as
the quantity of volume that flows/passes
through a certain area or portion per unit of
 time. slurry systems that would be otherwise
difficult to measure.

Venturi Flow Meter

 This device is
2. Mass Flow widely used in
 A substance's mass flow is defined as the the water,
quantity of mass that traverses or flows chemical,
through a certain region or section per unit pharmaceutica
of time. l, and oil & gas
industries to
measure the flow rates of fluids inside a pipe.
The pipe cross-sectional area is reduced to
create a pressure difference which is
measured with a manometer to determine
the rate of fluid flow. So, the venturi meter is
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS a differential head type flow meter that
converts pressure energy into kinetic energy.
Orifice Plate
 The equivalent of the Pitot Tube
notch weir in a tube  The Pitot tube is a
would be an orifice simple device
plate. This flow device is that allows for
created by inserting an the
obstructing plate, usually measurement of
with a round hole in the the flow pressure
middle, into the pipe in a moving fluid.
and measuring the This device is a
pressure on each side of section of a tube
the orifice. These plates that measures
are generally installed by the pressure at
trapping it between two the tip and the pressure at the side of the
pipe flanges. Pressure taps on each flange tube.
allow you to easily measure the pressure
differential across the plate. This pressure Turbine Flowmeter
differential, along with the dimensions of the  The axial type
plate, are combined with certain fluid turbine flow meter
properties to determine the flow through consists of a
the pipe. circular housing
with a suspended
Nozzle Flow Meter blade system. This
 A flow nozzle suspended blade
consists of a is mounted on a
restriction with shaft or bearing at
an elliptical the center of the
contour housing. As fluid
approach flows past the
section that blades, they are rotated by the fluidic
terminates in a forces. The speed of rotation is proportional
cylindrical throat to the velocity of the fluid passing through
section. Pressure the housing. A method of measuring the
drops between the locations one pipe speed of rotation is employed, allowing a
diameter upstream and one-half pipe measurement of fluid velocity. The typical
diameter downstream is measured. Flow method of measuring the speed of the
nozzles provide an intermediate pressure turbine rotation is to count the blades as
drop between orifice plates and venturi they pass a sensor on the housing body. This
tubes; also, they are applicable to some method is extremely accurate and
 essentially averages the velocity across the precise flow meters available, working on
whole housing diameter. the Coriolis effect, which was discovered in
1835 by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
Paddle Wheel Flow Meter de Coriolis. Coriolis flow meters are capable
 A lower cost of measuring mass flow, density, and
alternative to the temperature, as well as calculating
turbine flowmeter is volumetric flow, concentration, and
the paddle wheel viscosity. They are frequently used in
flowmeter. This applications that require great accuracy
device is somewhat and reliability, such as dosing in the food
similar to the and beverage and pharmaceutical sectors,
insertion type or custody transfer in the chemical and oil
turbine flowmeter, and gas industries.
but instead of a
turbine blade with the flow generating lift Ultrasonic Flow
forces to cause the rotation, the paddle Meters
wheel is perpendicular to the flow and  Ultrasonic flow
rotates much like an old-fashioned steam meters are
boat paddlewheel. These devices are volumetric flow
usually inserted into a specially made tee in meters that are
the flow line. put externally in
pipe walls
Rotameters without coming
 The rotameter is a into touch with
variable area meter the material being measured. They typically
that employs a have a clamp-on design. Water
vertical tube of measurement is the most typical use for this
varying diameter, kind of flow meter, particularly on large
with an object pipes where other methods become
inserted in it. This expensive.
object is known as Two distinct technologies on the market:
the float. This type  Transit Time
meter is used only in a vertical position, as  The most popular version is the Transit
gravity is a primary force involved in the Time method. It makes use of one or
calibration of the device. The float is moved more sensor pairs. Each sensor
vertically in the variable diameter tube by a generates and receives the ultrasonic
combination of buoyancy forces and flow signal from the other sensor. The time it
pressure forces. takes for the signal to travel between
the sensors is related to the flow velocity
Electromagnetic Flow Meters of the fluid in the pipe.
 Often used to  Doppler Effect
measure the  The Doppler Effect method necessitates
volumetric flow of the presence of particles or bubbles in
conductive liquids the fluid. A transducer transmits an
such as water, ultrasonic signal, which is reflected in
chemicals, or the moving particle or bubbles and
beverages in a returns at a different frequency from
variety of industries. that which was originally transmitted.
 Electromagnetic This frequency shift is proportional to the
flow meters are made up of two field coils velocity of the flow.
that are mounted on opposing sides of the
measuring tube to create a magnetic field. Thermal Mass Flow Meters
 Thermal mass flow
Coriolis Flow Meters meters operate on the
 The Coriolis flow thermal dispersion
meters are concept, often known
among the most as King's Law, which
diverse, states that a moving
advanced, and fluid transports heat
 away from a heat source. Which investments are planned?
 The structure of a thermal flow meter varies  When choosing a flow meter, initial
depending on the manufacturer, but it investment costs, flow meter features,
typically comprises two temperature maintenance expenses, and calibration
sensors. costs should be taken into account. An
inexpensive flow meter may end up costing
more over time due to the necessity of
HOW DO WE SELECT A FLOW METER? ongoing maintenance and calibration.

What is the fluid to be measured?

 The fluid that needs to be measured is the
main factor in choosing the flow meter.
Depending on the fluid type, certain
methods will perform better than others,
while others won't work at all for specific
fluids. For instance, electromagnetic flow
meters won't measure gas flow. In light of
this, it's crucial that you determine whether
the application is suitable with the flow
meter technology.

What are the process conditions?

 It's critical to comprehend the process
conditions at the installation site of the flow
meter, including the anticipated flow rate,
process temperature, and process pressure.
To guarantee reliable operation and
durability, the flow meter must be sized in
compliance with these requirements.

Where is the flow meter going to be installed?

 Another aspect to consider when choosing
a flow meter is the installation
circumstances. The diameter of the pipe,
the process connection, the distance
between the inlet and outlet, and the
existence of any objects that could cause a
flow disruption, such as control valves,
fittings, pumps, etc., are all critical factors to
be aware of.

What are the ambient conditions?

 It is important to understand if the flow
meter will be put in a place where workers
can easily access it. It's important to take
into account the surrounding temperature,
humidity, dust, and exposure to the
elements.

What is the required flow meter

performance level?
 Different applications may require varying
performance levels. It is possible to choose
a flow meter technology with compatible
performance levels by being aware of the
process requirements.
 SPEED
 Speed is a measurement of how fast an
object moves relative to a reference
point. It does not have a direction and is
considered a magnitude or scalar
quantity.
 Speed is also defined as the rate of
change of position of an object in any
direction.
 Speed is measured as the ratio of
distance to the time in which the
distance was covered.
 Speed is a scalar quantity as it has only
direction and no magnitude.
SPEED FORMULA
The formula of speed is given in the table
below:
s = d/t
s is the speed in m.s-1
d is the distance traveled in m
t is the time taken in s
SPEED UNITS
Following are the units of speed are:
SI CGS: centimeters per second (cm/s) MKS:
meters per second (m/s)
ENGLISH:feet per second (ft/s)
Others: kilometers per hour (kph) miles per
hour (mph)
TYPES AND APPLICATION OF SPEED
1. Uniform speed:
 A object is said to be in uniform speed
when the object covers equal
distance in equal time intervals. It refers
to the fact that an object moves at
the same rate, no matter how fast it is
moving or where it is in space
2. Variable speed
A object is said to be in variable speed
when the object covers a different
distance at equal intervals of times. If an
object travels unequal distances or in
unequal intervals of time, it is said to have a
variable speed.
3. Average speed
Average speed is defined as the uniform
speed which is given by the ratio of total
distance travelled by an object to the total
time taken by the object. It is described as
the speed of a body that is gathered in an
instance or in a relatively shorter period of
time.
Average Speed= Total Distance/ Total Time
4. Instantaneous speed
When an object is moving with variable
speed, then the speed of that object at
any instant of time is known as
instantaneous speed. It is described as the
speed of a body that is gathered in an
instance or in a relatively shorter period of
time.
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES
Galilean Principle of Relativity
 This principle states that the laws of
physics are the same for observers in
different inertial frames of reference that
are moving at constant velocities
relative to each other. The observer
cannot determine the state of motion
(whether at rest or moving at a constant
velocity) solely based on experiments
conducted within the observer frame of
reference.
Law of Motion (2nd law of motion)
 Proposed by Isaac Newton
 This theory explains how objects
accelerate or decelerate based on how
much force applied to the object.
Theory of Special Relativity
 This theory defines the influence of
speed on mass, space, and time. It also
defines that when an object moves at a
very fast speed, time slows down,
distance appears shorter, and objects
appear to weigh heavier than what
they are supposed to be. In everyday
life this effect is barely noticeable but
becomes noticeable when moving at a
significant fraction of speed of light.
Einstein's theory of General Relativity
 This theory states that mass-bearing
objects, such as the Earth and the Sun,
bend and twist the space around them.
We refer to this warped space as
"gravity". It also states that gravity isn't a
force in the traditional sense but rather
the result of massive objects bending
and warping space-time.
 INSTRUMENTS the distance of an object by the time it
takes for a beam to bounce off an
SPEEDOMETER object and return.
 A speedometer is the device in 
automobiles that measures and displays TACHOMETERS
the speed of the vehicles. It tells the  A tachometer is an instrument which
driver how fast the vehicle is moving at measures speed and in order to
any given time by instantaneously measure rotational speed.
measuring the speed on the ground.  It is designed to measure the revolutions
 The speedometer gets its speed reading per minute (RPM) of a moving object.
by gauging how quickly the wheels are
spinning; it then uses electromagnetism
to convert the spinning wheel energy CLASSIFICATION OF TACHOMETERS
into a smooth drifting motion in the
gauge. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DATA
ACQUISITION
RADAR
 Radar empowers the CONTACT TACHOMETERS
use of Radio waves to  The wheel of the tachometer needs to
measure the speed of be brought into contact with the
a moving rotating object.
object. After the NON CONTACT TACHOMETERS
wave is reflected by  The measurement can be made without
an object, it changes having to attach the tachometer to the
frequency, and the rotating object.
radar machine interprets the frequency
in a calculation of speed. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MEASUREMENT
 APPLICATION TECHNIQUE
 Traffic enforcement
 Space exploration TIME MEASUREMENT
 Remote sensing  The tachometer calculates speed by
 Aircraft navigation measuring the time interval between
 Ship Navigation the incoming pulses. This type of
tachometer is perfect for the
LIDAR measurement of low speed with high
 Lidar stands accuracy.
for Light FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Detection  The tachometer calculates speed by
Ranging, it is measuring the frequency of the
more incoming pulses.
accurate than
Radar. It uses CLASSIFICATION OF ANALOG OR DIGITAL
lasers to TYPES
detect the
speed of ANALOG
vehicles that are in the path of the  Analog tachometers provide immediate
beam. The advantage of lidar is that it readouts using a dial.
allows officers to more accurately hone DIGITAL
in on one specific vehicle. LIDAR Digital tachometers display readings on an
LCD or LED screen. Digital models can often
technology operates on the “time of
save measurements to memory, helping
flight” or “Time-Distance” principle. The
laser units transmit infrared light pulses at users keep their measurements organized
and limiting the need to measure a second
a moving object. Since the speed of
time.
light is known, it is possible to ascertain
TACHOMETERS APPLICATION machine. Vibrating Reed Tachometer
 Tachometers are commonly used in cars, operates based on the principle of
boats, planes, and other vehicles. mechanical resonance.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TACHOMETER CONTACTLESS ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS

MECHANICAL TACHOMETERS Magnetic Pickup Tachometer

 Hand Speed Indicator  A non power coil
 Centrifugal Tachometer that is wound
 Resonance (Vibrating read) Tachometer around a
CONTACTLESS ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS permanently
 Magnetic Pick up Tachometer magnetized
 Photo-Electric Tachometer probe. It enables
the measurement
MECHANICAL TACHOMETERS of rotational
speed of the
Hand Speed Indicator systems.
 The handheld  Used as motor speed feedback devices,
tachometer is a timing or synchronization devices such
means of measuring as in timing of gasoline engines, angular
revolutions within positioning of rotating parts or
the industrial sector, stroboscopic triggering of mechanical
either optically or motion. It consists of a wheel with the
mechanically. The teeth made up of ferromagnetic
handheld material and it is attached to a rotating
tachometer can be shaft.
used for maintenance and calibration
of machines that have moving parts. Photoelectric Tachometer
 Uses the light for
Centrifugal Tachometer measuring the
 An instrument speed of rotation
which measures of shaft or disc of
the instantaneous machines.
angular speed of  It consists of an
a shaft by opaque disc
measuring the mounted on the
centrifugal force shaft whose speed
on a mass rotating with it.Centrifugal is to be measured.
tachometer is the only mechanical The disc has a number of equivalent
tachometer having ability to detect the holes around the periphery. On one side
variations in the speed. of the disc there is a source of light (L)
while on the other side there is a light
Mechanical resonance frequency meter sensor (may be a photosensitive device
 The frequency or photo-tube) in line with it (light-
meter is source).
otherwise called
a vibrating reed
Tachometer.
Vibrating reed
Tachometer is
an instrument
that uses a series of consecutively tuned
reeds to determine engine speed by
indicating the vibration frequency of the
 FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
ORIFICE METER
 An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow
meter used to measure the rate of flow of
Liquid or Gas, especially Steam, using the
Differential Pressure Measurement principle.
It is mainly used for robust applications as it
is known for its durability and is very
economical.
 It consists of an Orifice Plate which is the
basic element of the instrument. When this
Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential
pressure is developed across the Orifice
Plate. This pressure drop is linear and is in
direct proportion to the flow-rate of the
liquid or gas.
VENTURIMETER
 A venturi meter is a measuring or also
considered as a meter device that is usually
used to measure the flow of a fluid in the
pipe.
 A venturi meter is also called a venturi
flowmeter. It is used to calculate the
velocity of fluids in running through a
pipeline. The fluid may be a liquid or a gas.
The meter consists of a pipe with a
narrowing throat that expands back to its
original diameter on the other side of the
choke point. The venturi meter calculates
velocity by measuring the pressure head at
both points before and after the narrowed
throat.
 A Venturi meter may also be used to
increase the velocity of any type fluid in a
pipe at any particular point. It basically
works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem.
The pressure in a fluid moving through a
small cross section drops suddenly leading
to an increase in velocity of the flow.
Converging Part
It is starting section of venturimeter which
attached at inlet pipe. The cross sectional
area of this cone starts to decrease and the
converging angle is 20 degree. Its length is
2.7(D-d). Here (D) is the diameter of inlet section
and (d) is the diameter of throat. Other end of
converging is attached with throat.
Throat
 Throat is middle portion of venturimeter and
its cross sectional area is too small. At this
point pressure is decreases and velocity is
increases. One end is connected with
converging part and other end is
attached with diverging part. Diameter of
throat is ¼ to ¾ of the diameter of the inlet
pipe, but mostly it is ½ of the diameter of the
pipe.
Diverging part
 Diverging part is last part of venturimeter
and its cross sectional area is increases
continually. Angle of diverging part is 5 to 15
degree. Its cross sectional area continuously
increases. One end is connected to throat
and other end is connected to outlet pipe.
The main reason behind the low diverging
angle is to avoid the formation of eddies
because flow separation and eddies
formation will result in large amount of loss in
energy
ROTAMETER
Rotameters are also known as variable area
flow meters. Rotameters are simple industrial
flow meters that measure the flow rate of liquid
or gas in a closed tube. Rotameters are popular
because they have linear scales, a relatively
large measurement range, low pressure drop,
and are simple to install and maintain. The
term rotameter comes from the early version of
the floats, which had slots to help stabilize and
center them within the fluid flow. This caused
the floats to rotate. Current float designs are a
variety of shapes (spherical for example) and
are constructed of stainless steel, glass, metal,
and plastic.
TYPES OF ROTAMETER
Glass Tube Rotameters
 With a tapered metering tube made of
borosilicate glass, this was the original
rotameter. Introduced in the mid-1940s, it
is referred to as a "general-purpose"
rotameter. They are typically used for simple
but reliable indication of flow rate with a
high level of repeatability.
Metal Tube Rotameters
 These devices, also known as armored
meters, are designed for applications where
the temperature or pressure exceeds the
limits of glass tubes. Designed for indication
only, metal tube meters require no external
source of electric power.
Plastic Tube Rotameters
 They can be an entirely suitable, very cost-
effective alternative to glass or metal
meters for a wide variety of fluid
measurements.
TURBINE FLOW METER
 Turbine flow meter, or axial turbine, is
another type of flow measuring device that
provides exceptionally accurate and
reliable digital outputs. The turbine flow
meter principle is used for the
measurement of liquid gas and gases of
very low flow rate. It was invented by
Reinhard Woltman and is an accurate
and reliable flow meter for liquids and gases.
In other words, the turbine flow meter
translates the mechanical action of the
turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an
axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm,
lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the
flow traveling around it.
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOW METER
 A vortex flow meter is a flow measurement
device best suited for flow measurements
where the introduction of moving parts
presents problems.
 Vortex shedding is the process by which
vortices of gas or liquid are formed around
a solid object that obstructs the path of a
gas or liquid stream. These “shed” vortices
are carried downstream in the flow and
are detected by vortex shedding and fluidic
flow meters, which measure the velocity of
liquids and gases such as water, cryogenic
liquids, boiler feed water, hydrocarbons,
chemicals, air, nitrogen, industrial gases,
and steam flowing through the pipe.
 A vortex flow meter comprising: a flow
sensor operable to sense pressure variations
due to vortex-shedding of a fluid in a
passage and to convert the pressure
variations to a flow sensor signal, in the
form of an electrical signal; and a signal
processor operable to receive the flow
sensor signal and to generate an output
signal corresponding to the pressure
variations due to vortexshedding of the fluid
in the passage.
ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
 An ultrasonic flow meter can be defined as,
a meter that is used to measure liquid
velocity with ultrasound to analyze the
volume of liquid flow. This is a volumetric
flow meter that needs bubble or minute
particles within the liquid flow. These meters
are suitable in the applications of
wastewater but they will not work with
drinking/distill water. So this type of flow
meter is ideal for the applications
wherever chemical compatibility, low
maintenance, and low-pressure drop are
required.
MAGNETIC FLOW METER
 A magnetic flow meter is a volumetric flow
meter that does not have any moving parts.
It is ideal for wastewater applications or any
dirty liquid which is conductive, or water
based.
 Magnetic flow meters are also ideal for
applications where low-pressure drop and
low maintenance
are required.
Faraday's Formula
e=k*B*l*v
e = Induced voltage
k = Proportionality constant
v = Velocity of processed fluid
B = Magnetic field strength
l = Length of the conducto
 To apply this principle to flow measurement
with a magnetic flow meter, it is necessary
first to state that the fluid being measured
must be electrically conductive.
THERMAL MASS FLOW METER
 Thermal mass flow meters are designed to
accurately monitor and measure mass flow
(as opposed to measuring volumetric flow)
of clean gases. Volumetric measurements
are affected by all ambient and process
conditions that influence unit volume or
indirectly affect pressure drop, while mass
flow measurement is unaffected by
changes in viscosity, density, temperature,
or pressure.
CORIOLIS FLOW METER
 A Coriolis flow meter is a type of mass flow
meter. It is also known as inertial flowmeter,
and is often referred to simply as a mass
flowmeter because of its dominance in the
mass flowmeter market.
 Coriolis meters are primarily used to
measure the mass flow rate of liquids,
although they have also been successfully
used in some gas flow measurement
applications. The flowmeter consists either
of a pair of parallel vibrating tubes or else as
a single vibrating tube that is formed into a
configuration that has two parallel sections.
The two vibrating tubes (or the two parallel
sections of a single tube) deflect according
 to the mass flow rate of the measured fluid
that is flowing inside. Tubes are made of
various materials, of which stainless steel is
the most common.
TARGET
 Target flow meters, also known as drag
force flow meters, insert a target (drag
element), usually a flat disc or a sphere with
an extension rod, into the flow field. They
then measure the drag force on the
inserted target and convert it to the flow
velocity.
 The force on the target can be expressed
as :
F = cd ρ v2 At / 2
Where:
F = force on the target (N)
cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from
empirical data
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3 )
v = fluid velocity (m/s)
At = target area (m2 )
SPEED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
SPEEDOMETER (TO MEASURE CAR SPEED)
 A speedometer or speed meter is a gauge
that measures and displays the
instantaneous speed of a vehicle. Now
universally fitted to motor vehicles, they
started to be available as options in the
early 20th century, and as standard
equipment from about 1910 onwards.
Speedometers for other vehicles have
specific names and use other means of
sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log.
For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator.
TACHOMETER (TO MEASURE ANGULAR SPEED)
 A tachometer is a device to measure the
angular speed. This measuring device is
commonly used to measure machine
speed. Tachometers may be mechanical
(analog) or electronic (digital). According
to Homesteady, “mechanical tachometers
use electrical and magnetic forces to
measure rotation speed; though they
employ principles of electricity, they don’t
need batteries. Electronic tachometers use
electronic circuitry such as digital counters
to determine RPMs. They use electric power,
so they require batteries or other sources of
current.”
RADAR
 Radar empowers the use of Radio waves to
measure the speed of a moving object. It
does not only calculate speed (velocity),
but also the range and angle. This
instrument is so common in aircraft and
ships. Radar, which stands for Radio
Detection and Ranging, works by
transmitting electromagnetic waves that
bounce off of a moving object. After the
wave is reflected by an object, it changes
frequency, and the radar machine
interprets the frequency in a calculation of
speed. The change is known as the Doppler
Effect or Doppler Shift.
LIDAR (for Determining Vehicle Speed)
 LIDAR stands for Light Detection and
Ranging. Police use LIDAR to calculate car
and truck speed much like RADAR is used,
only LIDAR uses light instead of sound. LIDAR
aims an infrared light beam toward a
vehicle and measures how long it takes for
the light waves to reflect back. The light
pulses have the advantage of traveling at
the speed of light instead of the speed of
sound, which provide a reading a bit more
quickly than RADAR.
 LIDAR measures the vehicle's speed by
sending out two laser pulses and
calculating the difference in time it takes to
detect the pulses of light reflected from the
target, your car.
ANEMOMETER (TO MEASURE WIND SPEED)
 This is the device that is generally found in a
weather station. It functions to measure the
wind speed along with the wind direction.
Surprisingly, there are a number of types of
anemometers available today.
 An anemometer is used in many areas such
as HVAC, storm chasing, kitesurfing, drone,
etc.
LIQUID FLOW METER
 As the name suggests, it functions to
calculate the speed of water that flows in a
particular pipe. There are a lot of flow meter
types based on how they work. You could
install the flow meter in your residence to
monitor the speed of water you are using.
RANGE FINDER
 A range finder is like a binocular, but it’s
able to read the distance between the
device and the object being watched. It’s
not weird that an advanced range finder
comes with a speed meter feature. It allows
you to observe a moving object while it’s
displaying the object’s speed.
 WEIGHT
 Weight is the force of gravity pulling you
towards the earth. The SI unit of weight can
be measured in kg-m/s^2 which is equal to
a Newton (N).
Mass
 a measure of how much matter an object
contains. The SI unit of weight can be
measured in Kilogram (kg).
Weight Measuring Instruments
COMMON SCALE
 This type of scale is also known as
"commercial scale" or "retail scale".
 It is commonly found in grocery stores or
markets, and has different weight
capacities that depend on its usage.
 It is used to weigh food such as fruits,
vegetables, meat and other products that
are sold by weight.
 Has two types based on its capacities;
sitting scale and large scale.
Types of Common Scale Based on its
Capacities
1. SITTING SCALE
 This scale is often in the shape of a box with
a round glass containing a scale and a
pointer, and the top is provided with a
container to hold the substance to be
weighed.
2. LARGE SCALE
 It is also known as Industrial scale because it
can weigh up to 500 kg or more, most types
of this scale are digital. Most industrial scales
have wheels so that heavy objects can be
moved easily.
3. MANUAL SCALE
 It is also known as the "traditional scale", this
type of scale is the one that has been used
for a long time.
 It can also be found in grocery stores and
markets just like sitting scales. But compared
to sitting scales, manual scales are not easy
to use because they require weights (with
different loads) to measure them.
4. BODY SCALE
 This scale has a square form and a scale
with a weight scale on its upper side. The
needle on these scales will move and
display weight when you stand on them.
Sometimes, they are placed with height
measuring devices for health purposes.
 These scales are frequently seen at
pharmacies, clinics, hospitals, and health
facilities. However, regular people utilize it to
control their weight.
5. OHAUS SCALE
 Most often known as the Ohaus balance,
although it is also known as the analytical
balance.
 This balance is given this name because it
can measure the weight of an object with
an accuracy of 0.01 grams and even up to
0.001 grams, depending on the scale's
manufacturer.
 It comes with 2 forms; manual and digital.
AREA
What is Area?
 Area can be defined as the space inside of
a given two-dimensional plane.
 First record of use of area is in Ancient
Babylon
 The term 'area' originated from Latin,
meaning 'a plain piece of empty land'. It
also means 'a particular amount of space
contained within a set of boundaries'
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
PLANIMETER
 A planimeter is a tabletop instrument for
measuring areas, usually the areas of
irregular regions on a map or photograph.
They were once common, but have now
largely been replaced by digital tools. A
planimeter is an instrument used to
determine the area of a two-dimensional
shape or planar region.
Types Of Planimeter
POLAR PLANIMETER
 A polar planimeter is a mechanical device
used to measure the area of a region by
tracing the boundary of the region.
Invented by a Swiss mathematecian named
Jacob Amsler
 The instrument consists of three major
components: a (1) pole arm, (2) tracer arm,
and (3) measuring wheel.
 What makes the polar planimeter capable
of measuring in multiple dimensions is the
fixed arm.
LINEAR PLANIMETER
 The linear planimeter works on the same
basic principle as the polar planimeter and
is simply a variation that allows the areas of
long. skinny regions to be measured. The
two planimeters differ in the movement of
the end of the tracer arm opposite the
tracer point.
How is Linear Planimeter Used
This planimeter is used by moving the tracer
point around the boundary of the region being
measured.
PRYTZ PLANIMETER
 The Prytz planimeter is a simple example of
a system governed by a nonholonomic
constraint.
 This type of planimeter was invented in
about 1875 by Holger Prytz, a Danish
mathematician and cavalry officer, as a
simple and economical alternative to
Amsler's polar planimeter.
DIGITAL PLANIMETER
 A Digital planimeter is an electronic version
of the mechanical planimeter. It is made up
of a large number of small counters that
can be programmed to display the area of
any plane figure.
 This type of planimeter has hundreds,
thousands, or even millions of counters
which enable them to calculate the area
with great precision.
Major Components of Digital Planimeter
 Roller
 Tracing Arm
 Tracing Magnifier
 Function Keys
 Display
THEODOLITE
 A theodolite is an instrument for measuring
both vertical and horizontal areas and
angles in conjunction with triangulation.
 Modern theodolites can measure
electronically and come with integrated
electro- optical measuring devices that,
through the use of polar coordinates, can
transform to a pre-existing coordinate
system in the area
Other Applications Of Theodolite
 Navigating
 Meteorology
 Laying out building corners and lines
 Measuring and laying out angles and
straight lines
 Aligning wood frame walls
 Forming panels
 Plumbing a column or building corner
Advantages
 Horizontal circles can be instantly zeroed or
set to any other value.
 Horizontal circle readings can be taken
either to the left or right of zero.
 Repeat readings are unnecessary.
 Greater accuracy.
 Internal magnifying optical system.
 Electronic readings
RULER
 A ruler is a device used in geometry and
technical drawing to measure or draw
straight lines
 The rulers are marked with standard
distance in centimeters in the top and
inches in the bottom and the intervals in the
ruler are called hash marks.
Uses of a Ruler
 As a Measurement Object
 Drawing Straight Lines
 Cutting Straight Lines
 For Math and Geometry
 For Carpentry and Constructions
 Drafting Blueprints
 Measuring Roads
SCALE RULER
 An Architectural or Scale Ruler is designed
for use in determining the actual dimensions
of a distance on a scaled drawing.
Considerations In Choosing A Scale Ruler:
 Based on the type of unit of measurements
 Imperial Units
 Metric Units
 Based on the scales to be used
 Engineering Scales
 Urban Scales
 Architectural Scales
Two Ways To Use A Scale Ruler
 Converting measurements from real life to a
scale
 Converting measurements on a scale
drawing to real life
CALIPER
 A Caliper is a linear measurement tool with
two movable legs or jaws that is used to
measure the distance between two
opposite edges of an object. It is frequently
used to measure thicknesses and internal or
inaccessible to a scale.external diameters
that are
How To Use A Caliper
1. Check for zero errors.
2. Use an adjustment wheel if present.
3. Calculate a positive zero error.
4. Calculate a negative zero error.
5. Subtract the zero error from all measurements.
Types Of Caliper GUNTER’S CHAIN
INSIDE CALIPER  Gunter's chain is a geodetic measuring
 These are used to measure internal device used for land surveys. Gunter used
diameters an actual measuring chain of 100 links.
OUTSIDE CALIPER These, the chain, and the link have become
 These are used to measure external units of their own. Standar is 66ft long.
diameters
DIVIDED CALIPER METER STICK
 These are used in the process of marking  A meter stick or yardstick is either a
out locations, and to measure a distance straightedge or foldable ruler used to
between two points on a map. measure length and is especially common
ODD LEG CALIPER in the construction industry.
 These are used to scribe a line at a set
distance from the edge of a workpiece. OPISOMETER
VERNIER CALIPER  An opisometer, also called a curvimeter.
 These are used to give a direct reading of melograph, or map measurer. is an
the distance measured with high accuracy instrument for measuring the lengths of
and precision arbitrary curved lines.
DIAL CALIPER  A simple opisometer consists of a toothed
 These are also used for direct reading but  wheel of known circumference on a handle.
without the need to read a vernier scale. In more sophisticated models, sometimes
called a chartometer, the wheel is
MICROMETER connected via gearing to a rotary dial from
 Micrometer is a device incorporating a which the line length can be directly read.
calibrated screw widely used for accurate
measurement of components in
mechanical engineering and machining as SURVEYER’S WHEEL
well as most mechanical trades. A standard  An equipment that aids in a quick, easy,
micrometer has two scales: a fixed scale and efficient way to calculate or estimate
and a rotary scale. long distances. Its measuring wheels can
track the number of times the wheel turns
Two Ways of Holding A Micrometer and multiplies it by the wheel's
 One-handed Method circumference to determine distance
 Two-handed Method travelled.

FEELER GAUGE Made up of:

 It is a tool used to measure gap widths.  A wheel attached to a long handle with a
Feeler gauges are primarily used in grip At least one wheel, a counting
engineering to measure the clearance mechanism and a guide rod with a handle.
between two parts.  Aluminum (or other metal) body and solid or
 They consist of several small lengths of steel pneumatic tires
of different thicknesses with measurements
marked on each piece. They are flexible Modern Surveyor’s Wheel Components
enough that several can be stacked  collapsible body
together to gauge intermediate values  magnified display
even if they are all on the same hinge.  top-mounted control buttons counter
encasement
GAUGE BLOCK  unit conversions
 A gauge block is a block of metal or  ergonomic grip handle
ceramic with two opposing faces ground  flip-down kickstand
precisely flat and parallel, a precise  safety reflector
distance apart. Gauge blocks come in sets  automatic shut off
of blocks of various lengths, along with two
wear blocks, to allow a wide variety of Uses
standard lengths to be made up by  Calculate long distances
stacking them.  Defines property limits
 Measures house foundations
 Finding the distance between structures
Uses of Surveyor's wheels with Cavalieri used the principles of
 Smaller wheels contemporary integral calculus to
 indoor use determine the volume of any object.
 marking plumbing locations
 measuring carpet and other interior Integral Calculus
dimensions  Integral calculus must include the volume
 Larger wheels calculation. One of these involves turning a
 covering outdoor terrain plane curve around a line on the same
plane to determine the volume of solids in a
Tape Measure revolution. When integrating along an axis
 A kind of bendable measuring device that that is parallel to the axis of rotation, the
can be rolled up and retracted washer or disc integration method is utilized.
automatically. There are different kinds of
tape measures, including the ones used by
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
tailors. This can show measurements in
Imperial Units (such as inches and feet) or BEAKERS
Metric Units (such as centimeters and  Laboratory beakers are vessels in which
meters). with subdivisions for more precision. liquid is placed so it can be stirred, mixed, or
 Uses heated.
 Surveying large spaces  They come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and
 Measuring and reaching long distances materials depending on the application,
and can be reusable or disposable. It is
Made Up From typically a cylindrical container with a flat
 Fiberglass bottom.
 Plastic
 Cloth Made Up From
 Metal ribbon or strip  Glass (borosilicate glass)
 Metal (stainless steel or aluminum)
 Plastics (polythene, polypropylene, PTFE)
VOLUME
Other Uses
 Volume is the space occupied within an  Preparing solutions and other samples
object's borders in three dimensions. It is also  Holding solutions and other samples as a
known as "object's capacity" container for reactions
 Used in most chemical, biological, and
Difference Between Volume & Density clinical laboratories
Volume  Stores and mixes liquids
 How much space an object or substance  Used to collect filtrates from filtering
takes up operations as well as liquids from titrations
Density
 How much space an object or substance VOLUMETRIC FLASK
takes up (its volume) in relation to the  A type of flask with a round base and a
amount of matter in that object or long neck that has a mark to indicate a
substance (its mass) certain volume. The flask can also be
named as standard flask because it can
Ancient History measure an exact amount of liquid.
 The earliest evidence of volume calculation
came from ancient Egypt and Types of Volumetric Flask
Mesopotamia as mathematical problems, Class A Flask
approximating the volume of simple shapes  Used for analytical chemistry work
such as cuboids, cylinders, frustum, and  Made to conform to a high standard
cones.  Its tolerance, temperature, precision, and
volume will be
Calculus and Standardization of Units  250 indicated on the glassware
 The enormous number of volume units
compelled British kings to standardize them, Class B Flask
which resulted in Henry III of England's Assize  Used for educational and qualitative work
of Bread and Ale edict in 1258 Around the  Does not conform to a high standard
beginning of the 17th century, Bonaventura
 Usually may not include all the information
stated in Class A flask
Uses
 Measure volumes much more precisely than
beakers or Erlenmeyer flasks
 Determination of volume of liquids
 Preparation of solutions
CYLINDER
A cylindrical shape and narrow laboratory
equipment that gives a more precise and
accurate volume than regular laboratory flasks
and beakers. This can range from less than 10
mL to over 4,000 mL. It is usually marked as Total
Contained (TC) or Total Delivered (TD)
Uses
 Measure the volume of liquids, chemicals, or
solutions
 Calculate displacement
Made up from:
 Glass
 Quartz glass
 Borosilicate glass
 Plastic
 Polypropylene (PP plastic
BURETTES
 A type of lab equipment that can measure
how much liquid there is, usually in milliliters
(mL).
Type of Burettes
 Liquid Burette
 The precise volume of the liquid dispensed
can be determined by reading graduations
marked on the glass tube at the liquid level
before and after dispensing it.
 Gas Burette
 Stopcock is at the top
 The tube of the burette is filled with a fluid
like water, oil, or mercury
 At the bottom of the tube if attached to a
reservoir of the fluid
Uses of Burettes
 Measure the precise volume of a liquid or a
gas in a quantitative chemical analysis
 Titration
Applications of Burettes in Various Industries
 Pharmaceutical Industry: Verification of
concentrations in medicines
 Food Industry: Testing the acidity levels of
food liquids
 Cosmetic Industry: Verifying concentration
of ingredients in a safe amount
 Meteorology: Measuring the amount of
gases in the air
 Biofuel Manufacturing: Measurement of
impurities in bio- fuel
 Medical Diagnosis: Analysis of body fluids
like urine and blood
Made up of
 Graduated glass tube
 Stopcock (turning plug, or spigot) at one
end
Made up from
 Glass
 Plastic
GLASS PIPETTES
 Graduated glass pipettes can be used as
an easy and cost-effective way of
transferring small volumes of liquid. When
used together with a pipette bulb or pipette
pump, users can draw up liquid into the
pipette, and then when required,
accurately dose the liquid out by releasing
the bulb or pump.
MICRO SYRINGES
 Micro syringes serve for dispensing small
volumes (0.1-1000µL) of liquids. They consist
of a needle attached to a scaled glass
cylinder with a piston. Different types vary in
the diameter of needles and pistons.
PISTON DISPENSER
 Piston dispensers consist of a piston with a
scale attached to a flask. They are intended
for repetitive dispensing of the same volume
from the stock container.
PIPETTORS
 A pipettor is a pipetting aids or pipette
controllers that allow you to easily draw
samples into a pipette and stop
contamination risk, reduce hand fatigue,
and even decrease stress during long
working hours.
Two Big Group of Pipettor
 Air Displacement Pipettor
 Air displacement pipettors can be designed
as a single channel or as a multi-channel.
Multi- channel pipettors are intended for
simultaneous pipetting of the same volume
of liquid to several wells of a microtitration
plate.
 Positive Displacement Pipettor
 The liquid is aspired into the tip without any
air cushion - the piston is in contact with the
measured liquid. The liquid is then delivered
at once or in several steps. This type of
pipette is suitable for very viscous or volatile
liquids and for repetitive pipetting.
 Mass and weight are often used
interchangeably; however, they are
different.
 Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia of a
body at rest. As a physical quantity, mass is
the product of density and volume.
 Weight or weight force is the force with
which a body is attracted toward the Earth.
Weight force is determined by the product
of the mass and the acceleration of gravity.
WEIGHING INSTRUMENTS
1. Platform Beam Balance
 This Ohaus brand platform balance is a
triple beam poise carriage balance. This
type of balance was patented in 1932.
 To determine the weight of the object
placed in the weighing pan, the weights,
known as poise, must be moved along the
beams for hundreds, tens and units (grams).
The beams are horizontal arms to which the
pan is fixed.
 On the opposite side, they are joined
together and end in a single arrow. The pan
and the arrow oscillate from top to bottom
until they stabilize, indicating that the
beams are perfectly horizontal.
2. Platform Dial Scale
 This Ohaus balance was introduced on the
market in 1957. It marked a milestone in the
history of this company by introducing a
new system of counterweights.
 When the arrow of the beam is stabilized,
the position of the dial indicates the weight
of the object placed in the pan.It was used,
for example, to measure small quantities of
powder to prepare solutions.
3. Toledo Balance
 This Toledo balance was manufactured in
the USA in 1945. It is based on a system of
counterweights: the object to be weighed is
deposited on the pan and the
counterweight equilibrates the two ends of
the weighing arm. A needle indicates the
correct reading. This balance can weigh
objects up to 2,500 grams.
4. Analytic Balance
 The analytic balance that can measure
precisely very small masses of substances –
in the order of the milligram – is essential to
laboratory work, especially for chemical
analyses.
 The mechanism is completely hidden in the
back and is thus protected from dust and
shocks. The glass door on the front opens
and closes to allow the user to weigh the
samples. Adjustable legs ensure that the
instrument is always level.
5. Electronic Analytic Balance
 This Mettler electronic analytic balance was
purchased in 1976 by a research team from
the Armand-Frappier Institute.
 After turning it on, the lateral glass doors are
closed and, if necessary, the level is
adjusted. The material to be weighed is
then deposited in the single pan in a tared
cup and the doors are closed,because the
smallest draft can affect the measurement.
Using the buttons on the front,the weight of
the material in the pan can be
determined up to four decimals smaller
than unity (0.0001 gram).
6. Dial Torsion Balance
 This rectangular box is a precision balance
known as a “torsion balance” because its
functioning is based on the torsion of a
metal wire. This type of balance has several
uses.
 In physics, most notably, it is used to
measure weak forces (electric, magnetic,
and gravitational). This model can be used
to determine the weight of small objects.
The pans containing the objects to be
weighed are hidden under the cover, which
contains a window.
 The cover is closed during weighing to
ensure that a draft does not falsify the
measurement. The measurement is carried
out by stabilizing the balance using the
white buttons on the front of the device.
One of the buttons is used to fix the grams
(up to 10) and the other the tenths and
hundredths of grams (0.01g).
7. Two-Pan Balance
 A two-pan balance is a device for
measuring mass. It is often used to
equilibrate, two by two, solutions that will
undergo centrifugation. By proceeding in
this manner, the volumes may be different,
but the weights will be identical. This
instrument must be installed on a flat stable
surface.