Experiment -1

Aim: To calculate the spring constant of a spring using static

method and dynamic method.

Materials Required:
 Spiral spring
 Mass hanger
 One stop watch
 Masses (50gm each)

Procedure:
STATIC METHOD
 Attach the support such that the end point of spring remains at 0cm.
 Suspend the masses one by one.
 Note down the stretch in the spring.
 Repeat the procedure for at least 5 masses.
 To get more accurate result unload the masses one by one.
 Note down the compression reading corresponding to the masses.
 Take the mean value of compression and expansion corresponding to the masses.
 Compute the extension in the spring.

Sr. No. Load(Kg) Pointer Pointer Average Spring

Increasing Decreasing Pointer Constant
Load(cm) Load(cm) Reading (N/m)
K=g*m/l
1 0.05 6 5 5.5 8.90
2 0.10 11 11 11 8.90
3 0.15 17 16 16.5 8.90
4 0.20 22 23 22.5 8.71
5 0.25 27 27 27 9.07

Average= 8.896 N/m

DYNAMIC METHOD
 Firstly, load one or two masses.
 Stretch the spring up to a certain limit.
 Release the spring such that it completes at least 15 to 20 oscillations.
 Start the stopwatch at the time of releasing.
 Note the readings of oscillations.
 Repeat the procedure for different masses.

Sr. No. Load Time(sec) Time/osc Average Spring

(Kg) 10osc. 15osc. 10osc. 15osc. Time (sec) Constant
(N/m)
1 0.05 4.73 7.10 0.473 0.472 0.472 8.81
2 0.10 6.53 10.17 0.652 0.678 0.664 8.96
3 0.15 8.16 12.21 0.816 0.814 0.815 8.90
4 0.20 9.41 14.11 0.941 0.939 0.940 8.92
5 0.25 10.50 15.77 1.050 1.052 1.050 8.94
Average= 8.906 N/m

Result:
Value of Spring Constant is 8.9 N/m

Precautions and Sources of Error:

 The spring should not be stretched beyond the elastic limit.
 The amplitude for the vertical oscillations should be small in the dynamical
consideration.
 Time-period of the oscillations should be accurately measured.
 Stopwatch should be used correctly.
 There should not be any discrepancy of counting oscillations
 The axis of the spring should be vertical.
 Experiment -2
Aim: Determination of Coefficient of Viscosity

Materials Required:

 A long cylindrical glass jar

 Transparent viscous fluid
 Metre scale
 Spherical ball
 Screw gauge
 Vernier calipers
 Stop clock
 Thread

Theory:
Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal resistance comes into play when the liquid
is in motion, and opposes the relative motion between its different layers. Thus, it is the resistance of a fluid
to flow.
When liquid flows over flat surface, a backward viscous force acts tangentially to every layer. This force
depends upon the area of the layer, velocity of the layer, and the distance of the layer from the surface.

Where η is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.

When a spherical body moves down through an infinite column of highly viscous liquid, it drags the layer of
the liquid in contact with it. As a result, the body experiences a retarding force.
Then according to Stokes law, the viscous drag force,

where, r - Radius of the spherical body

v - Velocity of the spherical body
It gives the relationship between retarding force and velocity. When viscous force plus buoyant force
becomes equal to force due to gravity, the net force becomes zero. The sphere then descends with a
constant terminal velocity (v t).
Now,

-(i)
where, ρ - Density of the liquid
σ - Density of the spherical body
Observation:

Sr. Radius of Distance (s) Time of Transit (sec) Mean r2 r 2T

No the glass travelled T1 T2 T3 Time of (m2) (m2 sec)
ball Transit
(sec )
1 2.5 mm 30cm 21.9 21.9 21.9 21.9 0.00000625 0.000137
2 3 mm 30cm 16.06 16.06 16.06 16.06 0.000009 0.000145
3 3.5 mm 30cm 12.44 12.44 12.44 12.44 0.00001225 0.000152
4 4 mm 30cm 10.01 10.01 10.01 10.01 0.000016 0.00016

Calculation:
n (1) = 2*0.000137* (1340)*9.8/(9*0.30) = 1.33 Pa-sec
n (2) = 2 * 0.000145* (1340)*9.8/(9*0.30) = 1.41 Pa-sec
n (3) = 2 *0.000152* (1340)*9.8/(9*0.30) = 1.47 Pa-sec
n (4) = 2 *0.00016* (1340)*9.8/(9*0.30) = 1.55 Pa-sec

Mean value of n= 1.44 Pa-sec

Result:
 Theoretical value of coefficient of viscosity of the liquid =0.95 Pa-sec
 Experimental value of coefficient of viscosity of the liquid =1.44 Pa-sec

Assumptions and Precautions:

 Here, We consider that the ball attains the terminal velocity when it starts crossing the first mark
on glass tube. Its known as the highest velocity of an object achieves as it falls through the fluid. If
the sum of the drag force and buoyancy equals gravity force, terminal velocity exists. It is also a
precaution to the experiment.

 Watching the ball move should be transparent with liquid.

 Ball should be perfectly spherical.

Sources of Error:
 The noted velocity may not be constant.
 The liquid may not have uniform density.
 The ball may not be perfectly spherical.
 Experiment -3
Aim: Measuring the wavelength of laser light source using diffraction grating
Materials Required:
 A diffraction grating.
 A laser light source.
 An optical bench with the ruler.
 A target holder.
 A screen.
Theory:
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽=𝒀/𝑫
Y: Distance of kth order w.r.t 0th order.
D: Distance between screen and grating.
Diffraction Formula: 𝒌𝝀=d𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒌: 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤.𝑟.𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎.
𝝀: 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
Observation:
Angle subtended by the 1st order on the grating:
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 =𝑌1 /𝐷= 2.6cm/500cm = 0.052
𝑌1=𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟.
d = Distance between screen and grating.

Angle subtended by the 2nd order on the grating:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 =𝑌2 /𝐷= 5.53cm/500cm = 0.011
𝑌2=𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟.
d = Distance between screen and grating.

Diffraction Formula:
d𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝒌𝝀⇒𝝀 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽; k= 1,2,3…
𝒌𝑵
st
1 order:
𝝀𝟏= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1/𝑁= 260nm
2nd order
𝝀𝟐= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2/2𝑁= 276 nm
𝝀𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏= (𝜆1+𝜆2)/2= 268nm
The mean wavelength(𝝀mean) is= 268nm

Precaution and Sources of Error:

 Diffraction Grating must be clear.
 Screen and gratin should be perpendicular to the optical bench.
 Experiment -4
Aim: Determination of Planck's constant
Principle:
 The importance of Planck’s constant is that the frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant will
determine ‘quanta’ (Small packets of energy).
 It explains the behaviour at atomic-level for particles and waves. It contributes in the understanding
of the particle nature of light.

Materials Required:
 Power supply.
 One way key.
 Rheostat.
 Milliammeter.
 Voltmeter,
 1K resistor.
 Different known wavelength LED’s.

Theory:
Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max Planck in 1900.
The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of energy) can be determined by
frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the behavior of particle and waves at atomic
level as well as the particle nature of light.

An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential barrier is
developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an external voltage in the
forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular
voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward
biased condition electrons crossing the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state,
energy is emitted. This particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the
knee voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not change.

The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as ,

(1)
Where
c -velocity of light.
h -Planck’s constant.
λ -wavelength of light.

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee voltage), the
energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,

(2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

 (3)

The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of light).

(4)
Now from equation (4), we see that the slope s of a graph of V on
the vertical axis vs. 1/λ on the horizontal axis is

(5)
To determine Planck’s constant h, we take the slope s from our graph and calculate

using the known value

Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as

calculate h for each LED, and take the average of our results.
Procedure:
1. After the connections are completed, click on ‘Insert Key’ button.
2. Click on the combo box under ‘Select LED’ button.
3. Click on the ‘Rheostat Value’ to adjust the value of rheostat.
4. Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter,which is the knee voltage.
5. Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.

6. Calculate ‘h’ using equation

7. The wave length of infrared LED is calculated by using equation,

Observation:
 LED Color Wavelength Turn on voltage 𝝀×𝑽 Planck’s Constant
𝝀(𝒎) (𝑽) (J-s)

Red 6.5 * 10^-7 1.9 1.23* 10^-6 6.5867* 10^-34

Green 5.1 * 10^-7 2.4 1.22* 10^-6 6.528 * 10^-34

Yellow 5.75 * 10^-7 2.15 1.23* 10^-6 6.5934* 10^-34

Blue 4.6 * 10^-7 2.62 1.20 * 10^-6 6.45568*10^-34

Average= 6.540945*10^-34
Result:
The value of Planck’s constant = 6.540945*10^-34 J-s.
Precautions:

 Make proper connections.

 Look for loose connections.
 Handle the sensitive equipment carefully.
 Take the readings properly