CESP 104 (EARTQUAKE ENGINEERING)

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES; MAGNITUDE V. INTENSITY

EARTHQUAKES:

 Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic
waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of
energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock
straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most
often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one
another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge
tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust. 

Figure 1: San Francisco earthquake of 1906

Crowds watching the fires set off by the earthquake in San Francisco in 1906.
 The earth is composed of several layers, some of which are called mantles.
The outermost layer I called the lithosphere, and the outermost layer of the
lithosphere is the crust, which is what we stand on every day. The tectonic plates are part
of the lithosphere. These plates are constantly moving and rubbing against each other,
sometimes the force and friction become bad enough and cause an earthquake. The
specific place where the plates meet and cause the earthquake below the surface of the
earth is called the hypocenter. The epicenter is the location on the crust directly above
the hypocenter, when this happens, seismographs are alerted of the disturbance.

HOW ARE EARTHQUAKES RECORDED & DETECTED?

When the Earth trembles, earthquakes spread energy in the form of seismic waves. A
seismograph is the primary earthquake measuring instrument. The seismograph produces
a digital graphic recording of the ground motion caused by the seismic waves. The digital
recording is called a seismogram. A network of worldwide seismographs detects and
measures the strength and duration of the earthquake’s waves. The seismograph produces
a digital graphic plotting of the ground motion of the event.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE:

 Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the ground during an

earthquake. They are installed in the ground throughout the world and operated as
part of a seismographic network. The earliest "seismoscope" was invented by the
Chinese philosopher Chang Heng in A.D. 132. This did not, however, record
earthquakes; it only indicated that an earthquake was occurring. The first
seismograph was developed in 1890. A seismograph is securely mounted onto the
surface of the earth so that when the earth shakes, the entire unit shakes with
it EXCEPT for the mass on the spring, which has inertia and remains in the same
 place. As the seismograph shakes under the mass, the recording device on the mass
records the relative motion between itself and the rest of the instrument, thus
recording the ground motion. In reality, these mechanisms are no longer manual, but
instead work by measuring electronic changes produced by the motion of the ground
with respect to the mass.

Seismogram is the recording of the ground shaking at the specific location of the
instrument. On a seismogram, the HORIZONTAL axis = time (measured in seconds) and
the VERTICAL axis= ground displacement (usually measured in millimeters). When
there is NO EARTHQUAKE reading, there is just a straight line except for small wiggles
caused by local disturbance or "noise" and the time markers. Seismograms are digital
now - there are no more paper recordings.

Seismometer is the internal part of the seismograph, which may be a pendulum or

a mass mounted on a spring; however, it is often used synonymously with "seismograph".
 MAGNITUDE VS. INTENSITY

Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes.

Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. Magnitude is
determined from measurements on seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of
shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from
effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.

 Earthquake magnitude

Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the “size,” or amplitude, of the seismic

waves generated by an earthquake source and recorded by seismographs. (The types and
nature of these waves are described in the section Seismic waves.) Because the size of
earthquakes varies enormously, it is necessary for purposes of comparison to compress
the range of wave amplitudes measured on seismograms by means of a mathematical
device. In 1935 the American seismologist Charles F. Richter set up a magnitude scale of
earthquakes as the logarithm to base 10 of the maximum seismic wave amplitude (in
thousandths of a millimetre) recorded on a standard seismograph (the Wood-Anderson
torsion pendulum seismograph) at a distance of 100 km (60 miles) from the earthquake
epicentre. Reduction of amplitudes observed at various distances to the amplitudes
expected at the standard distance of 100 km is made on the basis
of empirical tables. Richter magnitudes ML are computed on the assumption that the ratio
of the maximum wave amplitudes at two given distances is the same for all earthquakes
and is independent of azimuth.
 Earthquake Intensity

The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an

earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their
structures. Several scales exist, but the ones most commonly used in the United States are
the Modified Mercalli scale and the Rossi-Forel scale.

For Example:
Comparing magnitude and Intensity by using a light bulb as an analogy. The light bulb
represents the location within the earth called the hypocenter where the earthquake
begins. The magnitude or size of an earthquake is like the wattage of a light bulb, just as
the wattage represents the amount of power of the light bulb. The magnitude is related to
the total amount of energy released by the earthquake source. The intensity or shaking
level is like the amount of light from a light bulb at any spot in the room, a small light
bulb in one area of a room will make that area bright with high intensity light but it will
leave the distant room dim with low intensity light. So a given earthquake has only one
magnitude but will produce different intensities of ground shaking. The severity of an
earthquake can be determined using Mercalli Intensity Scale.
HOW IS EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE MEASURED?

An earthquake has one magnitude unit. The magnitude does not depend on the location
where measurement is made. Since 1970, the Moment Magnitude Scale has been used
because it supports earthquake detection all over the Earth.

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE CLASSES

Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from minor to great, depending on
their magnitude.

 Moment Magnitude Scale

The moment magnitude (MW or M) scale, developed in the late 1970s by

Japanese seismologist Hiroo Kanamori and American seismologist Thomas C. Hanks,
became the most popular measure of earthquake magnitude worldwide during the late
20th and early 21st centuries. It was designed to produce a more-accurate measure of the
total energy released by an earthquake. The scale abandoned the use of peak wave
amplitudes in its calculations, focusing instead on calculating an earthquake’s seismic
moment (M0)—that is, the displacement of the fault across its entire surface multiplied by
the force used to move the fault. Since the moment magnitude scale was not limited by
Richter’s process, it avoided the saturation problem and thus was used to determine the
magnitudes of the largest earthquakes. Moment magnitude calculations, however,
continue to express earthquake magnitude using a logarithmic scale, which allows its
results to compare favorably with those of other scales below magnitude 8.

Figure 2:

Since magnitude scales are logarithmic, an increase of one unit of magnitude on a

magnitude scale is equivalent to an increase of 10 times the amplitude recorded by a
seismograph and approximately 30 times the energy.  In the image above at the right, the
diameter of the circle is proportional to the energy of an event at moment magnitude +1
versus moment magnitude +2.

 The Richter Scale

Richter scale (ML), quantitative measure of an earthquake’s magnitude (size),

devised in 1935 by American seismologists Charles F. Richter and Beno Gutenberg. The
earthquake’s magnitude is determined using the logarithm of the amplitude (height) of
the largest seismic wave calibrated to a scale by a seismograph. Although modern
scientific practice has replaced the original Richter scale with other, more-accurate
scales, the Richter scale is still often mentioned erroneously in news reports of
earthquake severity as the catch-all name for the logarithmic scale upon which
earthquakes are measured.

The Richter scale was originally devised to measure the magnitude of earthquakes
of moderate size (that is, magnitude 3 to magnitude 7) by assigning a number that would
allow the size of one earthquake to be compared with another. The scale was developed
for temblors occurring in southern California that were recorded using the Wood-
Anderson seismograph and whose epicentres were less than 600 km (373 miles) from the
location of the seismograph. Present-day seismographs, however, may be calibrated to
compute Richter magnitudes, and modern methods for measuring earthquake magnitude
have been developed to produce results that remain consistent with those measured using
the Richter scale.
HOW IS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY MEASURED?

A second way earthquakes are measured is by their intensity. Earthquake Intensity

measurement is an on-the-ground description. The measurement explains the severity of
earthquake shaking and its effects on people and their environment. Intensity
measurements will differ depending on each location’s nearness to the epicenter. There
can be multiple intensity measurements as opposed to one magnitude measurement.

 The Mercalli Intensity Scale

The Mercalli scale was designed to do just that The original scale was invented
by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry Wood and Frank Neumann in
1931 to become what is now known as the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. To help
distinguish it from magnitude scales, the MMI scale uses roman numerals. Although
the Mercalli scale does not use scientific equipment to measure seismic waves, it has
been very useful for understanding the damage caused by large earthquakes. It has also
been used extensively to investigate earthquakes that occurred before there were
seismometers.

Some factors that affect the amount of damage that occurs are:

 the size (magnitude) of the earthquake

 the distance from the epicenter,
 the depth of the earthquake,
 the building (or other structure) design,
 and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on.
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity Scale Shaking Description:

I - Scarcely Perceptible Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately

balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates slowly.
II - Slightly Felt Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly.
Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.
III - Weak Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings. Vibration
is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some
people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates
moderately.
IV - Moderately Strong Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors.
Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging
objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and
walls of wood framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in
containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound
may sometimes be heard.
V - Strong Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are
awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt
throughout building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink;
some are broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill
from filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and
twigs of trees are noticeable.
VI - Very Strong Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their
balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may
be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built
houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and
escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
VII - Destructive Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to
stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells
may ring. Old or poorly built structures suffer considerable damage. Some well-built
structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road
surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and
landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which
loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like liquid).
VIII - Very Destructive People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and
foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are
bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts,
towers and monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or
broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or
topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders
are thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults
rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or
banks of rivers.
IX - Devastating People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear.
Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled
or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken.
Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral
spreading and sand boils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees
are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown
out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.
X - Completely Devastating Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive
landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many
ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large
lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

Group 1 :

ANTONIO, FERRIC EUSON

GEIGER, BRIAN JEREMY
NARANJO, KUAYLE JEWEL
RODULFA, VINCENT