Parts of Speech

Language:
The means of communication is known as language.
Skills of a Language
1. Basic Skills
2. Advanced Skills
Basic Skills
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
Advanced Skills
1. Grammar
2. Vocabulary
3. Pronunciation
Aspects of a Language
1. Productive Aspect: An aspect in which words are produced is known as
Productive Aspect.
 Speaking
 Writing
2. Receptive Aspect: Is a kind of aspect in which information are gained through

Reading and Listening.
 Reading
 Listening
WHAT IS ENGLISH?
English is an international language, a language of communication and technology;

once spoken by only English people, but nowadays it is spoken in all over the world as a
second language.
The word “English” as a noun refers to the language of Britain, Ireland, N America,
Australia and some other countries: She speaks good English / I need to improve my
English. However, when the word “English” functions as an adjective then it refers to
the people living in England:
Ex: She is a smart English girl
Composed by: Shapoor Rahmani 078-9595224 (1)

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMERICAN AND BRITISH
ENGLISH
There are four main differences as summarized
A- Words
B- Grammar
C- Spelling
D- Pronunciation
Words Grammar
American English British American English British English
English
Movie theatre Cinema On the weekend At the
Apartment Flat
Conductor Guard
weekend
Vacation Holiday I don’t need to I needn’t look
Highway Motorway look her up her up
Shorts(underwear) Pants
Line up Queue up I don’t have any I haven’t any
Faculty Staff
problem problem
Windshield Windscreen
Sidewalk Pavement/ She will be on She shall be
Footpath time on time
Mortuary Morgue
She doesn’t have She has no
any brothers brothers
Spelling Pronunciation
American British American English British English
English English
Airplane Aero plane Schedule ( skajule) Schedule (sheduol)
Color Colour Been (be’en) Been (bea’en)
Fulfill Fulfil
Can’t ( cai’ant) Can’t ( caant)
Honor Honour International International
License Licence (Iner’national) (inter’ national)
Memorize Memorise Water ( waerr) Water ( waoter)
Program Programme
Tire Tyre Information( Information
Yogurt Yoghurt in’for’mation) (info’mation)

Center Centre Sample (Saim’pl) Sample (Saam’pl)
Check Cheque
Introduction to Grammar
Origin of Grammar:
The word Grammar comes from the;
 French word “Gramarie”
 Latin word “Grammitika”
 Greek word “Grammatikos”
Importance of Grammar:
 Without good grammar, clear communication is nearly impossible.
 Proper grammar keeps you from being misunderstood while expressing your
thoughts and Ideas.
 If you are attempting to build a reputation as an expert in your profession,
grammar is an extremely important skill.
 Grammar is considered to be a mark of intelligence and education.
 Grammar lays the groundwork for effective communication.
 Improper grammar can likewise affect the meaning and clarity of an intended
message.
 Grammatical errors come in many forms and all can easily confuse and obscure
meaning.
 In conclusion, just as rules are necessary in everyday situations, grammar rules
are likewise essential in everyday life for clarity of meaning and intent.
 Grammar makes written content more readable and in turn more interesting
 Grammar skills are useful in every aspect of life from education to leadership,
and social life to employment education.
 Grammar skills are important to be an effective leader.
 Proper grammar is also essential for understanding English as a second
language as well as for learning a new language, since all languages follow
grammatical patterns.
Shortly we can say that grammar is important;

 To speak and write correctly and properly.
 To listen and read comprehensively.

 To give meaningful speeches and presentations.
 To be formal and professional in the society.
 To correct written and spoken mistakes.
 A good grammarian can be a good leader.
Common Definitions of Grammar:

 Grammar is a linguistic skill through which we can correct speaking, writing,
listening and reading.
 The rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences is
called grammar.
 Grammar is the set of rules that describes how words can be arranged to form
sentences in a particular language.
 The scientific study of a language, which deals with linguistic skill or which
enables the user to make the right use of the words in a language, is known as
Grammar.
 The particular analysis of the rules of a language is known as grammar.
 The system or the art of putting right words in a right place in order to
understand and use a language effectively is known as grammar.
 The collection of language writing and accurate speaking rules is known as
grammar.
 The set of rules by which words are divided and combined or formed into
sentences is known as grammar.
 Grammar is the collection of basic rules, which are used for writing and
speaking a language correctly and making the accurate relationship between the
words.
 The systematic study of scientific method, which provides us guidance and
information necessary to properly learn a language, is known as grammar.
 Grammar is the fundamental rules, which help us to learn the basics of a
language and its dialects.
 The study of words, their function, and relation is called grammar.
Grammar is considered as the skeleton of a language
Logic: A set of sensible reasons for doing something is called logic.

Grammar Deals with Four Components of a Language
1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the study of rules that indicate how words are
combined into meaningful sentences.
2. Semantic: Semantic refers to the study of rules that govern the meaning of our
speech.
3. Phonology: This component of grammar refers to the study of the smallest

sound unit called phonemes. Phonemes affect the meaning of our speech.
4. Morphology: Morphology refers to the scientific study of the structure and

forms of words and phrases.
Basic Terminologies:
Alphabet: The collection of letters in a fixed and limited order is known as alphabet.
Ex: A-B-C-C ……………….. Z.
Letter: A symbol or sign which represents a specific sound is called letter.

Ex: Z = /z/, D = /d/ etc.
Word: A letter or group of letters with a special sound and specific meaning is called
word.
Examples: Chair, boy, cat, pencil, book
Kinds of Words
 According to Form
1. Simple Words: Words made of one single word are known as simple words.
Ex: Smell, Perfume, Purse, mobile etc.
2. Compound Words: Are those words which are made of more than one word.
Ex: Lap top, Earring, Bus driver, Swimming pool etc.

According to Function
1. Lexical Words: Are those words which don’t need explanation.

Ex: Name, pen, girl, beautiful etc.
2. Grammatical Words: Are those which need explanation.
Ex: Noun, verb, adjective, preposition etc.
Phrase: A group of words which lacks subject and finite verb and always gives
incomplete but a particular sense is called phrase.
Ex: Man of the match
Ex: on the road
Ex: The captain of Afghanistan\
Clause: Is a group of words which contains a subject and a finite verb and usually
carries a complete sense.
Ex: When I feel tired. (Incomplete sense)
Ex: I go to bed early. (Complete sense)
Sentence: A group of related words containing a subject and a finite verb and
always carries a complete sense is called a sentence.
Ex: My family loves me.
Classification of Sentence
1. Subject 2. Predicate
When we make a statement;
 We name some person or thing; and
 Say something about that person or thing.
In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate
something about that subject.
Subject: The part of a sentence which names the person or thing we are speaking
about is called subject.

Predicate: The part of a sentence which tells something about the subject
of a sentence is known as predicate.
Ex: Stone wall do not make prison.
Sub Predicate
Remember!
The subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the
predicate; as,
Ex: Here comes the train.
Ex: On the top of the hill lives a hermit.
Ex: Borrowed garments never fit well.
Ex: Bad habits grow unconsciously.
Object: A noun or pronoun representing the person or thing that something is done
to is called object.
Ex: Rehan tore the shirt. (The shirt is object)
Complement: A word or phrase that follows a verb and describes the subject of
the verb.
Ex: She seems tense today.
Why do we classify a sentence?

 To understand the relation of words.
 To find out the appropriate usage of both open and closed elements of parts of
speech.
Parts of Speech
Meaning of Parts of Speech
Parts of speech are composed of two words.
1. Partssegments/Components/sections/portions/elements
2. Speech saying or addressing

Ex: They come to ZICS daily.
pro verb pre n adv
Other names of Parts of Speech.

 Building blocks of speech.
 Segments of speech. Parts Of The Speech
Definitions of Parts of Speech:

 The definition of a part of speech is a class of words based on the word's
function, the way it works in a sentence.
 Any of the classes of words of a given language to which a word can be assigned:
different kinds of grammar have different criteria for classifying words, as form,
function or meaning, or combinations of these:
 A "part of speech" is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the eight OR
nine main categories into which words are classified according to their functions
in sentences. Also known as "word classes," these are the building blocks of
grammar.
Types of parts of Speech
Open Elements of Parts of Speech: Are those elements which can accept either
addition or deduction.
Close Elements of Parts of Speech: Are those elements which cannot accept
addition or deduction.
Difference between Open and Closed Elements of Parts of Speech

Open Elements of Parts of Speech Close Elements of Parts of Speech
1. They are Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives 1. They are Pronoun,
and Adverbs Conjunction, Interjection,
2. Their number is not limited Preposition and Article
3. When a new word is coined into 2. Their number is limited
English Language it must be from 3. We cannot coin new words into
open parts of speech them
4. We can use prefixes and suffixes
with them
5. They make a major part of English 4. We cannot use prefixes and
vocabulary suffixes with them
6. They can be changed into one 5. They do not make a major
another part of English vocabulary

6. They cannot be changed into
one another
Noun
Origin of Noun:
The word noun is taken from a Latin word Nomen which means “Name.”
Explanation of Noun;
Noun is a naming word which names;
 Place Kabul
 Person____ Rehan
 Thing____________ Mobile
 Animal_________________ Cat
 Idea_______________________ Decision
 Quality_______________________________ Beauty
 Quantity_________________________________________ Kilo
 Action________________________________________________ Teaching.
Roots of Noun
 Types of Noun
 Genders of Noun
 Numbers of Noun
 Cases of Noun
Types of Noun:

 Proper noun  Non Animated Noun
 Improper noun  Gerund Noun
 Collective Noun  Infinitive Noun
 Material Noun  Dual Function Noun
 Abstract Noun  Mass Noun
 Concrete Noun  Simple Noun
 Compound Noun  Nationality Nouns
 Temporal Noun  Countable Nouns
 Agent Noun  Non-countable Nouns
 Natural Noun  Regular Nouns
 Animated Noun  Irregular Nouns
Nouns on the Basis of Commonness and Properness
1. Proper Noun: Proper noun is the name of a particular person, place and thing.
Particular person: Ali, Jan, Mursal….
Particular place: Nangarhar, Afghanistan….
Particular thing: Honda car, Chinese mobile ….
Note: Proper noun always starts with a capital letter and the word proper means
given to a specific one and cannot be pluralized.
2. Common Noun: Common Noun is the name of common person, place and thing.
Common person: boy, girl, doctor, teacher…
Common thing: car, pen, mobile …..
Common place: city, country, park, ground
Note: The word common means shared by all.
3. Collective Nouns: Collective nouns are those nouns which are singular in form,
but plural in meaning.
Ex: Team, crew, squad etc.
Collective nouns denote a group of people, family, team, etc. They usually come in
singular form.
Note: A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is thought of as
one whole and vice versa.
Ex: The committee has issued its report.
Ex: My family is rich.
Ex: The crew of NASA which go to the space consists of 6 persons.
Ex: The committee are divided on one minor point.
Ex: Most of the jury are here.
NOTE: We must be consistent;
Ex: The committee has appended a note to its (not their) report.
Nouns on the Basis of Regularity

1. Regular Nouns: Are those nouns which can be pluralized by adding s, es or
ies.
Ex: boy – boys, watch – watches, study – studies etc.
2. Irregular Nouns: Are those nouns which cannot be pluralized by adding s, es
or ies.
Ex: Man – men, child – children etc.
Rules for changing singular regular nouns into plural.
 To make regular nouns plural, add -s to the end.
Ex: Cat – cats
Ex: House – houses
 If the singular noun ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, add -es to the end to make it
plural.
Examples:
Truss – trusses
Bus – buses
Marsh – marshes
Lunch – lunches
Tax – taxes
Blitz – blitzes
 In some cases, singular nouns ending in -s or -z, require that you double the -s or -z
prior to adding the –es.
Examples:
Fez – fezzes
Gas –gasses
 If the noun ends with -f or -fe, the f is often changed to -ve before adding the -s to
form the plural version.

Examples:
Wife – wives
Wolf – wolves
Exceptions:
Roof – roofs
Belief – beliefs
Chef – chefs
Chief – chiefs
 If a singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant, change the
ending to -ies to make the noun plural.
Examples:
City – cities
Puppy – puppies
 If the singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, simply add an -
s to make it plural.
Examples:
Ray – rays
Boy – boys
 If the singular noun ends in -o, add -es to make it plural.
Examples:
Potato – potatoes
Tomato – tomatoes
Exceptions:
Photo – photos

Piano – pianos
Halo – halos
 If the singular noun ends in -us, the plural ending is frequently -i.
Examples:
Cactus – cacti
Focus – foci
 If the singular noun ends in -is, the plural ending is -es.
Examples:
Analysis – analyses
Ellipsis – ellipses
 If the singular noun ends in -on, the plural ending is -a.
Examples:
Phenomenon – phenomena
Criterion – criteria
 Some nouns don’t change at all when they’re pluralized.
Examples:
Sheep – sheep
Series – series
Species – species
Deer –deer
You need to see these nouns in context to identify them as singular or plural. Consider the
following sentence:
Mark caught one fish, but I caught three fish.

Irregular nouns follow no specific rules, so it’s best to memorize these or look
up the proper pluralization in the dictionary.
Child – children
Goose – geese
Man – men
Woman – women
Tooth – teeth
Foot – feet
Mouse – mice
Person – people
4. Material Nouns: Material nouns are those nouns from which other things are
made and can answer the question (what is the substance made of?)
Ex: Iron, cotton, milk, plastic, cloth, wool, silk
5. Abstract Nouns: Are those nouns which do not have any physical shape or
structure and cannot be touched.
Ex: Beauty, honesty, friendship, relationship, information, education etc.
6. Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun.

Or in other words, concrete noun is a noun which has physical shape or structure
and can be touched and seen.
Ex: Book, computer, stone, wood, glass, sand, iron etc.
7. Temporal Nouns: The name of time is called temporal noun.

Ex: Day, night, month etc.
8. Agent Noun: Is a noun which is the doer of an action.

Ex: Player, smoker etc.
9. Natural Noun: The name of natural thing is called natural noun.

Ex: Water, rain, stone etc.

Nouns on the Basis of Living
10. Animated Noun: A noun that refers to all the living creatures in the universe is
called Animated Noun.
Ex: Boy, girl, teacher, bird etc.
11. Non-animated Noun: A noun that refers to all the non-living creatures in the
universe is called Non-Animated Noun.
Ex: Car, door, pen
12. Gerund Nouns: “Ving” which names an action is called gerund noun.
Ex: Smoking, writing, teaching
13. Infinitive Nouns: Usually To + verb which names an action is called infinitive
noun.
Ex: To cook, to play, to love etc.
Nouns on the Basis of Countability
14. Countable Nouns: Those nouns which can be counted and can be divided into
singular and plural forms are called countable nouns.
Ex: Pen-pens, student-students, car-cars etc.
15. Non-countable Nouns: Those nouns which can’t be counted and divided into
singular and plural forms are called non-countable nouns.
Ex: Water, sugar, rain, oil, meat etc.
Difference between Countable and Non-Countable Nouns
Countable Nouns Non-countable Nouns
Can be counted Can’t be counted, but measured
Have physical individual shape Don’t have physical individual shape
Have both singular and plural forms Have only singular form

Can take singular and plural verb Take only singular verb
Number can precede countable nouns Number can’t precede non-countable

nouns
A/an can precede countable nouns A/an can’t precede non-countable
nouns
16. Dual Function Nouns: Those nouns which can function both as countable and
non-countable nouns are called dual function nouns.
Ex: Time, difference, talk etc.
17. Mass Nouns: Those nouns which can be counted but almost not.
Ex: Stars, hair, rice, beans etc.
Nouns on the Basis of Form
18. Simple Nouns: Those nouns which are made of one word.
Ex: Boy, pen, chair, driver etc.
19. Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are made of more than one word.
Ex: Class room, bus driver, swimming pool etc.
Kinds of Compound Noun

1. Close compound noun
2. Open compound noun
3. Hyphenated compound noun
Closed Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are not spaced.
Ex: Housekeeper, housewife, classroom, homework, classmate etc.
Open Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are spaced.

Ex: Bus driver, School student, College teacher, Interesting story etc.
Hyphenated Compound Nouns: Those nouns which have hyphen.

Ex: Brother-in-law, sister-in-law, Non-smoking room etc.

Formation of Compound Noun
1. Noun + Noun:
Ex: Bus driver, gold ring etc.
 Verb + Noun
Ex: Study room, fight club, playground etc.
 Adjective + Noun:
Ex: White board, black board, nice boy etc.
 Gerund + Noun
Ex: Swimming pool, cooking school, washing machine, shopping mall etc.
 Noun + Gerund:
Ex: window shopping, horse riding, body building, match fixing etc.
 Adverb + Noun:
Ex: Inside, outside etc.
 Adverb + Verb
Ex: Output, income, input etc.
 Verb + adverb
Ex: Breakdown, look up, take up etc.
 Noun + Hyphen + Prep + Hyphen + Noun:
Ex: Father-in-law, mother-in-law etc.
 Noun + Verb:
Ex: Sun set, Hand shake, Hair cut etc.
SOME WAYS IN WHICH COMPOUND NOUNS ARE USED

Compound Nouns are usually used;

 When the second noun belongs to or is part of the first.
Ex: College library, picture frame, school office etc.
 When the first noun indicates the place of the second.
Ex: Corner shop, street market, city hall etc.
 When the first noun indicates the time of the second.

Ex: Spring flowers, summer holiday, afternoon session etc.
 When the first noun states either the material of which the second noun is made, or
the power used to operate the second.
Ex: Steel door, gold ring, rope ladder etc.

Note:
 Wool and wood are not used here as they have the adjective forms woolen and
wooden.
 When we talk about occupations, sports, hobbies and the people practicing them.
Ex: Pop singer, football player, sheep farming etc.
 When the first noun shows what the second is about or connected with.
Ex: Horror movies, plane ticket, telephone bill etc.
 When the first noun indicates the purpose of the second.
Ex: Notice board, coffee cup etc.
Gender of Noun
 The word gender is taken from the Arabic word “genus” which means sex or status.
 Gender of noun is a grammatical term that denotes whether a noun refers to male
or female.
 In English grammar noun has four types.
 Masculine Noun
 Common Noun
 Feminine Noun
 Neuter Noun

1. Masculine Noun: A noun which refers to male gender is known as Masculine
Noun.
Ex: Brother, Father, Uncle, Bull, Tiger, Leopard etc.
2. Feminine Noun: A noun which refers to female gender is called Feminine Noun.
Ex: Girl, woman, wife, sister, mother, cow, tigress, leopardess etc.
3. Common Noun: A noun which refers to both male and female gender is called
Common Noun.
Ex: Teacher, student, animal, driver, lawyer etc.
4. Neuter Noun: A noun which refers to neither male nor female gender is known as
Neuter Noun.
Ex: Book, stone, computer, school, city, knowledge
Note:
 If a noun refers to beauty, adoration, fragileness, and gentleness such noun is
considered as feminine.
Ex: Beauty flower, moon, star, diamond etc.
Ex: Adoration Country names etc.
Ex: Fragileness glass etc.
Ex: Gentleness foam, cotton, silk etc.
 If a noun refers to power, intensity, and roughness such noun is considered as
masculine.
Ex: Power (Wall, mountain etc.)
Ex: Intensity (earthquake, flood, storm, sun)
Ex: Roughness (stone)
Numbers of Noun
Number of noun is a grammatical term that denotes singularity, plurality, regularity and
irregularity of a noun.
 Singular Nouns
 Plural Nouns
Singular Nouns: - Are used to show a single person, place or thing or are those nouns
which agree with the singular verb.
Ex: - Boy, man, dog, pen, bill, child and so on.

 Regular Singular Nouns: Are those nouns which have some specific rules while
changing them from singular forms to plural forms.
Ex: Car, book, watch, country, city, mobile etc.
 Irregular Singular Nouns: Are those nouns which don’t have specific rules while
changing them from singular forms to plural forms.
Ex: Man, child, woman, mouse, foot, tooth etc.
Plural Nouns: - Are used to show plural person, thing, or place or are those nouns which
agree with the plural verb.
Ex: Children, men, boys, countries, pens etc.
 Regular Plural Nouns: Are those nouns which take (s, es, ies)
Ex: Boys, books, pens, markers etc.
 Irregular Plural Nouns: Are those nouns which don’t take (s, es, ies)
Ex: Children, men, mice, feet, teeth etc.
Cases of Nouns
 Cases of nouns is also called usages of nouns or position of nouns.
 Cases of noun is a grammatical term which denotes the position of a noun in a
sentence.
 In English grammar noun has the following cases;
1. Subject Case 8. Modified Case

2. Object Case 9. Participle Case
3. Complement of Preposition Case  Regular participle case
4. Possessive Case  Pre-participle case
5. Vocative Case  Post participle case
6. Complement verb Case 10. Complement of Object Case
7. Indirect Object Case
 The Subjective Case (or Nominative Case)

The subjective case is a case in which the noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb.
Ex: Ali went to the shop.
Ex: He went to the shop.
o The subjective case is also used for a subject complement.
Ex: Ikramullah is a policeman.

Ex: It is he.
(In informal writing, the objective case (him) can be used.)
What Is a Subject Complement?

o A subject complement is a word or phrase which follows a linking verb (to be,
become, sound, feel, look, smell, taste) and describes or identifies the subject.
o A subject complement is either an adjective, a noun, or a pronoun.
Ex: He will be fine.
Ex: Ben is a policeman.
Ex: That pie looks burnt.
Ex: He became old.
Ex: It sounds really interesting.
Ex: I feel tired.
Ex: The street smells bad.
Ex: The food tastes delicious.
 The Possessive Case (or Genitive Case)

The possessive case is used to show possession or ownership.
o With nouns, it is shown with an apostrophe.
Ex: This is Ali's bag.
Ex: This is students’ bus.
Ex: That is a student’s car.
Note: The teacher had better explain the usage of apostrophe with enough details.
 The Objective Case (or Accusative Case)

The objective case is a case in which a noun or pronoun comes either the direct
object or indirect object of a verb.
Ex: I saw Palwasha.
Ex: I saw her.
Ex: I talked to her.
Ex: My friend bought a car for me.
Ex: He sent me an email yesterday.
 Complement of Preposition (Dative Case)

In this case a noun is preceded by a preposition to complete the meaning of preposition.

Ex: She is from Canada.
Ex: This is one small step for a man.
Ex: The ants get into your ears when you are sleeping.
Ex: He is sitting next to me.
Ex: She is in the yard.
 The Vocative Case ( Addressing Case)

Is a case in which a noun or pronoun is being addressed directly.
In spelling, it is identical to the subjective case. However, words in the vocative case
Ex: Bilal, is this your book?
Ex: You, go away.
Ex: Come here, doctor!
Vocative Case is divided into two types;

1. Direct Vocative Case:
Ex: Boys, stand up.

2. Indirect Vocative Case:
Ex: Come here, Ali.
 The Complement of Verb Case:

In this case a noun completes the meaning of the verb.
Ex: She is doctor.
Ex: She teaches student.
 The Indirect Object of Verb:

In this case a noun functions as indirect object of a verb.
Ex: She cooked a cake for me.
Ex: I bought a gift for my nephew.

 Modified Case:
In this case noun is preceded by some determiners (my, your, his, her, its, our)
Ex: He reads my book.
Ex: Their children are naughty.
 Participle Case:
In this case a noun is the segment of compound noun to form compound nouns.
Participle case is divided into three types
1. Regular Participle Case:
Ex: College student
Ex: cricket player
2. Pre-participle Case:
Ex: Body building
Ex: Match Fixing
3. Post-participle Case:
Ex: Swimming Pool
Ex: Washing machine
 Complement of Object Case:

In this case a noun completes the meaning of object in a sentence.
Ex: She calls him uncle.
Ex: He considers her girlfriend.
 As a Part of Verbal Case:

In this case a noun is used after gerund or infinitive to make gerund phrase or
infinitive phrase.
Ex: To watch TV is boring.
Ex: Learning Math is difficult.

Pronoun
Origin of pronoun
Pronoun is taken from a Latin word (pronmen) which means (for a noun).
Note: The word pronoun is made of two words (pro) means previous and noun means
name
Explanation of pronoun
Pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun.
Or
1) What is pronoun?
Pronoun is substitute word.
2) Where do we use pronoun?
Pronoun is usually used instead of a noun.
3) Why do we use pronoun?
To avoid the unnecessary repetition of a noun.
Purpose of pronoun
1) Pronoun is used in place of noun.
2) To refer to a noun,
3) We used pronoun especially subject pronoun for emphasize
Ex: lt is he.
Remember:
The chief usage of pronoun is to avoid us to having a noun again and again
Antecedent
The element which is substituted by pronoun is called antecedent.

Anaphora
The connection between pronoun and its antecedent is called anaphora.
Types of Anaphora
1) Forward Anaphora
2) Backward Anaphora
3) Intersentential Anaphora
4) Intrasentential Anaphora
1) Forward Anaphora
When antecedent precedes the pronoun. (N+P)
Ex: Ali took Laila to the library and he dropped her back to the house.
2) Backward Anaphora
When pronoun precedes the antecedent. (P+N)
Ex: When they discovered that they don't like them. Ali and Ahmad decided not to order
pancakes in the breakfast any more.
3) Intersentential Anaphora
When the antecedent and pronoun are in separate sentences.
Ex: Don't mention your plan to Ahmad. He might not keep it.
4) Intrasentential Anaphora
When antecedent and pronoun are in the same sentence.
Ex: I bought an apple and I ate it.
Function of pronoun
1) Number of pronoun
2) Cases of pronoun

3) Person of pronoun
4) Gender of pronoun
Kinds of pronoun
1) Subject pronouns 7) Distributive pronouns
2) Object pronouns 8) Relative pronouns
3) Possessive pronouns 9) Indefinite pronouns
4) Reflexive pronouns 10) Demonstrative pronouns
5) Reciprocal pronouns 11) Empathic pronouns
6) Interrogative pronouns
Personal pronouns
Subject and object pronoun are the types of personal pronouns.
1) Subject pronoun:
Are those pronoun which are used before the main verb to function as subject of a sentence
Ex: Ali is a student. He likes eating
Subject pronouns are. (I, you, we, they, he, she, it,)
Types of Subject pronouns

1) First Person Subject Pronouns
2) Second Person Subject Pronouns
3) Third Person Subject Pronouns
1) First Person Subject Pronouns:

Singular (I)
Plural (We)
2) Second Person Subject Pronouns:

Singular (You)
Plural (You)

3) Third Person Subject Pronouns:
Singular (He, she, it)
Plural (They)
Note: In the sense of person one is used in alternative to you

Ex: You cannot come late to the office.
Ex: One cannot come late to his job.
According to the Prescriptive rules subject pronouns have two positions

1) Subject position
2) Predicate nominal position
Ex: She is studying MD.
Ex: Who is there? It is I.
Ex: Who is there? It is she.
Note: According to the rules of prescriptive subject pronoun should be used in predicate
nominal position.
Usages of (It)
1) ‘It’ is used for neuter noun.
Ex: It is a marker.
2) ‘It’ is used for animal whose gender is not known.
Ex: It is a cat.
3) ‘It’ is used for people whose gender is not known.
Ex: It is a baby.
4) ‘It’ is used for person when referring in a picture.
Ex: It is Ali.
5) ‘It’ is used for emphasize.
Ex: It was I who invited you.

2) Object pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used after the main verb.
Ex: I call him last night.
(Me, us, you, them, him, her, it)
3) Demonstrative pronouns: Are those pronouns which point out a person or thing.
Ex: This is a car.
Ex: Those are boys
Demonstrative pronoun are;
(This, these, that, those, such, yonder etc.)
Note: Demonstrative pronouns are followed by verb.
4) Reflexive pronouns: Are those pronouns which refers back to the subject of the
sentence.
OR
Are those pronouns in which the subject and object of the sentence is the same person or
thing.
Ex: I see myself in the mirror
Ex: A computer works itself
Reflexive pronouns are;

(Myself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, themself, himself, herself, and itself)
Composition of Reflexive Pronouns:

Reflexive pronouns are made of two parts;
1) Object pronouns (Him, her, them, it) or possessive adjectives (my, our, your) and
2) The suffixes (Self and Selves)
Forms of Reflexive Pronouns

1) Singular form
(Itself, himself, herself, yourself, myself)

2) Plural form
(Themselves, yourselves, ourselves)
Emphatic and Nonemphatic Use of Reflexive Pronouns

1) Emphatic use of reflexive pronouns
*Before the main verb.
Ex: I myself bought a car.
*At the beginning of a sentence.
Ex: Myself I bought a car.
*At the end of a sentence.
Ex: I bought a car myself.
2) Non-emphatic Use of Reflexive Pronouns

* In object case.
Ex: I hurt myself.
* In object of preposition case.
Ex: She is talking to herself.
Note:
By+ reflexive pronoun usually mean alone.
Ex: I live alone
Ex: I live by myself
5) Possessive pronouns: Are those pronouns which shows possession or ownership.

Ex: This house is mine.
Possessive pronouns are used at the end of a sentence and at the beginning of a sentence
followed by verb.
Ex: Where is your car? Mine is at home.
Or I have sold mine.
Possessive pronouns are;

(Mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, its)
Ex: My car is beautiful, but I don't like yours.
6) Reciprocal Pronouns: Are those pronouns which refer to a noun mutually.

They are two in number
1) One another
2) Each other
One another: it is used for more than two participants.
Ex: Stand up and talk with one another.
2) Each other: It is use for two participants.
Ex: Stand up and talk with each other.
7) Interrogative pronouns: Are those pronouns which interrogate or ask about noun.
They are five in number
(Who, what, which, whose, whom)
Ex: What did you buy yesterday?
Note: Interrogative pronouns are followed by verb.
8) Distributive pronouns:
They are three in number.
(Each, neither, either)
Ex: Which book is expensive?
Ex: Each is expensive.
Ex: Neither is expensive.
Ex: Either is expensive.

9) Relative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which connect the antecedent with the
adjective clause.
Ex: I meet a boy who is from India
Relative pronouns are of two types
1) Simple Relative Pronouns
2) Compound Relative Pronouns
1) Simple Relative Pronouns: Are those which are made of one word.
(Who, which, that, whose, whom)
2) Compound Relative Pronouns: Are made of two words.

(Whoever, whenever)
10) Indefinite pronouns: Are those pronouns which refer to indefinite entity (things).
Or
Are those pronouns which are used in place of indefinite nouns.
Ex: Last night l met someone .I don't remember his name.
Ex: I bought something yesterday.
Ex: someone knocking the door
Indefinite Pronouns are Usually Categorized into Three Types

1) Indefinite Pronouns of Place
Somewhere, anywhere, nowhere
Someplace, anyplace, no place
2) Indefinite Pronouns of Person

Someone, anyone, No one
Somebody, anybody, nobody
3) Indefinite Pronouns of Thing

Something, anything, nothing
Key points

1) The indefinite pronouns with the compound ‘some’ are used in positive sentence.
Ex: She found something.
2) Indefinite pronouns with the compound ‘any’ are used in negative and interrogative
sentences
Ex: I didn’t meet anyone in the party.
3) Indefinite pronoun with the compound ‘No’ are used in positive sentences, but gives
negative meaning.
Ex: I saw no one.
Ex: She ate nothing.
4) When indefinite pronouns function as subject of a sentence they take singular verb.
Ex: Someone is knocking the door
Indefinite pronouns are;
All,each,many,anyone,everyone,someone,both,few,nothing,neither,other,something,anythin
g,non,anybody,any,some,several,no-one,another,most,one,anything,nobody,somebody
Adjective
 Origin of Adjective
 Explanation of Adjective
 Characteristics of Adjective
 Types of Adjective
 Cases of Adjective
 Degrees of Adjective
Origin of Adjective:
 The word adjective comes from a Greek word “adjectus” which means “to add
something.”
Definition of Adjective:
 Adjective is also known as modifying word.
 From the origin we can say that adjective is used to add something to the
meaning of noun and pronoun.
OR
 An adjective is used to show OPSHACOM and OPSHACOS.

OPSHACOM
OP opinion This is a good marker.
SH shape This is a round marker.
A age This is a new marker.
C color This is a red marker.
O origin This is a Chinese marker.
M material This is a plastic marker.
OPSHACOS.
OP opinion Zeba is a beautiful girl.
SH shape Zeba is a tall girl.
A age Zeba is a young girl.
C color Zeba is a white girl.
O origin Zeba is an Afghan girl.
S sex Zeba is a female student.
 Adjective is a word or group of words used to describe the quality of a noun or

pronoun.
 Adjective is a word or group of words used to give information about a noun or
pronoun.
 Adjective is a word or group of words used to modify noun or pronoun.
Characteristics of Adjectives:
1. Adjectives describe the properties of an entity that a noun represents.
2. Adjectives in English grammar are not affected by the number.
3. They are not affected by the gender or case.
4. They don’t have to agree with the noun they modify.
5. They can be modified by adverbs.
6. Adjectives can occur in string, usually of no more than three, and in a preferred
order.
Ex: She is wearing a big, red leather jacket.
Types of Adjective
Adjective has the following kinds:
 Adjectives of quality  Exclamatory adjectives
 Adjectives of quantity  Possessive adjectives
 Adjectives of number/numeral  Emphasizing adjectives
adjective
 Distributive adjectives
 Interrogative adjectives
 Proper adjectives
 Demonstrative adjectives

 Present participle as  Compound Qualitative
adjectives/ing Adjectives
 Past participle as adjectives/ed  Compound Adjectives of
Measurement
 Gradable Adjectives
 Regular Adjectives
 Non-gradable Adjectives
 Irregular Adjectives
 Compound Classifying
Adjectives  Simple Adjectives
 Compound Adjectives
1. Adjectives of quality: An adjective that is used to talk about the quality of a

person, place or thing is called adjective of quality.
Ex: Ali is kind.
Ex: ZICS is famous.
Types of Adjectives of Quality

 Favorable Adjectives of Quality: Are those adjectives of quality which explain a
noun or pronoun positively.
Ex: Ashraf Ghani is a creative president.
 Unfavorable Adjectives of Quality: Are those adjective of quality which describe a

noun or pronoun negatively.
Ex: Ali is a lazy boy.
2. Adjectives of quantity: An adjective that is used to talk about the quantity or

how much something exists is called adjective of quantity.
Ex: I have much water in my glass.
Ex: She has a little money.
Types of Adjectives of Quantity
 Definite Adjectives of Quantity: Are those adjectives of quantity which denotes a

specific quantity of noun.
Ex: I bought a bottle of water.
 Indefinite Adjectives of Quantity: Are those adjectives of quantity which denote

unspecific quantity of noun.
Ex: I have many friends.

3. Adjectives of Number: An adjective that is used to talk about the number of
people or things or how many people or things exist is called adjective of number.
It has two kinds
 Definite Numeral Adjectives: Shows an exact number.

 Ordinal Numbers: Show the order of the things.
Ex: First, second, third, fourth etc.
 Cardinal Numbers: A number that shows how many of something there are, but not
what order they are in is called cardinal number.
Ex: one, two, three, four etc.
 Indefinite Numeral Adjectives: They don’t show the exact number.

Ex: Some, any, a lot of, many etc.
Ex: I have two friends. (Definite adjective of number)
Ex: I have many friends. (Indefinite adjective of number)
4. Interrogative Adjectives: An adjective that is used to ask question is called

interrogative adjective.
Structure: what/whose/which + noun
Ex: Whose book is this?
Ex: What car do you want to drive?
5. Demonstrative Adjectives: An adjective that is used to point out which person

or thing we mean is called demonstrative adjective.
Structure: this/that/these/those + noun
Ex: This car is beautiful.
Ex: These students are position holders.
6. Exclamatory Adjectives: The word “what and such” can be used as an

exclamatory adjective to show sudden condition or feelings of mind.
Ex: What a nice car!
Ex: What a hot weather!
7. Possessive Adjectives: An adjective that is used to indicate ownership or

possession is called possessive adjective.

Structure: my/your/his/her/their/our/its + noun
Ex: This is my car.
Ex: He is his friend.
8. Emphasizing Adjectives: An adjective that is used to emphasize a noun is called

emphasizing adjective.
Structure: own/very + noun
Ex: She saw the murder by her own eyes.

Ex: This is the very book I wanted to buy.
9. Distributive Adjectives: An adjective that is used to talk about each person or

thing separately is called distributive adjective.
Structure: each/every/one/neither/either/both/another + noun

Ex: Every student will come at ten.
Ex: Each player will be given some money.
10. Proper Adjectives: An adjective that is derived from a proper noun to denote
nationality is called proper adjective.
Ex: Pakistan = Pakistani
Ex: India = Indian
11.Present Participle as Adjective: Present participle used as an adjective is called

ing/verbal adjective.
Ex: Interesting movies
Ex: Movies are interesting
12. Past Participle as Adjective: Past participle used as an adjective is called

ed/verbal adjective.
Ex: Mixed salad.
Ex: Salad is mixed.
Adjectives According to Grade
13. Gradable Adjectives: Those adjective that can be compared are called gradable
adjectives.
Note:
 Most of the adjectives are gradable.

 We can make comparative and superlative from gradable adjectives.
 We can use adverbs of degree/intensifiers before gradable adjectives.
14. Non-gradable Adjectives: Are those adjectives that can’t be compared.
Note:
 They make a small group of adjectives.
 We can’t make comparative and superlative from non-gradable adjectives.
 We can’t use adverbs of degree/intensifiers before non-gradable adjectives.
 Some non-gradable adjectives are;
Absolute impossible Principal
Adequate inevitable Stationary
Chief irrevocable Sufficient
Complete Main Unanimous
Devoid manifest Unavoidable
Entire Minor Unbroken
Fatal paramount Unique
Final perpetual Universal
Ideal preferable whole
Adjectives According to Regularity

15. Regular Adjectives: Are those adjectives which have specific rules while
changing them from positive degree into comparative and superlative and take most
less least.
Ex: nice, clever.
16. Irregular Adjectives: Are those adjectives which don’t have specific rules when
we want to change them from positive to comparative and superlative and don’t
take most less least.
Ex: good- better

Adjectives According to Form
17. Simple Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are made of one word.
Ex: good, bad,
18. Compound Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are made of more than one
word.
Ex: Well-known, good-looking.
Compound Adjectives are divided into Three Types

19. Compound Classifying Adjectives: are those adjectives which show the class
of a noun.
Ex: left-handed.
20. Compound qualitative adjectives: Are those adjectives which show the quality
of a noun.
Ex: well-known, good- looking.
21. Compound Adjectives of Measurement: Are those adjectives which show the
measurement of a noun.
Ex: two-door car, five-thousand-year Afghanistan.
Cases/Usages of Adjective
Adjective has the following cases/usages:
 Attributive Case/direct case
 Predicative Case/indirect case
 Post Positive Case/indefinite case
 Abridging Case/central case
 Indefinite case/substitute case
1. Attributive Case/Direct Case: In this case adjective is placed before a noun.

Ex: Ali is an intelligent boy.
Ex: She is a lazy Student
Ex: How scares are good people.

2. Predicative Case/Indirect Case: In this case adjective is placed after a linking
verb.
Structure: Subject + linking verb + adjective
Ex: She is intelligent.
Ex: She looks happy.
3. Post Positive Case/Indefinite Case: In this case adjective is used after

indefinite pronouns
Ex: I want to meet somebody interesting.
Ex: Ali, an engineer, works in that firm.
4. Abridging Case/Central Case: In this case adjective is used between one

linking verb and a noun or pronoun,
Ex: He looks an honest boy.
Ex: Naveed is an intelligent student.
5. Indefinite Case/Substitute Case: In this case adjective is preceded by “the” to

give the meaning of plural nouns.
Ex: The intelligent are highly appreciated.
Ex: The poor were defamed in the wedding last night.
Degrees of Adjective
Is a grammatical term that denotes forms of adjectives in a sentence.
Generally Adjective Has Got Three Degrees.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Positive Degree/simple degree: Describe the quality of a place, person and thing.
There is no comparison in positive degree. Or is a degree where forms of adjectives have
neither prefix nor suffix.
Ex: ZICS is a famous institute.
Ex: Ahmed is a creative boy.

Comparative Degree: In comparative degree we compare one place, person and thing
with another place, person and thing.
Ex: ZICS is more famous than NICE.
Ex: Ahmad is nicer than Mahmood.
Superlative Degree: In superlative degree we compare one place, person and thing with
a group of place, person and thing.
Ex: ZICS is the most famous institute in Afghanistan
Ex: Ali is the nicest boy in the class.
SOME COMMON RULES FOR CHANGING POSITIVE

DEGREE OF ADJECTIVE INTO COMPARATIVE AND
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
Rule 1: One syllable adjectives take “er” in comparative degree and “ est “ in superlative
degree.
For example:
Tall Taller than The Tallest
Rule 2: One syllable adjectives ending with “e” take “r” in comparative and “ st” in
superlative degree.
For example:
Nice Nicer than The nicest
Rule 3: The adjectives ending with “y” and having a consonant sound before “y” change
“y” to “I” and add “er” in comparative degree and “est” in superlative degree.
For example:
Lazy lazier than The laziest
Rule 4: The adjectives ending with “y” and having a vowel sound before “y” we don’t
change “ y” to “ I”.and add “er” in comparative degree and “est” in superlative degree.
For example:
Grey Greyer than The greyest
Rule 5: The adjectives ending with C+V+C double the last consonant and add “er” in
comparative and “est” in superlative degree.
For example:
Big Bigger than The biggest
Fat Fatter than The fattest
Rule 6: We do not double the consonant letter precede by double vowels.
For example:
Fool fooler foolest
Cool cooler coolest

Soon sooner soonest
Neat neater neatest
Rule 7: Some two syllable adjectives have two possibilities while changing to comparative
and superlative forms.
For example:
Simple simpler/more simple simplest/the most simple
Polite politer/more polite politest/the most polite
Rule 8: Two or more than two syllable adjectives take “more or less” in comparative
degree and “most or least” in superlative degree.
For example:
Intelligent more/less intelligent the most/least intelligent
Difficult more/less difficult most/least difficult
Rule 9: Some adjectives are known as irregular adjectives and they don’t have any rule
when we are changing them into comparative and superlative degree.
For example
Good Better than The best
Bad Worse than The worst
Rule 10: Some adjectives in English language are taken from other languages, so their
comparative and superlative forms are different from usual rules.
For example
Senior senior to senior most
Junior Junior to Junior most
Superior Superior to Superior most
Interior Interior to Interior most
SOME OTHER STRUCTURES WHICH ARE USED FOR

COMPARISON
1. The Equative: The equative is used to compare nouns.
Str: as + adjective + as
Ex: Ali is as intelligent as Ahmed.

Ex: The weather today is as cool as it was yesterday.
2. Pseudo Degree: is used to function the same as superlative form of adjective.

Str: comparative adjective + than any other

Ex: Rashid Arman is more popular than any other player of Afghanistan.
Ex: Bullet train is faster than any other train in the world.
3. Double Comparison:
 Is used to talk about the idea of cause and effect.
 The first part of comparison shows the cause and the second part of comparison
shows result.
 “The” is used with both comparisons in this case.
 The two parts are separated by using a comma.
 Each part ends with a verb.
Ex: The higher you go, the colder it is.
Ex: The more you study, the more you get.
Ex: The older he got, the weaker he became.
Verb
 Origin of Verb
 Explanation of Verb
 Types of Verb
 Mood of Verb
Origin of Verb:
 Verb is derived from a Latin word “verbum” which means a word.
Definition of Verb:
A word, which is used to show an action and state (existence, experience and possession) is
called verb.
OR
o Verb shows what a person or thing is doing.
Ex: Laila runs fast.
o Verb shows what is done to a person or thing.
Ex: The fan is fixed.
o Verb shows what a person or thing is.
Ex: She is a doctor.

o Verb shows what a person or thing has.
Ex: She has a new car.
o Verb shows where the subject is.
Ex: We are inside the class.
Verb Classification
Verbs are divided into two large groups
1. Helping Verbs (Auxiliary verbs)
2. Main Verbs (Ordinary verbs)
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
Ex: I can.
Ex: People must.
Ex: The Earth will.
Do you understand anything?
Has this person communicated anything to you?
Probably not!
That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are
necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much
alone.
We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences
in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete
them.)
Verb According to Function

Verb on the basis of function is divided into two main types.
1. Main Verbs:
2. Auxiliary Verbs
1. Auxiliary Verbs:
Is a verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of the sentence and gives us
information about the time of the action.

Examples: is, am, are, was, be, can, should, shall, have, been, had, is, will etc.
Types of Auxiliary Verbs
 Primary or Principle Auxiliary

 Semi Modal Auxiliary
 Modal Auxiliary
Primary or Principle Auxiliary:

These are the verbs be, do, and have.
Note: We can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs.
1. To be verbs (be, is, am, are, was, were, been, being)
Functions of To be verbs
 To make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
 To make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
 To make the sentences negative (He is not helping me.)
 To make the sentences interrogative (Is he helping you?)
 To show state of being and existence (Mr. Ali is my best friend.)
2. To have verbs (have, has, had, having)
Function of To have verbs

 To make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)
 To make the sentences negative (I have not finished my homework.)
 To make the sentences interrogative (Have I finished my homework?)
 To show possession (He has a blue car.)
3. To do verbs (do, does, did, done, doing)
Functions of To do verbs
 To make negatives (I do not like you.)
 To ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
 To show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)

 To stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)
 To function as a main verb. ( I do my homework)
Semi Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

Are those auxiliary verbs which function almost the same as modal auxiliary verbs.
Be used to:
 Is a semi-modal auxiliary verb.
 Be (present) used to: Is used to show that someone is familiar with something.
Note:
 After (be used to) we can use a ( simple noun, gerund noun or a pronoun)
Ex: They are used to it. (cricket)
Ex: He is used to driving the car.
Ex: I am used to the city.
 Be (past) used to: Is used to show that someone was already familiar with
something in the past.
Note:
 After (be used to) we can use a ( simple noun, gerund noun or a pronoun)
Ex: He was used to driving the car last year.
Ex: I was used to the city.
Ex: They were used it. (cricket)
Get used to:

 Is used to show someone’s becoming familiar with a particular situation according
to the tense.
 Is used to show that someone is in the process of becoming familiar with doing
something or a situation.
Ex: She gets used to living in this city.
Ex: We will get used to this city.

Be going to:
 Be going to + verb: Is used to talk about pre-planned activities, or what we have
arranged to do in the future.
Ex: I am going to go to school tomorrow.
Ex: She is going to publish her magazine next week.
Ex: They are going to play cricket tomorrow.
Be able to:
 Means “Can” or “could”.
 Be (present) able to + verb: Is used to show present ability.
Ex: I am able to speak French.
Ex: I can speak French.
 Be (past) able to + verb: Is used to show past ability.
Ex: I was able to play cricket two years ago.
Ex: I could play cricket when I was a kid.
Have to/has to:

 Are semi-modal auxiliary verbs.
 Is used to show necessity or obligation.
Ex: You have to stop smoking.
Ex: He has to go to the doctor.
Ex: They have to apologize for what they have done.
Have got to/ has got to:

Are semi-modal auxiliary verbs.
Is used to talk about necessity or obligation.
Note:

 (have got to & has got to) are used the same as (have to & has to) but (have got to &
has got to) are a little informal than (have to & has to).
Ex: She has got to go to the doctor.
(she has to go to the doctor.)
Ex: They have got to study for their exam.
(They have to study for their exam.)
Had better:
 Is used to imply (to say something indirectly) a warning or threat for possible bad
consequences ( bad results of action).
 had better + verb: Is used to offer advice.
Note:
 (had better) is stronger than ( should & ought to).
Notes on using had better:
(1). It has a present or future meaning.
(2). It takes a simple form of verb.
(3). It is more common in speaking than writing.
Be supposed to:
 Be (present) supposed to: Is used to show either present or future expectation.
Ex: We are supposed to be thankful to Allah.
Ex: Afghanistan is supposed to beat the opposing team.
Ex: I am supposed to attend the meeting tomorrow at 8:00.
 Be (past) supposed to + verb: Is used to talk about past expectations which were not
fulfilled.
Ex: She was supposed to accept what her father advised her.
Ex: He was supposed to call me.
Ex: They were supposed to win the match.
Ex: We were supposed to apologize.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs
 The word modal means mood.
 Modal auxiliary verbs show the mood of the main verb (-, +, ? ).
Characteristics of Modal Auxiliary Verbs

 Modals can be used with all kinds of subject.
 Modals can’t be affected by the numbers of subject.
 Almost all modals can make the statements negative and interrogative.
 Modals are followed by bare infinitive.
 Modals don’t have any singular and plural forms.
 Modals don’t have past participle and present participle forms.
 They don’t take (s, es, ies) for third person singular subject pronouns.
 Modals can’t show action.
Explanation of Modal Auxiliary Verbs.

 Modal Auxiliary verbs: Are those auxiliary verbs which are used to show degrees of
certainty, stages of obligation, possibility, impossibility, willingness, probability,
polite permission, polite request, necessity, inference, ability, disability, prohibition,
advice, and add various meaning to the meaning of a verb in a sentence.
Types of Modal Auxiliary verbs

 Central Modal Auxiliary Verbs
 Marginal Modal Auxiliary Verbs
 Idiomatic Modals
Central Modal auxiliary verbs are nine in number.

 Can
 Could
 May
 Might
 Will
 Would
 Shall
 Should
 Must
Can:
 Is a central modal auxiliary verb

 Is followed by bare infinitive
 Has the following functions in English Language.
1. To show present ability/disability in +ive and –ive statements.

Ex: She can speak many languages.
Ex: I can’t swim in deep water.
2. In ?ive sentences CAN is used to ask for permission.
Ex: Can I have your pen, please?
Ex: Can she go now?
3. To make request.
Ex: Can you call me tonight, please?
Ex: Can you bring me a cup of tea?
4. To show fragile possibility or impossibility.
Ex: I haven’t seen Rehan today. Where is he?
Ex: He can be in the bedroom.
Could:
 Is a central modal auxiliary verb
 Is followed by bare infinitive
 Has the following functions in English Language
1. To show past ability or disability in +ive and –ive statements.

Ex: I could swim when I was child.
Ex: They couldn’t run very fast in the match.
2. To make a formal request.
Ex: Could you open the window, please?
Ex: Could you call me tonight?
3. To show present or future possibility or impossibility.
Ex: Afghanistan could be the part of ICC ODI Cricket world cup in 2019.
Ex: It couldn’t rain tonight.
4. To ask for something formally.

Ex: Could I use your phone?
May/Might:
 They are central modal auxiliary verbs
 They are followed by bare infinitive
 Have the following functions in English Language
1. In declarative statements they are used to show present, past and future possibility
or impossibility.
Ex: We may suffer from lots of disaster if we don’t follow Islam.
Ex: She might go to Kabul next summer.
Ex: I might call you last night, but I was really busy.
NOTE: May is stronger than might in this case.

2. In interrogative sentences they are used to ask for polite permission.
Ex: May I come in, sir?
Ex: Might I use your pen?
NOTE: Might is more formal than may in this case, but may is more common.
3. May is used not might in optative sentences to pray.
Ex: May Allah bring prosperity in our beloved country, Afghanistan.
Ex: May Allah bless you.
4. They are used with the simple progressive infinitive to talk about possibility in the
time of speaking.
Ex: She might be watching TV.
5. They are used to talk about a typical occurrence at a particular time.
Ex: When ozone layer has many holes, people may have cancer.
NOTE: In this case might is used as the past of May.
6. Their negative forms are may not and might not.
7. The contraction forms of may and might are mayn’t and mightn’t, but they are not
common in modern English.
8. Be likely is used instead of may/might to ask question about possibility.
Ex: Is Ali likely to go to Kabul?

Must:
 Is a central modal auxiliary verb.
 Is followed by bare infinitive.
 Has the following functions.
1. To talk about present mild obligation.

Ex: You must wake up early in the morning when you have a class at 6:00 am.
Ex: We must study on the eve of exam.
2. Must not: Is used to show prohibition.

Ex: You mustn’t smoke.
Ex: She must not talk loudly.
Ex: Children must not play with knives.
3. It is also used to show inference.

Ex: Rashid has been sold on 900 lakhs. He must be very happy.
4. It is used to talk about necessity.

Ex: We must support ANA.
5. In invitation stress form of must is used to express polite insistence.
Ex: You must come to my wedding.

Ex: You must forgive me.
6. It is also used to indicate a minimum requirement or condition for something.

Ex: You must have much experience to teach at ZICS.
Ex: You must have a bachelor degree if you want to be considered a candidate for
Full Bright.
NOTE:
 The negative form of MUST is must not or mustn’t.
 The first t is silent in the contraction form of mustn’t.

Should:
 Is followed by bare infinitve.
 Has the following functions in English Grammar.
1. To show advice.
Ex: that is a very deep wound. You should see a doctor immediately.
2. To show probability.
Ex: it should be run out.
Shall:
 Has got the following functions.
1. To show future possibility with first person subject pronouns.

Ex: We shall play tennis tomorrow.
2. Shall is used for tag question of (Let’s).

Ex: Let’s watch a movie, shall we?
3. Shall is used to ask for permission.

Ex: Shall I read your book?
Would:
1. To request someone politely.

Ex: Would you bring me a glass of water?

2. To ask for food politely.
Ex: Would you have a cup of tea?
3. To show present imaginary situation.

Ex: If I were you, I would be the director of ZICS.
Ex: If I were the president, I would treat the population equally.
4. Is also used to talk about “future in the past = to talk about a past action which had
not yet happened at the time we are talking about.
Ex: There was a chance that my letter would arrive in time.
5. Would not: Is used to show a past refusal.

Ex: She wouldn’t open the door this morning.
Ex: The car wouldn’t start.
6. Is also used to talk about a past repeated action.

Ex: When she was old, she would sit in a corner talking to herself for hours.
Ex: On Sundays when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.
Will:
1. Is used to talk about future actions or states.

Ex: The train will arrive on time.
Ex: I will be very happy when I get first position.
2. Is also used to talk about present or future certainty.

Ex: Don’t phone them now. They will be having dinner.
Ex: There is somebody coming up the stairs. That will be Ali.
Ex: Tomorrow will be cloudy with some rain.
3. Is also used to show willingness.

Ex: Can anybody help me? I will.

Ex: I will go and bring you a glass of water.
4. Is also used to show a strong decision or intention.

Ex: I really will stop smoking.
Ex: I will definitely pay you back your money.
Ex: I will kill you.
5. Is used to ask someone to do something.

Ex: Will you send me a message please?
Ex: Come this way. Will you?
6. It talks about new plan.

Ex: I will leave ZICS very soon.
7. It is used for prediction.

Ex: It will rain tonight.
8. It is used to make a promise.

Ex: I will love you forever.
9. It is used to make a request.

Ex: Will you bring me a glass of water?
Marginal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

 They are dare, need, used to and ought to.
Need:
 Is a marginal modal.
 Is used with the base form of the verb.
 Has the basic meaning of necessity and extended meaning related to advice.
 The marginal modal need expresses necessity and advice.
 When need is directly followed by verb it is used in question and negative sentences.
(BE)
 In American English have to is used instead of need.
 When need is followed by infinitival complement it is considered to be a regular
verb that has the same meaning of necessity.

Ex: Need I remind you that what you are proposing is exactly what got us into this
mess?
Ex: You needn’t tell her. (BE)
Ex: You don’t have to tell her. (AE)
Ex: We need to speak with him right now. (As a regular verb, meaning of necessity)
Ex: You look tired. You need to lie down and get some rest. (Advice)
Dare:
 Is rare and is more typical of British than American English.
 Appears only in question and negative sentences.
 Is used to ask for advice and to show admonition and impossibility.
Ex: Dare I tell her? (Should I tell her?)
Ex: You dare not tell my mother about this, it would really upset her. (Admonition)
Ex: I dare not tell my mother about this. It would really upset her. (Impossibility)
NOTE:
 Dare is also an intransitive verb which means (to have the courage/never to do
something)
 And transitive verb means (to challenge someone to do something.
Ex: He doesn’t dare (to) jump off the bridge. He knows it’s too high. (intransitive)
Ex: I double dare you to try it. (transitive)
Ought to:
 It conveys the same meaning as should and is interchangeable with it in almost all
the contexts, except that ought to is confined largely to affirmative statements.
 Its questions and negatives are more common in British English than in American
English.
 In Speech, ought to generally contracts to oughta.
Ex: Ought we to tell him about it? (BE)

Ex: Should we tell him about it? (AE)

Ex: That is too bad cough. You ought to/should see a doctor.
 The negative form of ought to is used very infrequently.
 Its contraction with not is also possible, but mainly in British English.
Ex: You oughtn’t (to) let him get away with that.
Ex: You ought not to let him get away with that.
 Ought to is also interchangeable to should while showing probability.
Ex: His flight ought to/should have arrived by now.
Used to:
 Is used before the base form of the verb to show that something has happened
regularly in the past, but no longer happens in the present.
Ex: She used to come to class on time.
Ex: I used to smoke cigarette.
Ex: Ali used to study very hard.
 Is also used to show that something was true in the past, but is not true anymore.
Ex: This building used to be a university.
Ex: My brother used to have a lot of sicknesses.
Ex: She used to like the pigeons a lot.
Modal Idioms:
1. Would rather.
 Is a modal idiom
 Means (would prefer to)
 Its contraction form is (‘d rather)
 Its negative form is (would rather not).
 In question it is used to ask about choice.
 In declarative statements it is used to shoe preference.
Ex: Would you rather eat meat or vegetable? (choice)
Ex: I would rather eat vegetable than meat. (preference)
Ex: I would rather not eat meat. (preference)

2. Would you mind:
 Is a modal idiom
 Is used with the verb + ing.
 Is used to request someone.
 Whenever we answer any request made by would you mind, here positive answer
gives negative meaning and vice-versa.
Ex: Would you mind calling me tonight?
Ans: No, I wouldn’t mind. (Positive meaning)
Ans: Yes, I would mind. (Negative meaning)
Main (Ordinary) Verbs

A verb which has major meaning in the sentence and can stand alone is called main verb.
Examples: write, buy, eat, speak, walk, work, study, etc.
The examples below will help you in better understanding.

Ex: She is eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “is” is helping verb)
Ex: She was eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “was” is helping verb)
Types of Main Verb
Verbs According to Tense

1. Finite Verbs: Are those verbs which show tense, are limited to the number of
subject or subjects
Ex: she loves her country.
Ex: I had a car.
2. Non-Finite Verbs: Are those verbs which don’t show tense, and are not limited to
the number of the subject or subjects.
Ex: I enjoy teaching English grammar.
Ex: we mind making noise.
Ex: they want to learn.

Verbs According to Form
1. Simple verbs: Are those verbs which are made of one word.
Ex: lose, buy, love, hate.
2. Compound verbs: Are those verbs which are made than one word.
Ex: look up, turn up, brush up and cook forward to.
Verbs According to Regularity:

1. Regular Verbs: Are those verbs which have some specific rules while changing
them to past and past participle forms.
Note: They take (ED) in their past and past participle forms
Ex: watch—ed—ed.
Ex: walk--- ed---ed.
2. Irregular Verbs: They don’t take (ED) or don’t have any specific rules while
changing from base to past and past participle.
Ex: cut---cut---cut.
Ex: break—broke—broken.
Ex: lose—lost ---lost.
Ex: come---came—come.
Verbs According to voice

1. Transitive verbs: Are those verbs in which an action is passing from subject to
object.
Or Are those verbs which take object.
Or Are those verbs which are not followed by PATAP.
Ex: she cleans the yard.
Ex: I wrote a letter.
1. Mono Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which one object.

Ex: I lost the keys.

2. Di-Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take object like direct and indirect.
Ex: I bought a gift for Ali.
3. Complex Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take one object and more
than complement.
Ex: I believe him to be innocent and honest boy.
4. Pseudo Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take an object but can’t be
change to passive.
Ex: Ali climbs the mountain.
Intransitive verbs:
Are those verbs in which the action isn’t past from subject to object.
Or Are those verbs which can’t take object.
Are those verbs which take PATAP.
P--- Place
A---adverb
T---time
A--- Adjective
P--- Preposition
Ex: she laughs

Note: An intransitive verbs can be changed to transitive verbs by the following
ways.
1. To put a preposition after an intransitive verbs.
Ex: She laughs at me.
2. To use preposition as a prefix.

Ex: They overcome the problems.
3. To use a cognitive object after it.

Ex: She dreams dreams.
Ambi Transitive verbs: Are those verbs which can be used either as
transitively or intransitively.
Ex: She studies English.—transitive
Ex: She studies at ZICS.__intransitive

Verbs According to Mood.
1. Imperative Mood:
(+)Ex: open the door.
(-) Ex: don’t open the door.
2. Assertive Mood/ Declarative Mood.

(+)Ex: She plays tennis.
(-) Ex: I don’t like football.
2. Interrogative Mood.
(?) Ex: have you ever seen TV?
(-?) Ex: haven’t you met?
 Gerund Verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by gerund.

Ex: I imagined going to school.
Ex: she minds clapping.
 Infinitive Verbs: Are those verbs which are followed by infinitive.

Ex: she wants to learn.
 Linking Verbs: Verbs which link the subject of a sentence with the complement
are called linking verb.
Ex: she seems nice today.
Some linking verbs are; seem, look, sound, is, am, are etc.
 Reflexive Verbs: Are those verbs which are used before reflexive pronouns.
Ex: I saw myself in the mirror.
Ex: she hurt herself.

 Delixical Verbs: Are those verbs in which we take out the important meaning
of a verb and change it to a noun.
Ex: she shops.

Ex: she does shopping.
 Retrospective Verbs: Are those verbs which are used to talk about the past.
Ex: I remember going to school.
Ex: she regrets stealing money.
Verbs According to Action and State.
1. Dynamic Verbs: Are those verbs which show action and can be used in both
continuous and simple tenses.
Ex: go, wash and walk.
2. Stative Verbs: Are those verbs which show state rather than action
and are used in simple tenses and can’t take (ING) except some specific case.
They have the following five categories:
Mental State
Ownership
Senses/Perception
Emotions/Attitudes
Other Existing States
Cases in which (ING) is used with the stative verbs.
1. When we show a gradual change in physical condition.

Ex: I am understanding you.

2. In some idiomatic expression.
Ex: I am like a salad.
3. When we are talking about temporary action.

Ex: the weather is being nice.
 Causative Verbs: Are those verbs in which the subject of a sentences doesn’t
perform an action. But makes or causes another person to do an action.
Ex: I made Ali study for exam.
Causative Verbs are Mainly Five in Number
1. Make:
 Is a causative verb.
 Means to force someone.
 Bare infinitive is used after make.
Str: Sub + make + obj + bare infinitive + com.
Ex: Ali made Ahmad come to the party.
2. Let:
 Let means to allow.
 Bare infinitive is used after let.
Str: Sub + let + obj + bare infinitive + com.
Ex: I let my students go outside.
3. Have:

 Means to select/hire.
 Bare infinitive is used after have.
Str: Sub + have + obj + bare infinitive + com.
Ex: We have Ali present the speech.
4. Help:
 Is causative verb.
 Means to assist.
 Both full and bare infinitive is used with help.
Str: Sub + help + obj + full or bare infinitive + com.
Ex: I helped an old man to cross the road.
Ex: I helped an old man cross the road.
5. Get:
 Mean to motivate/persuade.
 Full infinitive is used after get.
Str: Sub + get + obj + full infinitive + com.
Ex: I got my brother go to the city.
 Durative Verbs: Are those verbs which show a long term duration.
Ex: teach, work, live and learn etc.
Phrasal Verbs: The combination of verb + particle usually with a special meaning are
known as phrasal verbs.
Particle
The preposition or adverb or both which comes after the verb is called particle.
Ex: Turn on

Ex: Sit down
Ex: Throw away
NOTE: If a phrasal verb is composed of two words we call it “two-word verb” and if a
phrasal verb is composed of three words we call it “three-word verb”.
Ex: Beef up. (Two-word verb)
Ex: Catch up on. (Three-word verb)
On the basis of separation of the particle phrasal verbs are generally divided into two types
1. Separable Phrasal verbs: Those phrasal verbs from which
we can separate the particle and put it after the object.
Ex: I wake up my brother in the morning.
Ex: I wake my brother up in the morning.
 There is no change in the meaning of a separable phrasal verb whether we separate
it or not.
Ex: Try on the coat.
Ex: Try the coat on.
 In separable phrasal verbs the separation of the particle is entirely optional when
the object is a NOUN.
Ex: I took off my shoes.
Ex: I took my shoes off.
 When the pronoun is used instead of a noun with separable phrasal verbs, the
pronoun must be used between the verb and the particle.
Ex: I took them off.
Ex: I took off them.
 A separable phrasal verb must be separated when the phrasal verb has got two
objects.
Ex: She put the blanket on the bed.
Ex: She put on the blanket the bed.
2. Inseparable phrasal verbs: Those phrasal verbs from which we can’t separate the
particle are called inseparable phrasal verbs.

Ex: A heavy bomb went off in the capital of Afghanistan.
It is very difficult for ESL students to distinguish whether the phrasal verb is separable or
inseparable. To recognize the phrasal verb that whether it is separable or inseparable it
depends upon the particle, but it will be better to use logic.
Here are some points which will help us distinguish separable phrasal verbs from
inseparable phrasal verbs.
Separable phrasal verbs Inseparable phrasal verbs

 Phrasal verbs which are generally transitive * phrasal verbs which are generally
Are separable. Intransitive are inseparable.
 Phrasal verbs which have an adverb as a * phrasal verbs which have a
Particle are separable. Preposition as a particle are
 Two word verbs are often separable. Inseparable.
*Three word verbs are often inseparable
Verbs According to Form.

1. Unconjugated Form of a Verb: Are used after modal aux verbs and in
present tense.
Ex: She can swim.
Ex: We love our homeland, Afghanistan.
2. Inflected Form of a Verb: Used in simple present tense with third person
singular subject.
Ex: goes, washes, studies.
3. Derivational Form of a Verb: Present participle used in continuous tenses

and as adjectives.
Ex: going, bring, writing, interesting etc.
4. Conjugated Form of a Verb: A verb used in simple past tense and present
unreal situation.
Ex: She ate a lot.
Ex: If I were you.

5. Super Conjugated Form of Verb: It is used to form perfect tenses,
passive voice and participle.
Ex: She has graduated from the University of Kabul.
Ex: The birds were killed.
Ex: That chair is broken.
Adverb
i. Origin of Adverb
ii. Explanation of Adverb
iii. Characteristics of Adverbs
iv. Types of Adverbs
Origin of Adverb
The word adverb is taken from a Latin word adverbium which means to add some thing in
the meaning of a verb
Note:
The word adverb is composed of two parts:
Ad: It is a prefix which means to add.
Verb: Is the root word.
So adverb means to add something in the meaning of a verb.
Explanation of adverb
Adverb is a modifying word or group of words used to modify verb, adjective and sometime
another adverb.
Ex: She sings beautifully.
Ex: She sings very beautifully.
Ex: She is a very intelligent girl

Characteristics of Adverb
 Adverb like adjective is a modifying word.
 Adverb modify all parts of speech without noun or pronoun.
 Adverb is not affected by the gender.
 Adverb can be used in any parts of a sentence.
Types of Adverb
 Adverbs of Time  Adverbs of Affirmation
 Adverbs of Place  Adverbs of Negation
 Adverbs of Manner  Adverbs of Focusing
 Interrogative Adverbs  Adverbs of Direction
 Adverbs of Frequency  Adverbs of Number
 Adverbs of Degree  Relative Adverbs
Adverbs of Time:
Those adverbs which shows the occurring time of an action, or adverbs of time
answer when.
Example:
When did you go home? Answer: I went home yesterday.
Adverbs of Time on the Basis of Function
 Definite Adverbs of Time: Show the definite time of the occurring of an action.
Such as:
Last night, today, tomorrow etc.
 Indefinite Adverbs of Time: Show the indefinite time of the occurring of an action
Such as:
Yet, recently, just, lately, already etc.
Adverbs of Time on the Basis of Tense

Past Adverbs of Time: indicate to past time.
Ex: Last night, last year
Present Adverbs of Time: Indicate to present time.
Ex: Today, now, etc.
Future Adverbs of Time: Indicate to future.
Ex: Tonight, tomorrow, next year etc.
Adverbs of Time on the Basis of Form

 Simple Adverbs of Time: They are made of one word.
Ex: Today, now, tomorrow
 Compound Adverbs of Time: They are mad more than one word
Ex: Last night, next year etc.
Adverbs of Place:
Are those adverbs which show where an action happened? Or they answer where.
Ex: Where is Ali? He is at home.
Adverbs of Manner:
Are those adverbs which shows how an action happened or they answer how?
Formation of Adverbs of Manner
Adjective + ly = Adverbs of Manner
Nice + ly = nicely
Bad + ly = badly
Slow + ly = slowly
Irregular Adverbs of Manner
2 Good well
2 fast fast

Interrogative Adverbs:
Are those adverbs which are used to ask when, where and how an action happened.
Examples:
Where did Ali go? When did Ali go? How did Ali go?
Adverbs of Frequency: Are those adverbs which;

 Show the repetition of an action
 Show how often an action happened
 Answer how often
Example:
How often do you play cricket? I play cricket twice in a week.
Types of Adverbs of Frequency
 Definite Adverbs of Frequency: Show the exact repetition of an action.

Ex: Once, twice, three time
 Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency: Show the inexact repetition of an action.
Ex: Always, never, early
Percentage of Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency

Always 100% Never 0%
Usually 80 %__85%
Often 70%__75%
Frequently 60%
Sometime 50%
Hardly 20%
Hardly ever 20%
Rarely 10%
Seldom 5%

Position of Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency
1:- structure: subject + adverb + main verb + complement.
Examples:
She always tells lie.
They often play tennis.
2:- Structure: subject + auxiliary verb + adverb + complement.
Examples:
Khan is always sick.
We are sometimes travel to Tajikistan.
Adverbs of Degree:
Are those adverbs which show that how much or to what extant something is.
Examples:
She is too ugly
I am very happy
You are so excited.
Adverbs of Affirmation:
Are those adverbs which show agreement.
Ex: Yes, yah, surely, why not, certainly, definitely,
Adverbs of Negation:
Are those adverbs which show disagreement.
Ex: Nah, no, not, never
Adverbs of Number:
Show the number of an action
Ex: I come first
Ex: you broke the promise twice

Adverbs of Focusing:
Are those adverbs which emphasize or focusing on some parts of the sentence.
Ex: She is the only girl
Ex: I have just arrive
Adverbs of Direction: Are those adverbs which show directions.

Ex: You looked up ward
Ex: I am down stair
Relative Adverbs:
Are used to introduce adjective clause.
Ex: This is why he resigned.
Ex: She showed us the place where his father was killed.
Ex: He talked about the day when he got married
Conjunction
Origin of conjunction:
The word conjunction is taken from a Latin word conjunct which means to connect.
Explanation of conjunction:
Conjunction is a connecting word or group of words which are used to connect two letters,
words, clauses, phrases, or sentences etc.
Ex: She has graduated, but she has not started university.
Ex: Ali and khan are brothers
Types of conjunctions
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Subordinating Conjunctions
 Paired Conjunctions
 Conjunctive Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions:
Are those adjectives which connect two independent clauses or coordinating conjunctions
connect two equal parts of a sentence
A) Word to Word: children like cookies and milk.
b) Phrase to Phrase: the gold is hidden at the beach or lack side.
d) Clause to Clause: what you say and what you do are two different things.
Coordinating conjunctions are;
FANBOYS
F: - for A: - and N: - nor B: - but O: - or Y: - yet
S: - so
FOR:
o Is a coordinating conjunction
o Means because
o Shows cause
Ex: I went to the doctor for I was sick.
AND:
o Means also,
o Shows statement
Ex: Ali plays cricket and khan plays too.
NOR:
o Means not
o After nor positive auxiliary is used
o Suggest negative
Ex: I don’t like tennis nor Ali does.
BUT:
o Means however
o Shows contrasting ideas.

Ex: Ali is an intelligent student but he comes late to class.
OR:
o Means otherwise
o Shows alternative ideas.
Ex: Do you go home or I will call your father.
YET:
o Means despite that
o Shows contrasting ideas
Ex: She has graduated, yet she is jobless
SO:
o Means there for,
o Shows effect.
Ex: she study hard so she got the firs position
Punctuation of Coordinating Conjunctions

1. Comma is used before the coordinating conjunctions.
Ex: she has graduated, yet she is jobless.
2. Comma is sometimes omitted when the second clause is short or it does not help the
reader in comprehension.
3. Semi colon can be used in place of coordinating conjunctions.
Ex: Ali is an intelligent student, but he comes late to class.

Ex: Ali is an intelligent student; he comes late to class

Subordinating Conjunctions
Are those conjunctions which connect the dependent clause with independent clause, or are
those conjunctions which connect adverb clause with the main clause.
Ex: I would be happy if I were rich.
Some of the subordinating conjunctions are:
When, while. Until, before, if, unless, whether, as if, whenever, as soon as, once, after etc.
Punctuation of Subordinating Conjunctions:

 Subordinating conjunctions can be used at the beginning to introduce the dependent
clause, or adverb clause and in the middle of the two clauses to connect them.
 When subordinating conjunctions used at the beginning of a clause comma is used

between the two clauses, but when subordinating conjunctions are used in the
middle of the two clauses comma is not used.
Correlative/Paired Conjunctions
These are conjunctions which are used to join pairs of adjectives, nouns, verbs, phrases,
clauses etc.
NOTE:
 We must use parallel structure when we use paired conjunction. OR
 We can simply say that whatever comes after the first conjunction must come after
the second conjunction as well.
Ex: She was both kind and sympathetic.
Both + adjective + and + adjective
Some paired conjunctions which are customarily used in parallel structure are;
Both ….. and:
 We use both…and when we want to join two positive sentences together.
 Plural verb is always used when two words are joined by both…and.
Ex: She is hardworking. She is creative.
Ex: She is both hardworking and creative.
Ex: Rehan is cute. Irfan is cute.

Ex: Both Rehan and Irfan are cute.
Neither ….. nor:

 This structure is used to join two negative ideas.
 It is the opposite of Both ….. And.
 As the meaning of Neither ….. Nor is negative, the verb of the sentence is to be
positive.
 When we use a verb with Neither …... Nor, we follow the rule of proximity.
 We use the verb according to the subject which is close to the verb.
 When we talk about more than two words NOR is used more than one time.
Ex: My brother doesn’t work in a factory. My cousin doesn’t work in a factory.
Ex: Neither my brother nor my cousin work in a factory.
Ex: Neither Ashraf Ghani nor Abdullah went to Pakistan.
Ex: She neither smiles nor looks at me.
Ex: Neither you nor I am guilty.
Ex: Neither she nor they have the attitude of studying
Ex: She was neither a doctor nor a teacher. Nor a nurse. Nor a professor.
Either ….. or:

 We use Either ….. Or to talk about a choice between two possibilities and sometime
more than two.
 We can join two positive sentences by using the paired conjunction Either…..Or.
Ex: You should take either tea or coffee.
Ex: I will call either you or your friend.
Ex: We will either go to Kabul or stay at home.
 The verb used with either ….. Or should be based on the rule of proximity.
 Simply the verb should be used according to the second subject.
Ex: Either the students or the teacher is present today.
Ex: Either my brother or my sisters are old.
Ex: Either you or I am guilty.
 Either ….. Or can also join clauses.
Ex: Either you will leave this house or I will call the police.

Ex: Either you study or I will fail you.
Ex: Either she goes to school or I call her father.
 When we talk about more than two choices, we repeat the second conjunction or.
Ex: I will go to either Kabul or Mazar. Or Herat. Or Ghazni.
Not only……but also:

 We can join two positive sentences by using Not only ….. But also.
Ex: Not only the teacher but also the students are intelligent.
Ex: She is not only pretty but also beautiful.
Ex: Rashid Arman is not only a bowler but also a batsman.
 The verb is used according to the rules of proximity.
 If the second subject is singular, we use singular verb and vice versa
Ex: Not only my brother but also my sisters are kind.
Ex: Not only Pakistan but also America doesn’t want peace in Afghanistan.
Ex: Not only Rashid plays well but also Nabi plays well.
Transitions
A transition is a word or group of words or an expression that is used to show how
ideas are connected. Or
Transition words are used to take us from one idea to another idea in a paragraph.
Transitions show the connection between what has already been said or written and
what is going to be written or said.
Ex: I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.

Ex: I knew what to expect. Therefore, I was not surprised at what happened.
Transitions are also called;

Discourse Markers
Interrupters
Connective Adverbs
Conjunctive Adverbs
Gloddy Words

Functional Words
Logical Connectors
Parenthical Expressions
Transitional Words
Important points to be remembered

1. Transitions are used by the author to help the reader progress from one significant
idea to the next.
2. Transitions show the support and relationship within a paragraph or within a
sentence.
3. Different transitions do different things.
4. Transitions create powerful links between ideas and can help the reader understand
the logic of the author.
Difference between Transitions and Conjunctions

 Transitions connect ideas while conjunctions connect sentences.
 Transitions occur at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the sentence.
 Coordinating conjunctions occur in the middle of the clauses to connect clause.
 Subordinating conjunctions occur at the beginning of a clause to introduce the
clause and in the middle they connect clauses.
 In spoken English, a transition is usually given more stress than a conjunction.
 In formal written English a transition is usually separated from the rest of the
clause by commas, semi colon or full stop, where as a conjunction is usually not
separated from the rest of the clause by commas, semi colon or full stop.
NOTE:
Transitions are more common in written English than spoken English.
Transitions are most commonly used at the beginning of the clause.
Punctuation of Transitions
1. When transitions are used at the beginning of the clause, its punctuation is as;
 I like my job. Besides, I need money.
 I like my job; besides, I need money.
2. When transitions are used in the middle of the clause, its punctuation is as;
 She studied very hard. She, however, didn’t get the first position.
3. When transitions are used at the end of the clause, its punctuation is as;
 She studied very hard. She didn’t get the first position, however.

Exemplary Paragraph in Which Different Kinds of Transitions Are
Used
Malcom X, who became Muslim in a prison, was a big robber. In fact, he was sentenced
with burglary twice from court.
He started hitting books in jail; in addition, he learned how to write properly. Eventually,
he got out of prison and started opposition against white people for his rights. He faced so
many challenges in his life. However, he did not stop his political efforts. Finally, he was
assassinated by rebels. He read different books. For example, religious books and social
books. He had big personality. People, Therefore, respect him the most
Categories of Transitions
Additive Transitions:
These show addition, introduction, similarity to other ideas.
Addition:
indeed, further, as well (as this), either (neither),
also, moreover, what is more, as a matter of fact,

and, furthermore, in addition (to this), besides (this),
or, in fact, actually, to say nothing of,

too, let alone, much less additionally,
nor, alternatively, on the other hand, not to mention (this),
Introduction
as, particularly, including,
such as,
for example, like, in particular, for one thing, to illustrate
for instance, especially, notably, by way of example,
Reference:
speaking about (this), considering (this), regarding (this),

as for (this), concerning (this), the fact that
Similarity:
similarly, in the same way, by the same token, in a like manner,

Equally likewise,
Identification:
that is (to say), namely, specifically, thus,
Clarification:
that is (to say), I mean, (to) put (it) another way
Adversative Transitions:
These transitions are used to signal conflict, contradiction concession, dismissal, &c.
Conflict:
but, by way of contrast, while, on the other hand,

however, (and) yet, whereas, though (final position),
in contrast, when in fact, conversely, still
Emphasis:
even more, above all, indeed, more importantly, besides

Concession:
but even so, nevertheless, even though, on the other hand,

however, nonetheless, despite (this), notwithstanding (this),
(and) still, although, in spite of (this), regardless (of this),
(and) yet, though, granted (this), be that as it may,
Dismissal:
either way, whichever happens, in either event, in any case, at any rate,
in either case, whatever happens, all the same, in any event,
Replacement:
(or) at least, (or) rather, Instead
Causal Transitions:
These transitions signal cause/effect and reason/result, etc. . .
Cause/Reason:
for the (simple) reason that, being that, for, in view of (the fact),
because (of the fact), seeing that, as, owing to (the fact),
due to (the fact that), in that since, forasmuch as,
Condition:
on (the) condition (that), granted (that), if, provided that,

in the event that, as/so long as, unless given that,
granting (that), providing that, even if, only if,
Effect/Result:

as a result (of this), consequently, hence, for this reason, thus,
because (of this), in consequence, so that, accordingly
as a consequence, so much (so) that, so, therefore,
Purpose:
for the purpose of, in the hope that, for fear that,
with this intention, to the end that, in order to, lest
with this in mind, in order that, so as to, so,
under those circumstances, then, in that case, if not,

that being the case, if so, otherwise
Sequential Transitions:
These transitions are used to signal a chronological or logical sequence.
Numerical:
in the (first, second, etc.) place, initially, to start with, first of all
to begin with, at first, for a start, secondly,
Continuation:
subsequently, previously, eventually, next,

before (this), afterwards, after (this), Then
Conclusion:
to conclude (with) as a final point, eventually, at last,

in the end, finally, lastly,
Digression:
to change the topic incidentally, by the way,

Resumption to get back to the point, to resume anyhow, anyway, at any rate,
to return to the subject,

Summation:
as was previously stated, so, consequently, in summary, all in all,

thus, as I have said, to sum up, overall,
as has been mentioned, then, to summarize, to be brief, briefly,
given these points, in all, on the whole, therefore,
as has been noted, hence, in conclusion, in a word,
to put it briefly, in sum, altogether, in short,
Preposition
Definition:
 Is connecting word or group of words used to show relationship of noun or pronoun
with the rest of the sentence.
 Is a word or group of words used before its object to show its relationship with the
rest of the sentence.
 A preposition links a (pro) noun to other words in a sentence.
Ex: She is happy about her wedding.
Ex: The car is on the road.
NOTE
1. Preposition is also called connecting word.
2. The word “Preposition” is composed of two words:
Pre = before
Position = placement
Basically, a preposition means placement before (a (pro) noun).

Objects of Preposition
 Noun Ex: she is afraid of wedding.
 Pronoun. Ex: I am excited about you.
 Gerund. Ex: I am interesting in watching movie.
 Infinitive. Ex: I am about to go.
 Noun Clause Ex: she is interested in what I teach.
Types of Prepositions
Prepositions on the Basis of Form.

Simple Prepositions:
Are those prepositions which are made of one word.
Ex: in, on, between, near, at, next etc.
Types of Simple Prepositions:

 Mono syllable: A preposition with single syllable is called mono syllable
preposition.
Ex: on, at, in, of etc.
 Di-syllable: A preposition with two syllables is called di syllable preposition.

Ex: between, among.
Compound Prepositions:
Are those preposition which are made of more than one word.
Ex: near to, into, instead of, next to, onto, along with etc.
Types of Compound Prepositions:

 Two Word Sequence Compound Preposition:
Ex: near to, on to, next to.
 More than Two words sequence Compound Preposition/Phrase

Ex: in the name of.
Ex: by the grace of.
Ex: in the light of
Ex: on the subject of

Ex: on account of
Prepositions on the Basis of Function
Prepositions of place:
 Are those prepositions which show the place of a noun or pronoun.
Ex: she is at home.
Prepositions of Time:
 Show the time of something
Ex: I will be there in ten minutes.
Agentive Prepositions:
 Introduce the actor in passive voice.
Ex: Tennis is played by Ali.
Prepositions of Means:
 Are those prepositions which show the means of transportation.
Ex: she comes to ZICS by car.
Ex: Ali comes to ZICS on feet.
Disguised Prepositions:
 Are those preposition which are not used but are implied.
They are hidden prepositions.
Mostly (O) and (A) replace such prepositions.
O = OF
A = ON
Ex: They went a hunting.
Ex: She comes at 8 o’ clock.
NOTE: ‘of’ means “according to the clock.”

Prepositions of Cause and Effect:
 Show the cause and effect of something.
Ex: due to, because of.
Prepositions of Movement:
 Show that something and someone is in the motion.
Ex: into, onto, out to.
Participles Prepositions:
 Are those prepositions which end with (ing).
Ex: She has written a book concerning wild.
Ex: They can’t tell regarding Ali.
Ex: Ali was released considering his behavior.
Prepositions or Adverbs?
There are some words which can be used both as prepositions and as adverbs.
If a word is used as a preposition it will have a noun or pronoun as its object.
Adverbs, on the other hand, do not have objects. They are used to modify a verb,
adjective or another adverb.
Compare!
 She sat in the armchair.
(In is preposition and armchair is its object)
 Please come in.
(In is adverb which has no object)
 He stood before me.
(Before is a preposition and the object is me)
 I have seen him before.
(Before is adverb which has no object)
 She put the book on the table.
(On is preposition and the object is the table)
 Let’s move on.
(On is adverb which has no object)
 He will return after a month.
(After is a preposition and the object is a month)
 He came soon after.
(After is adverb which has no object)

Interjections:
Definition: Are short words which show strong/sudden feeling or emotions of mind.
Examples: (oh, ah, wow, hurrah, alas, ouch, Oops, aha, hey, etc.)
Interjections are short exclamations which express strong or sudden feeling of:
Joy.
Sorrow
Wonder
Exclamation mark or comma is used after interjections.
Interjections According to Form
Simple interjections:
Those interjections which are made of one word.
Ex: yes! Wow!
Compound Interjections:
Are those interjections which are made of two words.
Ex: oh no! no way!
NOTE: If we want to make our interjection more emphatic so we have to use two or three
more exclamatory marks.
Ex: Wow!!!
Other Types of Interjections
1) Interjections of Excitement
2) Interjections of Surprise
3) Interjections of Disapproval

Parts of Speech

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Parts of Speech

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Language:

The means of communication is known as language.

2. Receptive Aspect: Is a kind of aspect in which information are gained through

English is an international language, a language of communication and technology;

Ex: She is a smart English girl

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There are four main differences as summarized

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Shortly we can say that grammar is important;

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Common Definitions of Grammar:

Logic: A set of sensible reasons for doing something is called logic.

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3. Phonology: This component of grammar refers to the study of the smallest

4. Morphology: Morphology refers to the scientific study of the structure and

Letter: A symbol or sign which represents a specific sound is called letter.

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1. Lexical Words: Are those words which don’t need explanation.

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Why do we classify a sentence?

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Other names of Parts of Speech.

Definitions of Parts of Speech:

Types of parts of Speech

Difference between Open and Closed Elements of Parts of Speech

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Nouns on the Basis of Regularity

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Rules for changing singular regular nouns into plural.

 To make regular nouns plural, add -s to the end.

Ex: Cat – cats

Ex: House – houses

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 If the singular noun ends in -o, add -es to make it plural.

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 If the singular noun ends in -is, the plural ending is -es.

 If the singular noun ends in -on, the plural ending is -a.

 Some nouns don’t change at all when they’re pluralized.

Mark caught one fish, but I caught three fish.

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6. Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun.

7. Temporal Nouns: The name of time is called temporal noun.

8. Agent Noun: Is a noun which is the doer of an action.

9. Natural Noun: The name of natural thing is called natural noun.

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Nouns on the Basis of Countability

Difference between Countable and Non-Countable Nouns

Countable Nouns Non-countable Nouns

Can be counted Can’t be counted, but measured

Have physical individual shape Don’t have physical individual shape

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Number can precede countable nouns Number can’t precede non-countable

Nouns on the Basis of Form

Kinds of Compound Noun

Open Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are spaced.

Hyphenated Compound Nouns: Those nouns which have hyphen.

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Ex: Inside, outside etc.

Ex: Output, income, input etc.

Ex: Breakdown, look up, take up etc.

 Noun + Hyphen + Prep + Hyphen + Noun:

Ex: Father-in-law, mother-in-law etc.

Ex: Sun set, Hand shake, Hair cut etc.