LIPIDS o Non polar

- Insoluble to water o Hydrophobic

- Soluble to non polar solvents and o Hydrocarbon chain
solvents of low polarity
- Family of substances that are Saturated– single bonds
insoluble in water but soluble in Unsaturated –presence of carbon-carbon
double bond in the chain
nonpolar solvents and solvents of
low polarity such as diethyl ether.
-

Classification by Function:
1. Storage – burning of fats produces more
than twice as much energy (about 9 kcal/g)
as the burning of an equal weight of
carbohydrates (about 4 kcal/g)

2. Membrane components – separate

compartments of aqueous solutions from
each other

3. Chemical messengers – as steroid

hormones or prostaglandins and
thromboxanes

Classification by Structure:
1. Simple lipids such as fats and waxes
2. Complex lipids
3. Steroids
4. Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and
leukotrienes
SIMPLE LIPIDS
FATTY ACIDS
- has a carboxyl group at the polar end and Triglycerides
a hydrocarbon chain at the non-polar tail.
- Amphipathic compounds because the
carboxyl group is hydrophilic and the
hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic.
-
Structure:

- Aka: Triacylglycerols
- Three ester groups are the polar part of
the molecule; whereas the tails of the fatty
acids are non polar
- Serves as main concentrated stored for
metabolic energy for man
- Includes animal fats and plant oils
Head - Triesters of glycerol and fatty acids
o Polar - Energy storage
o Hydrophilic - Concentrated primarily in adipocytes
o Carboxyl group - Adipose tx can be found in various part
Tail of the body
 - Most abundant type of lipid - Constitute the main components of
membranes
PHYSICAL STATE – Fats and Oils - 2 groups: Phospholipids & Glycolipids

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- Most abundant type of membrane lipid
derived from phosphatic acid
- Produced from conjugation of two FA an
alcohol and a phosphate

AMPHIPHATIC:
- 2 types:
Fats
- TAG mixture that is solid or semi-solid at Glycerophospholipids –
room temp alcohol is glycerol
- Obtained from animal sources - Sphingophospholipids –
- Saturated fatty acids predominate alcohol is sphingosine
- Pure fats are colorless, odorless and Structure:
tasteless.
- Liquid fats are called oils.
- Linoleic and linolenic acids – cannot be
synthesized by the body ( essential fatty
acid)
Oils
- Liquid at room temp
- Obtained from plant sources (except fish oil)
- Unsaturated fatty acids predominate (except
coconut oil which is highly saturated Glycerophospholipids
ESSENTIAL FA Aka: Phosphoglycerides

- Obtained from dietary sources Structure:

- Needed in the body
- Includes linoleic acid and linolenic acid
NON ESSENTIAL FA
- Synthesized by the body

HYDROGENATION
- Hydrogen is added into the carbon-
carbon multiple bonds increasing the
degree of saturation since some double
bonds are converted to single bonds
- Unsaturated liquid oils becomes solid
- Method used to produce solid shortenings
available commercially.
- Fats are treated with hydrogen and a
catalyst to convert unsaturated liquid oils
to solid
SAPONIFICATION
- Base-promoted hydrolysis of fats and oils
- Produces glycerol and fatty acid salts
called soaps
COMPLEX LIPIDS
- The alcohol is glycerol
- Two of the three hydroxyl groups are
esterified by fatty acids
- The other hydroxyl group is attached to a
phosphate and another alcohol
Lecithin
o Alcohol attached to phosphate group is
CHOLINE
o
Found in the nerve and brain tissue
o
Negative charged phosphate group
& pos. charged quaternary nitrogen
from choline
Cephalin
o Alcohol attached to phosphate group is
ETHANOLAMINE or SERINE
o Found in cardiac tx
Sphingophospholipids
- Aka: Sphingolipids
Structure:
- Most important lipids in the myelin
sheaths of nerve cells
o Myelin sheath – protective and
insulating coating
- Alcohol portion is sphingosine.
Combination of FA and sphingosine
is called CERAMIDE portion of the
molecule, because many of these
compounds are also found in cerebrosides.
- SPHINGOMYELINS are the most
important lipids in myelin sheaths of nerve
cells
GLYCOPLIPIDS
- Complex lipids that contain carbohydrates
Cerebrosides – consists of ceramide
mono- or oligosaccharides
Gangliosides – contain a more complex
carbohydrate structure
Role of Membrane lipid
- Complex lipids form membranes
around the body cells and around small
structures inside the cells
- Lipids make up the cell membrane in a
lipid bilayer
- Unsaturated FA prevent the tight packing of
the hydrophobic chains in the lipid bilayer,
thereby providing a liquid-like character to the
membranes (Fluid Mosaic Model)
STEROIDS
- Has a steroid nucleus
- Consists four fused carbocyclic rings
CHOLESTEROL
- Most abundant and most important steroid
- Amphiphatic – contains a non polar and
polar end
- Serves as a raw material for synthesis of
other steroids
o Sex and adrenocorticoid
hormones and bile salts
- It is an EXCESS – rather than presence –
that is associated to diseases
- Not totally bad for our body
- 10-15% of cholesterol comes from
cholesterol we ingest
- Constantly circulates in the blood
- Cholesterols and esters of cholesterol
being hydrophobic
- Needs a water-soluble carrier to circulate
in the aqueous medium of blood
LIPOPROTEINS
- Transporters of cholesterol
- Lipid + Protein
- Spherical shape that contains lipid and
protein molecules
MAJOR LIPOPROTEINS
HDL ( HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN)
- “good cholesterol”
- Smallest and most dense
- Consists 33% protein and 30% cholesterol
- Has the highest protein content
- *Contains Apo A1 and Apo E
- Role: Transports excess cholesterol from
tissues and return it to the liver
LDL ( LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN)
- “bad cholesterol”
- Transport cholesterol to peripheral tissue
- Major product of VLDL
- Major source of cholesterol
 - Heart disease
- Blockage in heart
- Contains 25% protein but 50% cholesterol
- Major source of cholesterol in the tissues 1) Liver produces VLDL containing
- Major end product of VLDL lipolysis TAG and cholesteryl esters
- *Primary marker for CHD 2) VLDL is carried in the serum
- *Contains Apo B-100 and Apo E 3) When it reaches a muscle or a fat tx, TAG
- Role: Transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues
and all other proteins are removed and
VLDL ( VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN) given to the tissues
- Synthesized by the liver
- Carries triglycerides(fats) synthesized by
the liver to peripheral tissue
3) Apo B-100 remains with the lipoprotein
- *Contributes to the turbidity of sample,
and the molecule is converted to LDL
but does not form a creamy top layer
4) LDL proceeds circulating until it reaches cells
- *Contains Apo B-100, Apo E and Apo C
5) Apo B-100 binds to LDL-receptors
in cell surfaces
6) LDL is taken in by the cell through endocytosis
- Role: Transports TAG from the liver
7) Cell enzymes break down LDL freeing
to the tissues
Chylomicrons cholesterol which it can use as a
- Largest and least dense component of a membrane
- Carry dietary lipids to hepatic and
peripheral cells Transport of Cholesterol in HDL
- HDL transports cholesterol from peripheral tx
- Produced by the intestines
back to the liver and transfers cholesterol to
- *Contributes to sample turbidity and
readily floats to the top of the plasma LDL
and form a creamy layer
- *Contains Apo B-48, Apo E and Apo C
- Role: Transports dietary lipids to
hepatic and peripheral cells

Transport of Cholesterol in LDL

- LDL transports cholesterol to cells where it is
needed to maintain membrane fluidity

1) While in the serum, the free cholesterols in the

HDL are converted to cholesteryl esters by LCAT
(Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferease)
2) HDL binds to the liver cell surface and
transfers its cholesteryl ester to the cell
3) These esterified cholesterols are
delivered to the liver for synthesis of
bile acids and steroid hormones
4) HDL then reenters the circulation

Levels of LDL and HDL in the blood

*Atherosclerosis – buildup of fats, cholesterol
and other substances (plaque) on the walls of
blood vessels, restricting the blood flow
 - ↑ Cholesterol in the blood = Plaque-like acid: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and
Leukotrienes
deposits on the wall of blood vessels =
↓blood flow = ↑ blood pressure PROSTAGLANDINS
- Increase blood pressure and may lead to - Catalyzed by Cyclooxygenase (COX)
myocardial infarction, stroke, kidney
2 types of COX:
dysfunction
COX-1
- Uptake of cholesterol by cells depends - Catalyzes the normal physiological
production of prostaglandins
on its concentration inside the cell - PGE2 – stimulate uterine contractions and
- High intracellular cholesterol = high plasma LDL induces labor, relaxes smooth muscles, open up
- Low intracellular cholesterol = low plasma LDL
the bronchial tubes
COX-2
- LDL receptor deficiency = ↑ plasma
- Produces prostaglandins in response to
cholesterol = accelerates atherosclerosis inflammation
*Familial Hypercholesterolemia - Targeted by anti-inflammatory drugs
- Plasma chole = 680mg/100mL NSAIDs
- Defect on chromosome 19 THROMBOXANES

- Serum cholesterol level controls the amount of

- Catalyzed by COX
cholesterol synthesized by the liver - Induces platelet aggregation
- High serum cholesterol = decreased synthesis
- Thromboxane A2 causes other platelets to
- Low serum cholesterol = increased synthesis clump, thereby increasing the size of the blood
clot
STEROID HORMONES *Anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
A. Adenocorticoid hormones
- Include mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid - NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs)
a) Aldosterone
o Increases reabsorption of Na and - inhibit COX enzymes
Cl and increases the release of K - Aspirin for people at risk of heart attack or
b) Cortisol stroke
o Increases glucose and glycogen
- No NSAIDs a week before surgery!
concentration in the body
B. Sex hormones - NSAIDs may cause excessive bleeding
c) Testosterone - Aspirin + other NSAIDs is a no-no!
d) Estradiol
- Ibuprofen and indomethacin (powerful
e) Progesterone painkillers), can block the inhibitory effect of
aspirin thus eliminate its anticlotting benefits
Anabolic steroids
LEUKOTRIENES
- Consists testosterone
- Increases muscular development - Occur mainly in WBC but are also found in
other tx of the body
C. Bile salts - Inflammatory chemicals released by the
- Oxidation products of cholesterol body when in contact with an allergen
- Powerful detergents
- Produce long-lasting muscle contractions,
- Can disperse dietary lipids in the small especially in lungs, and can cause asthma-like
intestine into fine emulsions, thereby attack
facilitating digestion
- Removes excess cholesterol and
eliminates it from the body – bile salts are
eliminated in the feces

*Fatty acid like substances derived from

Arachidonic
Bromine Water Test:
AMMONIUM MOLYBDATE TEST
Principle : Addition of halogen into the double
bond which results to an alkene with a halogen Principle : Hydrolysis of lipids containing
attached. phosphate group in their structure releases the
phosphate.
Purpose: Detects the presence of unsaturation.
Purpose: Detects the presence of phosphates in
Reagent : Bromine Water an analyte (positive for phospholipids)
Reagents: Concentrated Nitric Acid – breaks the
bonds to reveal the free phosphate group
ACROLEIN TEST
Ammonium molybdate: reacts with phosphate
Principle : Dehydration of glycerol with potassium forming a yellow precipitate
hydrogen sulfate (KHSO4) upon heating results in
the formation of unsaturated aldehyde
(ACROLEIN) which gives a pungent smell. LEIBERMANN – BURCHARDT TEST
Purpose: Detects the presence of glycerol AKA Acetic Anhydride Test
Reagent: KHSO4 – dehydrating agent Principle: Condensation of the hydroxyl group of
cholesterol and the dehydration and
isomerization reaction producing the successive
MOLISCH TEST evolution of colors.
FOR LIPIDS
Purpose: detects the presence of cholesterol
Principle: Dehydration of the carbohydrate (positive for cholesterol and steroids)
present in glycolipids by H2SO4 to form furfural
which then reacts with the Molisch’s reagent Reagents: Acetic Anhydride – condenses the
(containing alpha naphthol) forming a purple ring hydroxyl group of cholesterol
at the junction of two liquids.
Sulfuric Acid – dehydrating agent.
Purpose: Detects presence of glycolipids (lipids
attached to carbohydrates)
Reagents: H2SO4 – dehydrates the carbohydrates
to form furfural
Alpha naphthol – reacts with the furfural forming
the purple ring.

NINHYDRIN TEST FOR LIPIDS

Principle: Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha
amino acids forming hydrindantin which reacts
with ammonia and other ninhydrin molecule to
form a bluish purple colored complex .
Purpose: Detects presence of alpha amino acid in
phospholipids.
(positive results for – Cephalin and Lecithin)
Reagent: Ninhydrin reagent – reacts with free
amines forming a blue-purple color called
REHUMMANN’s PURPLE

SODA LIME TEST

Principle : Organic compound is heated with soda
lime producing ammonia-like odor indicating
presence of nitrogen in the compound.
Purpose: Detects presence of nitrogen in an
analyte. ( positive result for sphingolipids, any
lipids containing amino group, sphingomyelin
and phosphoatodylserine)
Reagents : Soda lime (NaOH + Cao) absorbs CO2
and water vapor