Atomic Theory and Nature of Atoms Lecture III

Instructor: Professor A.O. Ogunfowokan

Werner Heisenberg uncertainty principle: Was a scientist who proposed the uncertainty

principle with suggested that it was impossible to know the momentum and the location of

any electron with certainty. It is therefore impossible to measure with complete

accuracy both the position and momentum of an electron.

If the uncertainty in position is ΔX and uncertainty in momentum is ΔP.

The Heisenberg’s equation is given thus:

 P . X  h / 2 

i.e.:

Erwin Schrodinger: Schrodinger wave equation is a mathematical expression describing

the energy and position of the electron in space and time, taking into account the matter wave
nature of the electron inside an atom

Time-independent Schrödinger equation in compressed form can be expressed as:

Ѱ = wave function or region of finding an electron (eigen-function)

E = Energy of an electron (eigen-value)

Solving the Schrödinger equation gives us Ψ and Ψ2. With these we get the quantum numbers
and the shapes and orientations of orbitals that characterize electrons in an atom or molecule.
The summation of the square of wave function (Ψ2) with respect to the volume of the element
(ΔV) gives the probability of space where an electron is located in an energy level. This
region of maximum probability of where an electron is located is referred to as orbital or
electron orbit according to the equation:
∫ Ψ2 dv ≈ 

Each orbital of an atom and the electrons accommodated are described completely by a set of

four quantum numbers and three of these numbers are derived from the Schrodinger wave

equation.

The four quantum numbers are:

1. The principal quantum number (n): described the size/ Energy level in which the orbital is

located. It takes values from n = 1 2, 3 ….. 7 i.e. K, L, M, N… Q shells

2. Angular/Azimuthal/subsidiary quantum number (  ): Describes the shape of the orbital and

can have values  = 0, 1, 2 …..(n-1).

The table below shows the values of Subsidiary/Angular/Azimuthal quantum numbers and shapes of

the orbitals:

 0 1 2 3 4

Orbital type s P d f g

3. The magnetic quantum number (m) describes the orientation of orbital in space.

Magnetic quantum number gives the number of orbitals of each type. It has values

from m.  = -  …0…+ 

For:  =0, m = 0

 = 1, m =-1, o, +1

 = 2, m = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

 = 3, m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

4. Spin quantum number (ms): describes the spin of electrons either clock wisely or anti clock wisely.

Spin quantum number ms describes the magnetic properties of an electron. It has values of

+½ or -½ . The ms = +½ for electron with the spin up ↑ and ms = -½ for electron that spin

down ↓.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/quantum-numbers/
 Shapes and degeneracy of orbitals

S/No Type of Orbital Shape Degeneracy (No Maximum

orbitals of orbitals in number of
Subshell) electrons
1 S orbital Spherical Non- 2
Degenerate

2. p- orbital Dumbed bell Shape Three 6 electrons

degenerate

3. d-Orbital Double Dumbed bell Five degenerate 10 electrons

Shape

4. f-Orbital Complicated Seven 14 electrons

degenerate
Fig. Degenerate Orbitals showing increase in Energy

Fig. Orbitals fed with electrons for Vanadium and Increasing Energy Level
 Possible allowed combination and quantum numbers and atomic orbital’s

Principal Angular Magnetic Spin quantum Max no of e-s Total Type of

quantum no. quantum no. (  ) quantum, no no. (s)  1 in sub-shell no. e-s
(n)  =o, 1, 2…(n-1) (m) 2 (2n2) orbital
m =1 …0+l
n =1 (K-shell)  =0 m=0  1 2 e-s 2e-s 1s
2
n =2 (L-shell)  =0 m=0  1 2 e-s 2s
2

m = -1  1
2
} 8e-s
 =1 2p
m=0  1 }6e-s
2
 1
m = +1 2 }
n =3 (M-shell)  =0 m=0  1 2e-s 3s
2

 =1 m = -1  1
2
6e-s 3p
m=0  1
2
 1
m = +1 2

m=2  1
2
18e-s
3d
 =2 m = -1
 1
2 10e-s
m=0  1
2
m = +1  1
2

m = +2  1
2
Q. What orbital’s are occupied by electron describe by the quantum numbers: (i) n = 4,   0 (ii)n

=3,   1 ? What values of m and s could each electron have?

Solution: (i) n = 4,   0

  0  s-orbital

n = 4 implies the forth quantum shell

The orbital is therefore a 4s orbital; meaning an s orbital in the forth quantum shell.

m=0;s   1
2

ii. n = 3,   1

  1  p-orbital

i.e. the orbital is 3p

m = -1-----0-----+1

S=  1
2  1
2  1
2

Modern ideas of atomic structure

Recall that:

An atom consist of three sub-atom particles called electrons ( e- ), protons (p) and neutrons (n)

- p, is positively charge while neutrons n, is neutral

- They (p & n) both occupy the central region of an atom

- The central region of atom is called nucleus

- Electron is negatively charged

- In a neutral atom number of protons ( np ) = atomic no = number of e- represented by letter Z

- Mass number represents the number of p + number of neutrons in a neutral atom represented

by letter A.

- In any given neutral atom of an element AYZ

- A = mass number and Z = atomic number

- Number of neutrons in a neutral atom = A-Z

37 -
e.g 17
Cl number of e = 17

number of p =17

number of n = 20 i.e. (A-Z) = 37 -17 =20

For the anion:

2
e.g 32
16
S number of e = 16 +2 =18 e-s

Number of protons (np) =16 Number of neutrons ( nn) = 32 -16 = 16

For a positive ion/Cation:

40 2
20
Ca

Number of protons (np) = 20

Number of electrons ( e-) = 20-2 =18e-s

Number of neutrons (nn) = 40 -20 =20