1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1.GENERAL

Plastics are considered as one of the important invention which has remarkably
assisted in different aspect of life whether it might be in scientific field or others.

Due to omnipotent scope of plastic other different materials such as paper and other
are being replaced with it which was used for different purposes like household packing
purposes, used by restaurant and all. It has omnipotent use in today’s context but the use of
plastic and its effect in the environment has made the use of this material in an ambiguity. It
has become one of the major problems for the environment. The use of plastic has to be
limited by now otherwise there would be harshly circumstance that human and environment
has to face in near future. It is the fact that we can reuse the plastic and make it usable for
number of times so that its wastage will be reduced remarkably.

This steps are still in progress but this only hasn’t been able to paced up as per
expectation because the use of this materials has increased in such a way that it is very
difficult to limit them instead the alternative for those must be identified and process must
be taken accordingly.

It has become very tedious job to limit it. It is fact that the plastic waste is now considered as
environmental hazard due to the "Use and throw" mechanism. So it can be used for the
alternative method where its important will be counted and stabilization of soil is the best
place where this material can be used up. Rapid improvements in the engineering world have
influence a lifestyle of human beings in utmost extends but day to day activities of mankind
are augmenting risk in the environment in the same proportion. Plastic wastes have become
one of the major problems for the world. The harmful gas which is being produced by this
agent leads to tremendous health related problems. So, effective engineering implementation
of this has become one of the challenging jobs for engineers. Engineer are seeking for astute
implementation of these wastes in ample amount and implementing these wastes in Soil
stabilization helps to reduce the risk of natural destruction which is caused due to rainfall or
other aspect and also it aid in reducing the waste in an ample amount. Plastic is considered
as one of the major pollutant of environment as it would not decay or can’t be destroyed so
implementing this for some good purpose helps to reduce its effect also. This implies that
stabilization using waste plastic strips is an economic method where use of waste materials
as plastic and other cheaply available material of plastic can be used which is found
accessibly. This paper reflects that plastic wastes can be used in stabilization of soil which is
concluded from various tests conducted on fiber reinforced soil with varying fiber content
and different aspect ratio and profound analysis of their results depicts that it can be used in

2
the fields. Therefore, it is of utmost importance considering the design and construction
methodology to maintain and improve the performance of such pavements. In this paper,
different means of plastic waste as shopping bags and other

There are huge amounts of waste metal pieces produced from the processes of the
metal industry, the disposal of these waste materials face financial and environmental
difficulties. The present study aims to investigate the effect of industrial waste aluminium
picces on the stress-strain behaviour and compaction characteristics of clayey soil.

Needs & Advantages :

Soil properties vary a great deal and construction of structures depends a lot on the bearing
capacity of the soil, hence, we need to stabilize the soil which makes it easier to predict the
load bearing capacity of the soil and even improve the load bearing capacity. The gradation
of the soil is also a very important property to keep in mind while working with soils. The
soils may be well-graded which is desirable as it has less number of voids or uniformly
graded which though sounds stable but has more voids. Thus, it is better to mix different
types of soils together to improve the soil strength properties. It is very expensive to replace
the inferior soil entirely soil and hence, soil stabilization is the thing to look for in these
cases.
It improves the strength of the soil, thus, increasing the soil bearing capacity.
1.It is more economical both in terms of cost and energy to increase the bearing capacity of
the soil rather than going for deep foundation or raft foundation.
2. It is also used to provide more stability to the soil in slopes or other such places.
3. Sometimes soil stabilization is also used to prevent soil erosion or formation of dust,
which is very useful especially in dry and arid weather.
4.Stabilization is also done for soil water-proofing; this prevents water from entering into the
soil and hence helps the soil from losing its strength.
5.It helps in reducing the soil volume change due to change in temperature or moisture
content.
6. Stabilization improves the workability and the durability of the soil.
1.2.OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:
The objectives of present experimental study are as follows
 To study the impact of proposed admixture i.e; plastic waste on the properties of clay
soil through laboratory experimentations.
 To evaluate the performance of clay soil when stabilized with proposed admixture
i.e; plastic waste and their suitability for pavement construction.

1.3. ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS:

Besides the introductory chapter, the work has been presented in to the following
chapters.
 Third chapter presents the details of laboratory experimentation ,.In the fourth
chapter, results of experimental investigation carried out and discussion about the
results is presente

3
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

(2.1) INTRODUCTION

Disposal of waste materials is becoming a predominant issue for most countries

in the world. The accumulation of these waste materials in huge quantities is causing both
environment and financial problems. According to Awuchi (2019), the average plastic waste
generation is estimated at 15.4 billion pieces per day. The most prevalent waste materials are
plastic waste materials. These materials are the most usable material types in our daily life.
Plastic wastes are produced in massive quantities such as plastic bottles, which are made
from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and plastic sack and carpet, which are made from
polypropylene (PP). Despite its benefits in our daily life, plastic pose negative impacts on the
environment and health. Since the majority of plastics are not biodegradable and can sustain
for many years, many countries are planning to decrease or prevent the effect of plastic
materials through efficient recycling and reusing these materials in a wide range of fields.
Many researchers have carried out studies to find effective methods to reduce the pollution of
these materials including recycling and reusing these materials in civil engineering
applications as a solution to preserve the environment from the pollution of plastic waste
materials. An effective method to utilise these materials is to be used as a soil stabiliser for
road construction (Tatone et al. 2018). Traditional soil stabilisers such as cement and lime are
widely used for improving the geotechnical properties of weak soils (Sherwood 1993; Yadav
et al. 2018 and Yadav and Tiwari 2016). The effectiveness of these materials on improving
the properties of soils is confirmed by various researchers (Bell 1996; Little 1995; Rout et al.
2012; Rasul et al. 2015; Rasul et al. 2016; Yadav and Tiwari 2017; Rasul et al. 2018).
However, the high usage of these materials makes them non-cost-effective (Obo and Ytom
2014). Therefore, many researchers attempt to find alternative cost-effective soil stabilisers
such as plastic, tyre chips, and rice husk. Using plastic wastes for soil stabilisation can
improve the foundation layers of pavement (Khattab et al. 2011). Thus, this can solve the
problem of wastes by reducing the quantities and recycling these materials for enhancing the
properties of soils. One method of using plastic for soil stabilisation is to use the plastic in the
form of discrete fibres (Yetimoglu and Salbas 2003), because when plastic materials are
merged with soils, they behave similar to fibre-reinforced soil. Several researches have been
conducted to investigate the effectiveness of plastic waste materials in the form of discrete
fibres on properties of soils (Ziegler et al. 1998; Babu and Chouksey 2011; Mondal 2012;
Ahmadinia et al. 2012; Modarres and Hamedi 2014; Fauzi et al. 2015; Changizi and Haddad
2015; Rawat and Kumar 2016; Peddaiah et al. 2018; Salimi and Ghzavi 2019). These
researchers found that using plastic waste materials for soil stabilisation will improve the
properties of weak soils such as an increase in CBR, and Mr and a decrease in the soil
plasticity.

4
2.2. literatured

2.2.1. A.K.Choudhary1, J.N.Jha2, and K.S.Gill3 Deptt. of Civil Engineering, NIT, Jamshedpur, India
2,3Deptt. of Civil Engineering, GNDEC, Ludhiana, India

study is to demonstrate that a waste material can be used as reinforcement and for this
purpose a series of experimental study was carried out to investigate the CBR behavior of
waste plastic strip reinforced soil. The effect of waste plastic strip content (0.25% to 4.0%)
and strip length on the CBR and secant modulus of strip reinforced soil was investigated. The
study reveals that addition of waste plastic strips of appropriate size and proportions in soil
results in an appreciable increase in both the CBR and secant modulus. The waste plastic strip
reinforced soil can be used in low cost embankment/road construction leading to significant
cost advantage as well as safe disposal of these waste materials in an environment friendly
manner.

2.2.2. Amit Purohit1 Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic

College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India

the stabilization of fine sand with bottle cap plastic waste as admixture. As the fine sand has
very low bearing capacity and compressive strength along with nil cohesion, thus the
construction of any structure on fine soil required stabilization. Fine sand is of prime
importance since it can be used for various construction works and highways, airfields and
helipads projects. The amount of wastes has increased year by year and the disposal becomes
a serious problem. This investigation deals with the stabilization of fine sand with bottle cap
plastic waste as additive. Present research paper work has been taken up by addition of
Square Pieces of bottle cap plastic waste 0.15%, 0.25%, 0.50% and 1.0% having size
5mrespectively as admixture. The varying percentage bottle cap plastic waste 0.15%, 0.25%,
0.50% and 1.0% respectively were mixed with fine sand of density 1.66 gm/cc. Falling-Head
Permeability Tests were performed on different mix compositions. The result show the more
addition of plastic bottle cap waste increase the permeability of soil.

2.2.3. Priti Mishra, Jha Ajachi R.B., Mohnish Satrawala, Harsh Amin

The need to fulfill the demands of an increasing population has resulted in rapid
industrialization. Subsequently the demand for iron and steel has risen ensuing in setting up
of more such industries. The paucity of land has made the disposal of solid waste from these
industries an issue of concern. The present work suggests a unique approach of recycling and
utilizing the solid waste from the steel industries, called Steel Slag (or WRP) as a pavement
sub-base and a highway embankment material. A new material comprising of a matrix of
WRP and HDPE strips in which the latter has been used as reinforcement has been
developed. The investigations have been carried out by mixing different percentages of
HDPE strips cut in the aspect ratios of 2,3and 4 in the WRP.A comparative study of
inclusions of such reinforcement has then been made experimentally through Direct Shear,
Split Tensile ,Unconfined Compression Strength and CBR tests.

5
2.2.4. Asst. Lec. Maha Hatem Nsaif Building and Construction Engineering
Department, University of Technology, Baghdad.

This paper describes an experimental study on mixing plastic waste pieces with two types of
soil (clayey soil and sandy soil) at different mixing ratios (0,2,4,6,8 )% by weight
respectively. For the two types of soils, the shear strength parameters (cohesion value and
angle of internal friction) of reinforced and unreinforced samples were investigated by
thedirect shear test. In addition, a series of compaction tests were performed on clayey soil
mixed with different percentages of waste pieces. It was found that, there is significant
improvement in the strength of soils due to increase in internal friction. The percentage of
increase in the angle of internal friction for sandy soil is slightly more than that in clayey soil,
but there is no significant increase in cohesion for the two types of soils. Also, it was
concluded that the plastic pieces decreases the maximum dry density of the soil due to their
low specific gravity and decreases the optimum moisture content.

2.2.5. Dr. T. Kiran Kumar Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, K.S.R.M College,
Andhrapradesh, India B. Jagan K.S.R.M College, Andhrapradesh, India

Soil reinforcement technique is one of the most popular techniques used for improvement of
poor soils. Metal strips, synthetic geotextiles, geogrid sheets, natural geotextiles, randomly
distributed, synthetic and natural fibres are being used as reinforcing materials to soil.
Further, the soil reinforcement causes significant improvement in tensile strength, shear
strength, other properties, bearing capacity as well as economy. Use of natural fibre in civil
engineering for improving soil properties is advantageous because they are cheap, locally
available, biodegradable and environmental friendly. India has large tracks resting on
expansive soil covering an area of 0.8million square meters which is about 20% of total area
of India .These expansive soils undergo causes volumetric changes with change in moisture
contents, swelling and shrinkage of these soil causes severe damage to the foundations,
buildings, roads, retaining structures etc.In this project an attempt is made to study the
influence of jute fibre reinforcement on cbr properties of expansive soil with increasing
percentages 1%, 2% &3%. Tests result indicates that CBR properties of soil increases with
the increase in fibre content. It was also observed that increasing the percentage of fibre
further increases the CBR value of reinforced soil and this increase is substantial at fibre
content of about 3%. This significant increase in CBR values of soil reinforced with Jute fibre
can be used to substantially indicating significant improvement in the engineering behavior.

2.2.6. 1 Khan Tabassum, 2 Saxena Anil Kumar , 3 AroraT.R. 1P.G. Student, 2Associate
Professor, 3Professor & Head 1,2,3Lakshmi Narayan College of Technology,
Department of Civil, Bhopal

In India, transportation is mainly by roads. Very small villages, remote areas and hilly areas
can be accessed only by roads. Hence considerable attention is required towards the widening
of roads, their stability and periodic repair works. Most state highways in the central part of
India have problems of foundation due to presence of highly compressible clayey soils like
6
black cotton soil. Black cotton soil is an expansive soil, which swells or shrinks excessively
due to change in moisture content. When black cotton soil is associated with an engineering
structure, it experiences either settlement or heave depending on the stress level and the soil
swelling pressure. Design and construction of civil engineering structures on and with
expansive soils is a challenging task for engineers. The present work is aimed to assess the
improvement in the strength and stability characteristics in soft Subgrade soil by using the fly
ash for the stabilization and then Nylon fibre as reinforcing material. Randomly distributed
fibre reinforced soil (RDFRS) technique is used to prepare the reinforced soil samples. In
RDFRS technique the mixing of reinforcement in the soil is very easy and no special skill is
required. The reinforcement is added by percentage of the weight of the soil sample and by
following certain aspect ratio i.e., length/diameter (L/D) ratio. Attempt is made to determine
optimum combination of fly ash and fiber content for maximum gain in strength.

2.2.7 Hussein Jalal Aswad Hassan1 & Jabar Rasul2 & Maleaha Samin3

Recently, the use of plastic products, such as polyethylene (PE) bottles and polypropylene
(PP), has been significantly increased, which may lead to many environmental
issues.Therefore, it is important to find methods to manage these waste materials without
causing any ecological hazards. One of these methods is to use plastic wastes as soil
stabiliser materials. In this study, PE and PP have been used in the form of fibres. The effect
of the stabilisation was evaluated through carrying out standard laboratory tests. These tests
have been conducted on natural and stabilised soils with four fibre contents (1%, 2%, 3%,
and 4%) of the soil weight. The tests included the standard compaction test, unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) test, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test, and resilient modulus
(Mr) tests. In all these tests, the fibre content was added in two lengths, which were 1.0 cm
and 2.0 cm. Laboratory test results revealed that the plastic pieces decrease maximum dry
density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of the stabilised soils, which are
required for the construction of embankments of lightweight materials. In addition, there
was a significant improvement in the UCS of soils by 76.4 and 96.6% for both lengths of PE
fibres and 57.4% and 73.0% for both lengths of PP fibres, respectively. Results of the CBR
tests demonstrated that the inclusion of plastic fibres in clayey soils improves the strength
and deformation behaviour of the soil especially with 4% fibre content for both lengths 1.0
cm and 2.0 cm, respectively, to a figure of 185 to 150% for PE and PP, respectively.
Furthermore, the results of the Mr tests demonstrated that the mechanical properties
improved to an extent. For an increase in fibre content, the resilient modulus increased by
about 120% at 4% fibre content for PE. However, for PP, improvement in resilient modulus
declined at 3% fibre content. Therefore, for soil stabilisation with fibre material, optimum
fibre content shall be sought.

2.2.8. Mamta Mishra*, U. K. Maheshwari and N. K. Saxena Department Civil

Engineering, Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur, (U. P.), India.

Soil is very important in civil engineering constructions. The poor engineering properties of
the local soils may present many difficulties for construction and therefore need to improve
their engineering properties. Stabilization techniques can be used to improve the properties
of soil. Soil stabilization improves various engineering properties e.g. bearing capacity,
compressibility, strength, and various other properties of soil. In this paper we study the
impact of fly ash and coir fiber to improve the strength of soil.

7
2.2.9. A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by ANNIRUTH KANNAN R.U
(113211103005) M. MOHAMMED SHAFIN (113211103045) R. MADHAVAN
(113211103039) R. RAJKUMAR; CIVIL ENGINEERING VELAMMAL
ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI.

The main objective of this study is to investigate the use of waste fiber materials in
geotechnical applications and to evaluate the effects of waste polypropylene fibers on shear
strength of unsaturated soil by carrying out direct shear tests and unconfined compression
tests. The results obtained are compared for various tests and inferences are drawn towards
the usability and effectiveness of fiber reinforcement as a replacement for deep foundation
or raft foundation, as a cost effective approach. Randomly distributed fiber reinforcement
technique has successfully been used in a variety of applications such as slope stabilization,
road subgrade and sub base etc. This is a relatively simple technique for ground
improvement and has tremendous potential as a cost effective solution to many geotechnical
problem. Keeping this in view the present study was taken up. In this study a series of
compression tests under different confining pressures were conducted on soil sample
without and with plastic reinforcement. Plastic fibers are similar to the roots of trees and
vegetation which provide an excellent ingredient to improve the soils and the stability of
natural slopes.

2.2. 10.THE USE OF RE-ENGINEERED WASTE PLASTICS IN ROAD

PAVEMENTS Lakshmipathy et.al. (2003)

An experimental investigation to study the suitability of the use of Re- engineered plastics as
fibers for road pavements was performed. The properties studied include compressive
strength, tensile strength, flexural strength under reversed cyclic loading, impact resistance,
plastic shrinkage and abrasion resistance etc., Efforts have been made to compare it steel
fibers. The results have shown that the improvement of concrete properties at lower cost is
obtained with re-engineered plastic shred reinforced concrete.

2.2.11 USE OF WASTE PLASTICS IN THE CONSTRUCTION SECTOR

Prabir Das (2004)

It was suggested that plastics can be used in construction industry at various places. Proper
selection of material / grade and suitable design considerations can help to replace many
more applications. Lighter weight, design flexibility, part integration, low system cost, very
high productivity and improved product appearance are the main features for use of
engineering plastics. The engineering thermoplastics and introduction of application specific
grades has thrown challenges to conventional materials in the industries. This paper provides
all the supports in selecting suitable engineering plastics, process and design for conversion
of conventional material to engineering plastics for performance and system cost
benefits.

2.2.12. USE OF WASTE PLASTIC STRIPS MIXED WITH SOIL TO

INCREASE STRENGTH Chandrakaran (2004)

It was explained using a laboratory experimental study carried out to utilize waste plastics
(in the form of strips) obtained from milk pouches in the pavement construction. Results of
the study indicate that by adding plastic strips in the soil, shear strength, tensile strength and

8
CBR values of the soil increases. In this study, plastic or polythene sheets having thickness
of 0.5mm and which are made up of high density are used. These plastic strips have
innumerable advantageous properties like high tensile strength, low permeability etc., These
plastic strips act as a good barrier to gases and liquids and are unaffected by cycles of
wetting and drying.

2.2.13. THE USE OF PVC SCRAP AS ALTERNATIVE BUILDING

MATERIALS Agarwal (2004)

They have conducted pilot level studies using industrial PVC scrap to develop PVC board.
Efforts have been made in developing innovative number of such alternative building
materials. These would be helpful in saving our precious forest and environment efficiently
and economically on commercial exploitation. Developed materials are mostly wood
alternatives used in the construction of door shutters, frames, false ceiling, thermal
insulation and alike applications. Developed sustainable alternative building materials are
good economic replacement of wood and other reconstituted wood products commercially
available and would be helpful in cost effective constructions.

2.2.14. USE OF PLASTIC WASTES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION BY

PREVENTION OF DISPOSAL ON EARTH Vasudevan (2004)

In his report, they have given the most useful ways of disposing waste plastics and laying
roads have come to light in a research carried out by the Chemistry Department of
Thiyagarajar College of Engineering. They have reported that the waste plastics may be used
in block making modified light roofing, mastic flooring and polymer reinforced concrete.
The novel composition of waste polymer-aggregate blend has been patented. They have
suggested that utilization of waste plastics to enhance the binding property is better option
than disposing or enforcing a blanket ban on the use of plastics. It has been reported that the
per capita use of plastics in India is 3.5 kg, with virgin plastics accounting for 3.1 million
tonnes and recycled plastics, one million. The use in Tamil Nadu, with over 7000 units
manufacturing material is put at 2.4 lakh tonnes per year. The ‘Garbage Culture’ has made
disposal of waste plastic a major problem for civic bodies.

2.2.15. Shaheer Khan1 Department of Civil Engineering, Pakistan University of

Engineering & Technology Peshawar. Haziq Khan Department of Civil Engineering,
Pakistan. Corresponding .

The objective of this paper is to utilise waste sawdust ash in a beneficial way for
geotechnical purpose. The amount of sawdust generated every year constitutes up to 10-13%
of the total volume of wood log. Such an enormous amount serves as waste material for
landfill and is not utilized. Effective utilization of waste Sawdust Ash to enhance the
engineering properties of soil could result in solution of landfill problem which was the
objective of the paper under study. Permeability and Direct Shear Test was conducted to
analyse the impact of waste sawdust ash on properties of soil. After noticing the behaviour,
the optimum quantity of SDA addition (12%) was selected and further compaction and
shrinkage limit test on soil with 12% SDA was conducted. Dry Density of the soil was
improved by 7.8%, permeability reduced by 71.8% and shrinkage limit was increased.
Further, there was 22.14% increase of friction angle with addition of 12% sawdust ash and
shear strength parameters were improved significantly. Overall, the SDA had positive effect

9
on geotechnical properties of soil and it can be used as admixture in soil. This will not only
solve the waste disposal problem but also improve the strength characteristics of soil.

2.2.16. V. Mallikarjuna1 , T. Bindu Mani2 1Associate Professor, Department of Civil

Engineering, V.R. Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada – 520 007, Andhra
Pradesh, India. 2Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, V.R. Siddhartha
Engineering College, Vijayawada – 520 007, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Soil is the key element of this nature and all the basic needs of life such as food, house and
cloths are fulfilled by the soil. Black Cotton soils with high potential for swelling and
shrinking as a result of change in moisture content are one of the major soil deposits of
India. Soil stabilization is the process which improves the physical properties of soil, such as
shear strength, bearing capacity which can be done by use of controlled compaction or
addition of suitable admixtures like cement, lime, sand, fly ash or by providing geo textiles,
geo synthetics etc. The new technique of soil stabilization can be effectively used to meet
the challenges of society, to reduce the quantities of waste, producing useful material from
non-useful waste materials. Since the use of plastic in diversified forms such as chairs,
bottles, polythene bags, etc., has been advancing speedily and its disposal has been a
problem all the time regarding the environmental concern, using plastic as soil stabilizer
would reduce the problem of disposing the plastic as well as increases the density and
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of soil in an economical way. The present study is focused
to overcome the problems experienced in Amaravathi, the capital of newly formed Andhra
Pradesh State. In the present study, an experimental program was conducted for stabilization
of Black Cotton Soils in the Capital Region i.e., Amaravathi of newly formed Andhra
Pradesh, with the utilization of Plastic waste as soil stabilizer. Different contents of plastic
strips (% by weight varying from 0% to 8%) are added to the Black Cotton Soil and the
optimum percentage of plastic strips in soil was found out by conducting California Bearing
Ratio Test.

2.2.17. Jeeja Menon Research Scholar, Noorul Islam University, Kanyakumari, Tamil
Nadu, India Dr. M. S. Ravikumar Principal, PSN Engineering College, Tirunelveli,
Tamil Nadu, India.

Stabilization of soil using fibers is one of the effective techniques to improve the strength of
soils and thereby increasing its load bearing capacity making it more appropriate in the
manufacture of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB). This paper aims to evaluate the
strength of locally available laterite soil stabilized using available fiber as stabilizer, which is
classified as clayey silt. The performance of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) bottle fibers
and Polypropylene (PP) sack fibers are separately analyzed for its impact on the unconfined
compressive strength of the soil. Tests were conducted on various fiber-soil ratios in four
percentage levels such as 0, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.2 to determine the optimum fiber content. The
experimental analysis suggests that laterite soil stabilized with optimum PP (sack) fiber
content provides better performance than the laterite soil stabilized with optimum PET
(bottle) fiber content. The results indicate that, the Polypropylene sack fibers are more
optimal and efficient stabilizer for the laterite soil and were selected as the constituent for
developing CSEBs. This study also contributes to effective soil waste management as a
befitting sustainable technique to solve current environmental crisis as well.

10
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

The following tests are being carried out well before the reinforcement is added to
properly determine the properties of soil. These tests are used to find out the various
characteristics of the soil. These tests help in determining properties such as size ofsoil,
specific gravity, cohesiveness, atterberg’s limit etc

3.2 TESTS CONDUCTED

The experimental work consists of the following steps:

1. Specific gravity of soil

2. Particle size distribution by sieve analysis

3. Determination of soil index properties (Atterberg Limits)

i) Liquid limit by Casagrande’s apparatus
ii) Plastic limit

4. Determination of the maximum dry density (MDD) and the corresponding

optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil by Proctor compaction test

5. Determination of the shear strength by:

i) Direct shear test (DST)
ii) California Bearing Ratio test (CBR)

11
3.2.1. Specific gravity of soil

Purpose:

This lab is performed to determine the specific gravity of soil by using a pycnometer.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a stated temperature to the
mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.

Standard Reference:

ASTM D 854-00 – Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

by Water Pycnometer.

Significance:

The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids in a
given volume of the soil.

Equipment:

Pycnometer, Balance, Vacuum pump, Funnel, Spoon.

12
Test Procedure:

(1) Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry
pycnometer, WP.

(2) Place 10g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10)
in the pycnometer. Determine and record the weight of the pycnometer containing the dry
soil, WPS.

(3) Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the

pycnometer. Soak the sample for 10 minutes.

(4) Apply a partial vacuum to the contents for 10 minutes, to remove

the entrapped air.

(5) Stop the vacuum and carefully remove the vacuum line from
pycnometer.

(6) Fill the pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the
exterior surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth.
Determine the weight of the pycnometer and contents, WB.

(7) Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water
only (to the mark). Clean the exterior surface of the pycnometer
with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of the pycnometer
and distilled water, WA.

(8) Empty the pycnometer and clean it.

13
3.2.2.Particle size distribution by sieve analysis

Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes
contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to
determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer
method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils

Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of
soil. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in
classifying the soil.

Equipment:
Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker, Mixer (blender), 152H
Hydrometer, Sedimentation cylinder, Control cylinder, Thermometer, Beaker,
Timing device.
Test Procedure:

3.2.2.1.Sieve Analysis:

(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be
used in the analysis.

(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.

(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the
ascending order of sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at
bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil
sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10
minutes.

(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the
weight of each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to
weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine
soil.

14
3.2.2.2.Hydrometer Analysis:

(1) Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add
125 mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the
mixture until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.

(2) While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and
fill it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top of the meniscus formed by
the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a
negative (-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+)
correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the
difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar
(Usually about +1). Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed
thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the
zero correction and temperature respectively.

(3) Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until
mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.

15
(4) Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled
water up to the mark.

(5) Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your
hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute. (The
cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)

(6) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder. After
an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully insert the
hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should take about ten seconds to insert or remove
the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer should be
made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive bobbing).

(7) The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the suspension and
the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the control
cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles that may have
adhered.

(8) Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24
Hours.

16
Data Analysis:

Sieve Analysis:

(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty
sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained
on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the
initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.

(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each
sieve by the original sample mass.

(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and
subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

(4) Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.

(5) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

Hydrometer Analysis:

(1) Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.

(2) From Table, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for

meniscus corrected reading).

(3) For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab
purpose), obtain the value of K from Table.

(4) Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following

formula:

Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

(5) Determine the temperature correction CT from Table 3.

(6) Determine correction factor “a” from Table using Gs.

(7) Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:

Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + CT

(8) Calculate percent finer as follows:

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Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams.

(9) Adjusted percent fines as follows:

F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent

(10) Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on the
semilogarithmic sheet.

3.2.3. ATTERBERG LIMIT

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of fine -

grained soil, such as its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit. As a dry clayey soil
takes on increasing amounts of water, it undergoes dramatic and distinct changes in behavior
and consistency. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states:
solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of a soil is
different and consequently so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between
each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can
be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it can distinguish between different types
of silts and clays. These limits were created by Albert Atterberg a Swedish chemist. They
were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.

3.3.1.1. LIQUID LIMIT

The liquid limits of Clay soil and optimum percentage of plastic waste by dry weight
with the Clay soil were determined as per IS: 2720 (Part-5)-1985.
Liquid limit is the moisture content at which 25 blows in standard liquid limit
apparatus will just close a groove of standard dimensions cut in the sample by the grooving

18
tool by specified amount. The flow curve is plotted in the log-scale on the x-axis ,and the
water content in the arithmetic scale on y-axis. The flow curve is straight line drawn on the
semi-logarithmic plot, a nearly as possible through three or more plotted points. The
moisture content corresponding to 25 blow read from this curve rounded off to the nearest
whole number and is reported as the liquid limit of the soil.

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 FIG(1) - LIQUID LIMIT

3.3.1.2. PLASTIC LIMIT

The plastic limits of clay soil and optimum percentage of plastic waste by dry
weight mixed with the clay soil were determined as per IS:2720 (Part-6)-1972.
Plastic limit is the moisture content at which a soil when rolled into thread of
smallest diameter possible, starts crumbling and a diameter of 3mm.
The plastic limit (Wp) is expressed as a whole number by obtaining the mean of the
moisture contents of the plastic limit.

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 FIG(2) - PLASTIC LIMIT

3.2.4. COMPACTION TEST

Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content
and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive effort is the
amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several different methods are
used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping, kneading, vibration,
and static load compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact compaction
method using the type of equipment and methodology developed by R. R. Proctor in 1933,
therefore, the test is also known as the Proctor test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The Standard Proctor
Test, and (2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests can be performed in three
different methods as outlined in the attached Table 1. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil is
compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer falling a distance of one foot into a soil filled mold. The
mold is filled with three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of the
hammer. The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it
employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses five equal layers of soil
instead of three. There are two types of compaction molds used for testing. The smaller type
is 4 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/30 ft3 (944 cm3 ), and the larger type is
6 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft3 (2123 cm3 ). If the larger mold
is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table 1).

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Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil
Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3 ))
ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil
Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3 (2,700 KN-m/m3 ))
Significance:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis
of field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design
specifications. Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the
“maximum” density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In
general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for
a specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the
optimum water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle
orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to
shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the same
density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results

22
in a flocculated soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite
characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same density.

FORMULA

Υ = (W1-W2) / V

Where,
W1= Weight of mould with moist compacted soil.
W2= Weight of empty mould.
V= Volume of the mould.
The dry density of the soil is calculated as follows,

Υd=Υt/(1+w)

Where,

Υt= Wet density of compacted soil.

PROCTOR MOULD

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3.2.5. STRENGTH TESTS

3.2.5.1. CBR TEST

The CBR is a measure of shearing resistance of the material under controlled
density and moisture conditions. The load- penetration curve for each specimen is plotted
on natural scale. The load values at 2.5 mm and 5 mm are obtained from the load penetration
curve to compute CBR values using the following

CBR (%) = (Test load / Standard load) × 100

Based on extensive CBR test data collected , emphirical design charts were
developed by the California State Highway Department , correlating the CBR value and
flexible pavement thickness requirement .For various traffic volumes different design
thickness curves are available.
The California bearing ratio tests ( as per IS: 2720 (part-16)-1979)were conducted
on all the combinations listed in table , at the end of the curing period. Samples were
prepared by compacting different mixes to the maximum dry density of the soil. The initial
moisture content for these samples was maintained at optimum moisture content of the soil.
The amount of plastic waste to be added to the amount of water was arrived at based on the
optimum moisture content of the natural soil and the plastic waste . This plastic waste was
added to the air dry soil and mixture was thoroughly mixed.

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 CBR APPARATUS

3.2.5.2. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a sandy to
silty soil. The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil,
because it is required whenever a structure is dependent on the soil’s shearing resistance.
The shear strength is needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of
slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure
exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated
Drained Conditions Significance: The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for
soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear device will be used to determine the shear strength of
a cohesionless soil (i.e. angle of internal friction (f)). From the plot of the shear stress versus
the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear stress is obtained for a specific vertical
confining stress. After the experiment is run several times for various vertical-confining
stresses, a plot of the maxi mum shear stresses versus the vertical (normal) confining
stresses for each of the tests is produced. From the plot, a straight-line approximation of the

25
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope curve can be drawn, f may be determined, and, for
cohesionless soils (c = 0), the shear strength can be computed from the following equation:
This test is used to find out the cohesion (c) and the angle of internal friction (φ) of the soil,
these are the soil shear strength parameters. The shear strength is one of the most important
soil properties and it is required whenever any structure depends on the soil shearing
resistance. The test is conducted by putting the soil at OMC and MDD inside the shear box
which is made up of two independent parts. A constant normal load (ς) is applied to obtain
one value of c and φ. Horizontal load (shearing load) is increased at a constant rate and is
applied till the failure point is reached. This load when divided with the area gives the shear
strength ‘τ’ for that particular normal load. The equation goes as follows:
τ = c + σ*tan (φ)
After repeating the experiment for different normal loads (ς) we obtain a plot which is a
straight line with slope equal to angle of internal friction (φ) and intercept equal to the
cohesion (c). Direct shear test is the easiest and the quickest way to determine the shear
strength parameters of a soil sample.

DIRECT SHEAR

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