DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHERE

BIO 1301 (General Biology I-Cell and Organizational Biology) 3 Unit

1. PLANT CELL
The cell is the basic unit of life in all organisms. Like humans and animals, plants are also
composed of several cells. The plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall which is involved in
providing shape to the plant cell. Apart from the cell wall, other organelles are associated with
different cellular activities.
Let us have a detailed look at the plant cell, its structure, and the functions of different plant cell
organelles.
Plant cell definition
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus along with specialized structures called
organelles that carry out certain specific functions.
Plant cells vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and
animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a
plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
Plant cell diagram
The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell. Even though plant and
animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell organelles, plant cells are quite distinct when
compared to animal cell as they perform different functions. Some of these differences can be
clearly understood when the cells are examined under an electron microscope.
Lecture note

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 Plant cell structure

Cell organelles include:

Cell wall
It is a rigid layer that is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose. It
is located outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins, polysaccharides, and cellulose.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The
plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form
and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of the cell.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely,
primary, secondary and middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by
enzymes.
Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin
layer of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances
within the cell.
For instance, the cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential
Lecture note

minerals are transported across.

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Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital
function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division,
metabolism, and growth.
1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allows proteins
and nucleic acids to pass through.
Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch,
to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules which
form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are
stated below:
Leucoplasts
They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They are used for the storage of protein,
lipid, and starch.
Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by a phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like
a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each
chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.
Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that
surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain
turgid pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of
salts, enzymes, and other substances.
Golgi apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.
Lecture note

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Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles that comprise RNA and protein. They are the
sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.
Mitochondria
They are the double-membrane organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They
provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred
to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”
Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They
perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles
and foreign bodies in the cell.
Plant Cell Types
Cells of a matured and higher plant become specialized to perform certain vital functions that are
essential for their survival. Few plant cells are involved in the transportation of nutrients and water,
while others for storing food.
The specialized plant cells include parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, collenchyma cells,
xylem cells, and phloem cells.
Following are some of the different types of plant cells:
Collenchyma Cells
They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants when
there is restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary walls.
Sclerenchyma Cells
These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the presence of a
hardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and mainly involved in providing
support to the plants.
Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells play a significant role in all plants. They are the living cells of plants, which are
involved in the production of leaves. They are also involved in the exchange of gases, production
of food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These cells are typically more flexible
Lecture note

than others because they are thinner.

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Xylem Cells
Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants. Phloem Cells
Phloem cells are other transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared by the leaves
to different parts of the plants.
Refer more: Plant Tissue System
Plant cell functions
Plant cells are the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the major function performed by
plant cells.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process of preparing food by
the plants, by utilizing sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Energy is produced in the form of ATP
in the process.
Few plant cells help in the transport of water and nutrients from the roots and leaves to different
parts of the plants.
Cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
Mitosis
A mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in
such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively
dividing animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and then
separates the sister chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic material. This
separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to produce two daughter
cells.
In some single-celled organisms, mitosis forms the basis of asexual reproduction. In diploid
multicellular organisms, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to
produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter cells are then responsible
for the subsequent growth and development of the organism. In the adult organism, mitosis plays
Lecture note

a role in cell replacement, wound healing and tumour formation.

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Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which
contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain two copies of each
chromosome). The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two successive
nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a
process of DNA replication that converts each chromosome.
2. PLANT TISSUES
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue systems made of various cell types that carry out
specific functions. Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general types: meristematic tissue and
permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic tissue are found in meristems,
which are plant regions of continuous cell division and growth. Meristematic tissue cells are either
undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated, and they continue to divide and contribute to the
growth of the plant. In contrast, permanent tissue consists of plant cells that are no longer actively
dividing.
Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based on their location in the plant. Apical meristems
contain meristematic tissue located at the tips of stems and roots, which enable a plant to extend
in length. Lateral meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a maturing plant. Intercalary
meristems occur only in monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes (the areas where leaves
attach to a stem). This tissue enables the monocot leaf blade to increase in length from the leaf
base; for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate even after repeated mowing.
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize, and become permanent tissue.
Such cells take on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further. They differentiate into three
main types: dermal, vascular, and ground tissue. Dermal tissue covers and protects the plant, and
vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant. Ground tissue
serves as a site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue, and helps
to store water and sugars.
Secondary tissues are either simple (composed of similar cell types) or complex (composed of
Lecture note

different cell types). Dermal tissue, for example, is a simple tissue that covers the outer surface of
the plant and controls gas exchange. Vascular tissue is an example of complex tissue and is made

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of two specialized conducting tissues: xylem and phloem. Xylem tissue transports water and
nutrients from the roots to different parts of the plant and includes three different cell types: vessel
elements and tracheids (both of which conduct water), and xylem parenchyma. Phloem tissue,
which transports organic compounds from the site of photosynthesis to other parts of the plant,
consists of four different cell types: sieve cells (which conduct photosynthates), companion cells,
phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibres. Unlike xylem conducting cells, phloem conducting cells
are alive at maturity. The xylem and phloem always lie adjacent to each other. In stems, the xylem
and the phloem form a structure called a vascular bundle; in roots, this is termed the vascular
stele or vascular cylinder.

Like the rest of the plant, the stem has three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground tissue.
Each is distinguished by characteristic cell types that perform specific tasks necessary for the
plant’s growth and survival.
 Dermal tissue cells:
o Epidermal cells
o Stomata or more accurately, guard cells
o Trichomes
 Vascular tissue cells:
o Tracheids
o Vessel elements
o Sieve tube cells
o Companion cells
 Ground tissue cells:
o Parenchyma
o Collenchyma
o Sclerenchyma
Dermal Tissue
The dermal tissue of the stem consists primarily of the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering
and protecting the underlying tissue. Woody plants have a tough, waterproof outer layer of cork
Lecture note

cells commonly known as bark, which further protects the plant from damage. Epidermal cells are
the most numerous and least differentiated of the cells in the epidermis. The epidermis of a leaf
also contains openings known as stomata, through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two

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cells, known as guard cells, surround each leaf stoma, controlling its opening and closing and thus
regulating the uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen and water vapour. Trichomes are
hair-like structures on the epidermal surface. They help to reduce transpiration (the loss of water
by aboveground plant parts), increase solar reflectance, and store compounds that defend the leaves
against predation by herbivores.
Vascular Tissue
The xylem and phloem that make up the vascular tissue of the stem are arranged in distinct strands
called vascular bundles, which run up and down the length of the stem. When the stem is viewed
in cross-section, the vascular bundles of dicot stems are arranged in a ring. In plants with stems
that live for more than one year, the individual bundles grow together and produce the
characteristic growth rings. In monocot stems, the vascular bundles are randomly scattered
throughout the ground tissue.

Xylem tissue has three types of cells: xylem parenchyma, tracheids, and vessel elements. The latter
two types conduct water and are dead at maturity. Tracheids are xylem cells with thick secondary
cell walls that are lignified. Water moves from one tracheid to another through regions on the side
walls known as pits, where secondary walls are absent. Vessel elements are xylem cells with
thinner walls; they are shorter than tracheids. Each vessel element is connected to the next using a
perforation plate at the end walls of the element. Water moves through the perforation plates to
travel up the plant.
Phloem tissue is composed of sieve-tube cells, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem
fibres. A series of sieve-tube cells (also called sieve-tube elements) are arranged end to end to
make up a long sieve tube, which transports organic substances such as sugars and amino acids.
The sugars flow from one sieve-tube cell to the next through perforated sieve plates, which are
found at the end junctions between two cells. Although still alive at maturity, the nucleus and other
cell components of the sieve-tube cells have disintegrated. Companion cells are found alongside
the sieve-tube cells, providing them with metabolic support. The companion cells contain more
ribosomes and mitochondria than the sieve-tube cells, which lack some cellular organelles.
Ground Tissue
Lecture note

Ground tissue is mostly made up of parenchyma cells, but may also contain collenchyma and
sclerenchyma cells that help support the stem. The ground tissue towards the interior of the

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vascular tissue in a stem or root is known as pith, while the layer of tissue between the vascular
tissue and the epidermis is known as the cortex.
3. PLANT ORGANS
Like animals, plants contain cells with organelles in which specific metabolic activities take place.
Unlike animals, however, plants use energy from sunlight to form sugars during photosynthesis.
In addition, plant cells have cell walls, plastids, and a large central vacuole: structures that are not
found in animal cells. Each of these cellular structures plays a specific role in plant structure and
function.
In plants, just as in animals, similar cells working together form a tissue. When different types of
tissues work together to perform a unique function, they form an organ; organs working together
form organ systems. Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system, and a root
system. The shoot system consists of two portions: the vegetative (non-reproductive) parts of the
plant, such as the leaves and the stems, and the reproductive parts of the plant, which include
flowers and fruits. The shoot system generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light
needed for photosynthesis. The root system, which supports the plants and absorbs water and
minerals, is usually underground. The figure below shows the organ systems of a typical plant.

The shoot system of a plant consists of leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. The root system anchors the
Lecture note

plant while absorbing water and minerals from the soil.

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The Root System
The roots of seed plants have three major functions: anchoring the plant to the soil, absorbing water
and minerals and transporting them upwards, and storing the products of photosynthesis. Some
roots are modified to absorb moisture and exchange gases. Most roots are underground. Some
plants, however, also have adventitious roots, which emerge above the ground from the shoot.
Root systems are mainly of two types (shown below):

 Taproot systems have a main root that grows down vertically, and from which many
smaller lateral roots arise. Taproots penetrate deep into the soil and are advantageous for
plants growing in dry soils. Taproots are typical of dicots such as dandelions.
 Fibrous root systems are located closer to the surface and have a dense network of roots.
Fibrous root systems can help prevent soil erosion. Fibrous roots are typical of monocots
such as grasses.

The shoot system: stems and leaves

Stems are a part of the shoot system of a plant. Their main function is to provide support to the
plant, holding leaves, flowers and buds. Of course, they also connect the roots to the leaves,
transporting absorbed water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant, and transporting
sugars from the leaves (the site of photosynthesis) to desired locations throughout the plant. They
may range in length from a few millimetres to hundreds of meters and also vary in diameter,
depending on the plant type. Stems are usually above ground, although the stems of some plants,
such as the potato, also grow underground.
Stems can be of several different varieties:
 Herbaceous stems are soft and typically green
 Woody stems are hard and wooded
 Unbranched stems have a single stem
 Branched stems have divisions and side stems

Plant stems, whether above or below ground, are characterized by the presence of nodes and
internodes (shown below). Nodes are points of attachment for leaves and flowers; internodes are
Lecture note

the regions of stem between two nodes. The tip of the shoot contains the apical meristem within

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the apical bud. An axillary bud is usually found in the area between the base of a leaf and the
stem where it can give rise to a branch or a flower.
Leaves are the main sites for photosynthesis: the process by which plants synthesize food. Most
leaves are usually green, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the leaf cells. However, some leaves
may have different colours, caused by other plant pigments that mask the green chlorophyll.
A typical eudicot leaf structure is shown below. Typical leaves are attached to the plant stem by
a petiole, though there are also leaves that attach directly to the plant stem. The vascular tissue
(xylem and phloem) run through veins in the leaf, which also provide structural support.,The
thickness, shape, and size of leaves are adapted to specific environments. Each variation helps a
plant species maximize its chances of survival in a particular habitat. Coniferous plant species that
thrive in cold environments, like spruce, fir, and pine, have leaves that are reduced in size and
needle-like in appearance. These needle-like leaves have sunken stomata (pits that allow gas
exchange) and a smaller surface area: two attributes that aid in reducing water loss. In hot climates,
plants such as cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines, which in combination with their
succulent stems, help to conserve water. Many aquatic plants have leaves with a wide lamina that
can float on the surface of the water, and a thick waxy cuticle (waxy covering) on the leaf surface
that repels water.
4. CELLULAR METABOLISM
Cells require energy for movement, division, multiplication and other processes. Cell obtained and
used this energy through metabolism. Metabolism is broadly defined as the sum of biochemical
processes in living organisms that either produce or consume energy. It is a dauntingly large sum:
more than 8,700 reactions and 16,000 metabolites are now annotated in the Kyoto Encyclopedia
of Genes and Genomes (http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html). Cells use enzymes and
metabolic pathways to conduct these chemical reactions. Cellular metabolism refers to the
chemical reactions that take place within cells. In eukaryotic cells, these reactions produce the
energy required to maintain homeostasis among other important functions (e.g. metabolic
turnover, cell division, contraction, etc). As such, cellular metabolism directly contributes to
processes relating to growth, reproduction, and structural maintenance, etc. Depending on the
needs of the cells and functions, the rate of chemical reactions is either increased or decreased with
Lecture note

numerous pathways synthesizing and breaking down cellular components.

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Some of the enzymes involved in these reactions include:
 Hexokinase
 Pyruvate kinase
 Phosphofructokinase
 Phosphoglycerate mutase
 Phosphotriose isomerase
 Succinyl-CoA synthetase
 Citrate synthase
 Fumarase
Stages of Cellular Metabolism
While the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP (chemical energy) in cellular metabolism is a
continuous process, it's generally divided into three main stages that include:
1. Glycolysis
Generally, glycolysis may be described as the oxidation of glucose (a hexose with six carbons)
molecule to produce two molecules of pyruvate (each pyruvate molecule consists of three
carbons).
Step 1: Phosphorylation 1- The first step of glycolysis is known as phosphorylation and takes
place in the cell cytoplasm. As the name suggests, phosphorylation involves the addition of a
phosphate to the glucose molecule which allows it to proceed to the next step.
Step 2: Isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate - The next step of
glycolysis involves the conversion of the glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate. While they
are both six (6) carbon sugars, fructose phosphate is different from glucose given that it's a ketone.
Step 3: Phosphorylation 2 - In the third step, ATP is again required for the phosphorylation of
fructose-6-phosphate to produce 1,6-bisphosphate (fructose diphosphate). As is the case with the
first phosphorylation, ATP is again broken down to produce ADP and a phosphate.
Step 4: Cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate - The fourth step involves the splitting of
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to produce dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate (GA3P).
Step 5: Dehydrogenation and phosphorylation - In this step of glycolysis, a molecule of
Lecture note

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is converted to 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.

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Step 6: Dephosphorylation - During this step, 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate undergoes
dephosphorylation to form 3 phosphoglycerate in the presence of the enzyme by phosphoglycerate
kinase.
Step 7: In the next step, the enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase converts 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-
phosphoglycerate which in turn converts to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by the enzyme enolase.
Step 8: Dephosphorylation - In this step, phosphoenolpyruvate formed in the seventh step
undergoes dephosphorylation which results in the production of two (2) additional ATP molecules.
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate enters the Krebs cycle which is the second stage of cellular
metabolism. However, before it enters this stage, it has to go through a transition stage also known
as the preparatory phase.
Decarboxylation - This transition step is known as decarboxylation and involves the conversion
of the pyruvate molecules to Acetyl-CoA by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase.
Step 1: Citrate synthesis - In the first step of Kreb's cycle, acetyl CoA produced during the
transition stage combines with oxaloacetate (OAA) in the presence of the enzyme citrate synthase
to form citrate.
Step 2: Isomerization - The second step is an isomerization reaction and results in the production
of isocitrate. Here, the enzyme aconitase transforms the citrate into isocitrate by rearranging carbon
molecules.
Step 3: Decarboxylation - In step 3, isocitrate is converted to alpha-ketoglutarate through a
process known as decarboxylation. As the name suggests, this involved the removal of carbon
from isocitrate in the form of carbon dioxide.
Step 4: Decarboxylation 2 - In step 4, alpha-ketoglutarate is converted to succinyl CoA by the
enzyme alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. In this reaction, NAD+ reacts with alpha-
ketoglutarate in the presence of the enzyme alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase which again results
in its reduction.
Step 5: Hydrolysis - In step 4, a CoA is added resulting in the production of succinyl CoA. In step
5, on the other hand, the CoA is removed resulting in the production of succinate.
Step 6: Fumarate - In step six (6) of the cycle, succinate is converted to fumarate by the enzyme
Lecture note

succinate dehydrogenase. Here, FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) reacts with succinate in the
presence of the enzyme which results in its reduction to FADH.

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Step 7: Hydrolysis - In step 7, the enzyme fumarase is involved in the hydrolysis of fumarate to
form malate.
Step 8: Production of Oxaloacetate - In this step, the enzyme malate dehydrogenase is involved
in the conversion of malate to oxaloacetate. Here, NAD+ reacts with malate in the presence of the
enzyme causing it to be reduced to NADH and a hydrogen ion. Once it's produced, Oxaloacetate
can then enter the cycle by accepting another molecule of acetyl CoA as the cycle continues.

3. Electron Transport System (Electron Transport Chain)- The electron transport system/chain
is the third and last stage of cellular metabolism and takes place in the folded, inner membrane of
the mitochondria (cristae). This is a particularly important stage given that most of the ATP
molecules are produced here. In the electron transfer chain, electrons move along a series of
proteins to generate an expulsion type force to move hydrogen ions, or protons, across the
mitochondrial membrane. The electrons begin their reactions in Complex I, continuing onto
Complex II, traversed to Complex III and cytochrome c via coenzyme Q, and then finally to
Complex IV. The complexes themselves are complex-structured proteins embedded in the
phospholipid membrane. They are combined with a metal ion, such as iron, to help with proton
expulsion into the intermembrane space as well as other functions. The complexes also undergo
conformational changes to allow openings for the transmembrane movement of protons. These
four complexes actively transfer electrons from an organic metabolite, such as glucose. When the
metabolite breaks down, two electrons and a hydrogen ion are released and then picked up by the
coenzyme NAD+ to become NADH, releasing a hydrogen ion into the cytosol.

5. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis definition states that the process exclusively takes place in the chloroplasts through
photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll. All green
plants and a few other autotrophic organisms utilize photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients by using
carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The by-product of the photosynthesis process is oxygen. Let
us have a detailed look at the process, reaction and importance of photosynthesis.
Lecture note

Photosynthesis also applies to other organisms besides green plants. These include several
prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria. These organisms
exhibit photosynthesis just like green plants.

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The glucose produced during photosynthesis is then used to fuel various cellular activities. The
by-product of this physio-chemical process is oxygen.

A visual representation of the photosynthesis reaction

Photosynthesis is also used by algae to convert solar energy into chemical energy. Oxygen is
liberated as a by-product and light is considered a major factor to complete the process of
photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis occurs when plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen. Leaves contain microscopic cellular organelles known as chloroplasts.
Each chloroplast contains a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed
by chlorophyll molecules whereas carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through the tiny pores of
stomata located in the epidermis of leaves.
Another by-product of photosynthesis is sugars such as glucose and fructose.
These sugars are then sent to the roots, stems, leaves, fruits, flowers and seeds. In other words,
these sugars are used by the plants as an energy source, which helps them to grow. These sugar
molecules then combine to form more complex carbohydrates like cellulose and starch. Cellulose
is considered the structural material that is used in plant cell walls.

Where Does This Process Occur? Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants and blue-
green algae. All green parts of a plant, including the green stems, green leaves, and sepals – floral
parts comprise chloroplasts – green colour plastids. These cell organelles are present only in plant
cells and are located within the mesophyll cells of leaves.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
The photosynthesis process requires several factors such as:
 Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis. On the
other hand, low light intensity results in a lower rate of photosynthesis.
Lecture note

 The concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the
rate of photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range of 300 – 400 PPM is adequate
for photosynthesis.
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  Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a
temperature range between 25° to 35° C.
 Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to
problems in the intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water leads to the refusal of
stomatal opening to retain the amount of water they have stored inside.
 Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This
can block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide.
Photosynthesis Equation
Photosynthesis reaction involves two reactants, carbon dioxide and water. These two reactants
yield two products, namely, oxygen and glucose. Hence, the photosynthesis reaction is considered
to be an endothermic reaction. Following is the photosynthesis formula:

6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Unlike plants, certain bacteria that perform photosynthesis do not produce oxygen as the by-
product of photosynthesis. Such bacteria are called anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. The
bacteria that do produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis are called oxygenic
photosynthetic bacteria.
Photosynthetic Pigments
There are four different types of pigments present in leaves:
1. Chlorophyll a
2. Chlorophyll b
3. Xanthophylls
4. Carotenoids
Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of the plant cell and the mesosomes of
cyanobacteria. This green colour pigment plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis by
permitting plants to absorb energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll is a mixture of chlorophyll-a and
chlorophyll-b. Besides green plants, other organisms that perform photosynthesis contain various
other forms of chlorophyll such as chlorophyll-c1, chlorophyll-c2, chlorophyll-d and chlorophyll-
f.
Lecture note

Process of photosynthesis

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At the cellular level, the photosynthesis process takes place in cell organelles called chloroplasts.
These organelles contain a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll, which is responsible for the
characteristic green colouration of the leaves. As already stated, photosynthesis occurs in the
leaves and the specialized cell organelles responsible for this process is called the chloroplast.
Structurally, a leaf comprises a petiole, epidermis and a lamina. The lamina is used for absorption
of sunlight and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Light Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-dependent Reaction
 Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only during the day in
the presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent reaction takes place in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts.
 The Grana, membrane-bound sacs like structures present inside the thylakoid functions by
gathering light and is called photosystems.
 These photosystems have large complexes of pigment and proteins molecules present
within the plant cells, which play the primary role during the process of light reactions of
photosynthesis.
 There are two types of photosystems: photosystem I and photosystem II.
 Under the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to ATP and NADPH,
which are used in the second phase of photosynthesis.
 During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron-transport
chains, water is used and oxygen is produced.

The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be reduced to:

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-independent Reaction

 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction.
 It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules are formed from the water and
carbon dioxide molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast where they utilize the NADPH
Lecture note

and ATP products of the light reaction.

17
  Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and proceed to the
Calvin photosynthesis cycle.
 In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction drive the reaction
and convert 6 molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule or glucose.
The chemical equation for the dark reaction can be reduced to:

3CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi

6. CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Most autotrophs make food by photosynthesis, but this isn’t the only way that autotrophs produce
food. Some bacteria make food by another process, which uses chemical energy instead of light
energy. This process is called chemosynthesis. In chemosynthesis, one or more carbon molecules
(usually carbon dioxide or methane, CH4) and nutrients are converted into organic matter, using
the oxidation of inorganic molecules (such as hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or ammonia
(NH3)) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight. In hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis,
in the presence of carbon dioxide and oxygen, carbohydrates (CH2O) can be produced:

CO2 + O2 + 4H2S → CH2O + 4S + 3H2O

Many organisms that use chemosynthesis are extremophiles, living in harsh conditions, such as
in the absence of sunlight and a wide range of water temperatures, some approaching the boiling
point. Some chemosynthetic bacteria live around deep-ocean vents known as “black smokers.”
Compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, which flow out of the vents from the Earth’s interior, are
used by the bacteria for energy to make food. Consumers that depend on these bacteria to produce
food for them include giant tubeworms. These organisms are known as chemoautotrophs. Many
chemosynthetic microorganisms are consumed by other organisms in the ocean, and symbiotic
associations between these organisms and respiring heterotrophs are quite common.
7. PLANT REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is one of the most important characteristics of all living beings. It is the production
Lecture note

of one's kind. It is necessary for the continuation of the species on earth and also to replace the
dead members of the species. The process by which living organisms produce their offsprings for
the continuity of the species is called reproduction.

18
The modes of reproduction vary according to individual species and available conditions. It may be
simply by division of the parent cell as in unicellular organisms, by fragmentation of the parent body,
by formation of buds and spores, or it may be very elaborate involving development of male and female
reproductive organs (stamens and pistils). Irrespective of the mode of reproduction, all organisms pass
on their hereditary material to their offsprings during the process of reproduction. In this lesson, you
will study the process of reproduction in plants.
Modes of reproductions
The various modes by which plants reproduce are of three types –
(a) Vegetative (b) Asexual (c) Sexual
In the Asexual and vegetative mode of reproduction, offsprings are produced from a vegetative
unit formed by a parent without any fusion of gametes or sex cells.

– A single parent is involved

– Offsprings are genetically identical to the parent.
(a) Vegetative reproduction may be of the following types:
1. Vegetative reproduction: It involves the formation of new plantlets from vegetative (somatic)
cell, buds or organs of the plant. Here, a vegetative part of the plant (root, stem, leaf or bud) gets
detached from the parent body and grows into an independent plant. It is similar to asexual
reproduction in that it also requires only mitotic division, no gametic fusion is involved, and newly-
formed plants are genetic clones of the parent plant. We will discuss the different types of
vegetative reproduction in angiosperms later in this lesson.
2. Fragmentation: In filamentous algae, an accidental breaking of the filament into many fragments,
each fragment having at least one cell, may give rise to a new filament of the algae by cell division e.g.
Spirogyra.
3. Fission: It Occurs in unicellular organisms like bacteria and yeasts where the content of the
parent cell divides into 2, 4 or 8 daughter cells and accordingly the fission is known as binary or
multiple fission. Each newly formed daughter cell grows into a new organism.
4. Budding: It also occurs in unicellular plants. A bud-like outgrowth is formed on one side of the
parent cell and soon it separates and grows into a new individual e.g. in yeast.

(b) Asexual Reproduction: Takes place by asexual spores which may be flagellate or non-
Lecture note

flagellate.
Spore formation: In lower plants including bryophytes and pteridophytes, special
reproductive units develop asexually on the parent body. These are called spores. They are

19
 microscopic and covered by a protective wall. When they reach a suitable environment they
develop into a new plant body e.g. in bread moulds, moss, fern. In higher plants like pea, maize
and gymnosperms, asexual reproduction is always heterosporous. Here, spores are produced
after meiosis. The small male spores called microspores give rise to a male gametophyte. The
large female spores are called megaspores, and they give rise to female gametophytes.

(c) Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female reproductive cells (gametes) which
are haploid and are produced by male and female reproductive organs. This fusion is known
as fertilization and results in the production of a zygote (diploid). Further development of
zygote gives rise to a new individual which is diploid.
Here, at some stage of the life history meiosis is involved and the offsprings are not genetic clones
of their parents, but are genetically different and generally exhibit mixed characters of their
parents.

Apomixis
Apomixis is a unique mechanism of asexual reproduction in certain plants (e.g. dandelions) which
produce seeds without pollination and fertilization. (In Greek, apomixis means ‘away from act of
mixing’). Since there is no fusion of male and female gamete, any somatic cell of ovule which is
diploid, gives rise to the embryo and then ovule matures into a seed. The seeds are then dispersed.
The interesting fact is that apomixis is an asexual process but disperses its seeds like those of plants
that undergo sexual reproduction.
Reproduction in lower plants
We will study the different types of reproduction in two lower plants, one unicellular alga
(Chlamydomonas) and the other multicellular filamentous alga (Spirogyra).
Asexual reproduction
Zoospores and aplanospores are two types of spores produced by algae and fungi during asexual
reproduction. Fungi produce spores in three ways: sexually, asexually and vegetatively. Asexual
spores of fungi are produced by mitosis. They are not resistant to unfavourable conditions. But,
they exhibit rapid multiplication. Asexual spores occur in two ways: endogenously and
exogenously. Both zoospores and aplanospores are endogenous spores. Endogenous spores are
Lecture note

produced internally within a sac by cell division of the protoplasm. The main difference between
zoospores and aplanospores is that zoospores are motile spores whereas aplanospores are non-
motile spores.
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Sexual Reproduction 
Anisogamy, isogamy and oogamy are three types of sexual reproduction in plants. These three
sexual reproduction types represent three stages of evolution in plants. Male gametes are called
sperm cells and female gametes are called egg cells. Gametes are found in different sizes. Some
gametes are flagellated and hence they are motile. They have produced in gametangium. Male
gametes are produced by spermatogenesis while female gametes are produced by oogenesis.
During sexual reproduction, a fusion of haploid male and female gametes results in diploid
zygotes, which give rise to a new organism. The main difference between anisogamy isogamy and
oogamy is that anisogamy is the fusion of gametes in dissimilar size while isogamy is the fusion
of gametes in similar size and oogamy is the fusion of large, immotile female gametes with small,
motile male gametes.

Reproduction in Angiosperms Flowering Plants

Angiosperms reproduce both by vegetative as well as by sexual methods. In this section, we will
study sexual reproduction in angiosperms. As you know sexual reproduction occurs by the fusion
of male and female gametes produced in the flower. Thus, the flower represents the reproductive
unit of a flowering plant.
Initiation of flowering
As the seed germinates a new plantlet emerges from it. The young plant grows vigorously and
continues to grow till it attains a definite shape and size with its vegetative parts (roots, stem,
leaves) well developed. This phase of the life cycle represents the young or the juvenile phase.
Then, at a certain point of time on completion of vegetative growth, the plant switches over to its
reproductive phase or adult phase and the vegetative shoot apex transforms into a reproductive
or floral apex and starts bearing flowers. This transition from vegetative to the flowering stage
may take several years in trees but only a few weeks or days in annuals.
Parts of a flower
As you have already studied a typical flower bears four whorls born on thalamus or stalk. These
whorls from outside are:
(a) Calyx - consisting of sepals.
(b) Corolla - consisting of petals
Lecture note

(c) Androecium - consisting of stamens

(d) Gynoecium or pistil - consisting of carpels.

21
 Carpel (Gynoecium) Stamen
(Androecium)

Petal
(Corolla)
Sepal (Calyx)
Thalamus

Longitudinal Section of a typical flower

Try to recollect their role in reproduction. The two outermost whorls are known as non-essential
or accessory whorls as they aid in reproduction but do not directly take part in the process. The
other two whorls i.e. Androecium (male reproductive organ) and Gynoecium (female
reproductive organ) are known as the essential whorls as their absence from flowers will lead to
failure of sexual reproduction. The stamen consists of an anther containing four pollen sacs or
microsporangia, supported by a slender filament. Each sporangium contains a mass of large cells
showing a prominent nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. These are the sporogenous cells or the
microspore mother cells. Each microsporangium when mature, has a wall made up of distinct
layers of cells.
The stamen consists of an anther containing four pollen sacs or microsporangia, supported by a
slender filament. Each sporangium contains a mass of large cells showing a prominent nucleus and
abundant cytoplasm. These are the sporogenous cells or the microspore mother cells. Each
microsporangium when mature, has a wall made up of distinct layers of cells.
(i) The outermost layer (epidermis)
(ii) The middle layer of thin-walled cells.
(iii) The innermost layer, the tapetum consisting of large cells, which nourish the developing
pollen grains.
The Pollen grain itself is not, the male gamete. It is a structure that produces male gametes,
therefore pollen grain is regarded as the male gametophyte in the flowering plants.
Lecture note

22
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of the same
or another flower. It is said to be the first process of sexual fertilization in flowering plants. Pollen
grains contain the male gamete and are present in the anthers of the flower.
Types of Pollination
Pollination can be of two types:
 Self- Pollination
 Cross-Pollination
Let us understand more about each type of pollination a little in detail.
Self- Pollination
When the pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower, it is
called self-pollination. This form of pollination is common in hermaphrodite or dioecious plants
which contain both male and female sexual parts on the same flower.
In self-pollinating plants, there is less dependence on the external factors to cause pollination.
These plants depend on wind or other smaller insects that visit the flower regularly. In self-
pollinating flowers, the anthers, and stigma are of similar lengths to facilitate the transfer of pollen.
Self–pollination can be further divided into two types:
 Autogamy– In this type of self-pollination, the pollen is transferred from the anthers of one
flower to the stigma of the same flower.
 Geitonogamy– In this type of self-pollination, the anthers are transferred from the anthers
of one flower to the stigma of another flower but on the same plant.
Advantages of self–pollination
 In self-pollination, there is no diversity in the genes and therefore the purity of the race is
maintained.
 The plants do not depend on external factors for pollination and even smaller quantities of
pollen grains produce have a success rate in getting pollinated.
 Self-pollination ensures that recessive characters are eliminated.
Disadvantages of self-pollination
 Since there is no mixing up of genes, there are no new characters or features that are
Lecture note

introduced into the lineage of the offsprings.

23
  Self-pollination is said to reduce the vigour and vitality of the race as there are no new
features introduced.
 Without new characters introduced, the resultant offsprings’ immunity to diseases reduces.
The function of cells and nuclei of embryo sac
Secondary Nucleus: During fertilization, the secondary nucleus fuses with one sperm to form
a triple fusion nucleus (2n+n = 3n). This is called the primary endosperm nucleus. It gives rise
to the food storing endosperm of the seed in many plants.
Egg Cell: Fuses with the second male gamete (sperm) to give rise to the zygote, which develops
into the embryo. This is called double fertilization.
Synergid Cells: Considered to help in fertilization by directing the pollen tube to the egg cell.
Antipodal Cells: Degenerate just before fertilization and contribute nutrition for the young
embryo.
Fertilization
 Pollen grains on reaching the right stigma become three-celled (if they are not 3-celled
bearing two male gametes and one tube cell or vegetative cell) and begin to germinate.
 Each pollen grain forms a small tube-like structure called a pollen tube which emerges
through the germ pore. The contents of the pollen grain move into the tube and the tube
nucleus occupies the tip of the pollen tube.
 The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style and finally enters the
ovule through the micropyle.
 The vegetative nucleus or the tube nucleus degenerates and the two sperms (or male
gametes), now occupy the tip of the pollen tube.
 The tip of the pollen tube passes through one of the synergids and bursts to release the two
sperms into the embryo sac.
 One sperm fuses with the egg (syngamy) and forms a diploid zygote. The other sperm fuses
with the secondary nucleus to form the primary endosperm nucleus which is triploid. Since
two types of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in an embryo sac, the process is
termed double fertilization.
 After triple fusion, the triploid primary endosperm cell develops into an endosperm.
Lecture note

Parthenocarpy: When fertilisation fails, seeds are not formed. But in certain plants, the ovary
develops into a fruit e.g. grapes, and banana. The phenomenon of the development of fruit from

24
the unfertilised ovary is called parthenocarpy and such fruits which are seedless, are called
parthenocarpic fruits.

8. RESPIRATION
Respiration is the stepwise oxidation of complex organic molecules and release of energy as ATP
for various cellular metabolic activities. It involves the exchange of gases between the organism
and the external environment. The green as well as non-green plants obtain oxygen from their
environment and return carbon dioxide and water vapour into it. This mere exchange of gases is
known as external respiration or breathing in the case of animals. It is a physical process.
The biochemical process, which occurs within cells and oxidises food to obtain energy, is known as
cellular respiration. Various enzymes (biocatalysts) catalyze this process. The process by which cells
obtain energy from complex food molecules depends upon whether or not oxygen is present in their
environment and utilised. Respiration is termed aerobic when oxygen is utilized and anaerobic when
oxygen is not utilized. In anaerobic respiration, organic molecules are incompletely broken down in
the cytosol of the cell and only a small fraction of energy is captured as ATP for use by the cell. In
aerobic respiration, the reactions of anaerobic respiration are followed by oxygen requiring process
that releases a much larger quantity of energy in the form of ATP. This occurs in the mitochondria of
the eukaryotes and the folded plasma membrane (mesosome) of the prokaryotes.
You need to note that several common processes occur in both, anaerobic and aerobic respiration,
such as,
 Oxidation reaction to release chemical energy from complex food.
Use of coenzyme as carriers of hydrogen to remove the hydrogen from the organic molecule
leading to reduction of the coenzyme and oxidation of the substrate. Most of the hydrogen carriers
are NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic (Aero = Air) Anaerobic (Anaero = No Air)
1 Takes place in the presence of 1 Takes place in the complete absence
. oxygen. .
of oxygen.
Lecture note

2 This leads to the complete 2 Incomplete oxidation of organic

. oxidation of the organic substrate. . substrate takes place.

25
 3 It is most common in higher
. organisms (both plants and
animals).
4 Takes place in the cytoplasm, and
mitochondria in eukaryotes and
plasma membrane in prokaryotes.
3 Takes place in lower organisms such as
.bacteria, fungi, and in higher animals
under limiting conditions of oxygen (e.g.
in muscles when oxygen present is
insufficient).
4 Takes place in the cytoplasm.

In plants, the atmospheric air moves in and out by simple diffusion that takes place through,the
general body surface of the plant (stems, roots, fruits and seeds);lenticels (openings in the bark
of the tree trunk stomata present in the leaves and young, green parts of the stems.

 Plants do not need an O2 carrier (in contrast to animals) where O2 is carried by the blood).
This is because O2 requirement is less in plants than in animals since the plants have a
large surface area (leaves) to absorb the required amount of O2 through diffusion.
 From the atmosphere, gases enter the intercellular spaces inside the plants. As O2 is
utilized, more of it diffuses into the plant. Since CO2 is being continuously formed, its
concentration in tissue spaces becomes higher than in the surrounding air. As a result, it
diffuses out of the plant, especially when it is not being used for photosynthesis.
 Can you explain why during the day, plants give out O2 instead of taking it up for
respiration?
In plants, O2 released during photosynthesis in the daytime is made available for respiration.
However, the rate of photosynthesis is higher than that of respiration. Thus, plants give out excess
O2 in the daytime. However, this release only CO2 at night as photosynthesis stops in the absence
of sunlight. Animals give out CO2 at all times.

Cellular Respiration
The oxygen that is absorbed in the body is used to oxidize the nutrients, viz., glucose, amino acids
and fatty acids completely producing CO2, water and energy. It occurs within the cells and tissues.
Note that the first stage in all these pathways is glycolysis.
Lecture note

Glycolysis may be subdivided into 3 major phases:

26
  Phosphorylation of glucose to fructose 1,6 diphosphate. This is the activation of glucose
and 2ATPs are used.
 Splitting of this compound into two 3- carbon sugar phosphates, which are interconvertible.
Note that this is the origin of the term glycolysis meaning splitting of glucose.
 Oxidation by dehydrogenation. Each 3-C sugar-phosphate is oxidized by the removal of
hydrogen, making a reduced NAD that is NADH and production of 2ATPs. This group of
reactions is believed to be one of the first energy capturing reactions that evolved about
three billion years ago in ancient bacteria and today it occurs in virtually all cells of all
forms of life.

ATP → ADP + Pi + 30.6 kJ

 Glucose + 4ADP + 4Pi + 2NAD → 2Pyruvic acid + 4ATP + 2NADH

 Two molecules of ATP were used up in the initial steps of glycolysis. Thus, the net gain of
ATP during glycolysis is 4 – 2 = 2 ATP. Also, 2NADH + H+ are produced.
 Thus, we see that only a small amount of energy is released at the end of glycolysis.
Fermentation
Further oxidation of Pyruvic acid requires O2 (as you will study soon). It then enters mitochondria
for aerobic respiration.
Under anaerobic conditions (or insufficient supply of O2) microbes, plants and animals carry out
fermentation.
Fermentation involves the reduction of pyruvic acid to ethyl alcohol and CO2 (as in yeast) or
lactic acid (as in muscle cells of animals) and oxidation of NADH to NAD+. Thus, NAD is
regenerated which can be used in the glycolytic pathway and production of 2 ATPs can continue
under anaerobic conditions. Note that there is no further release of ATP during fermentation.
The fate of pyruvic acid in aerobic respiration
You have already learnt how glucose is converted into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm
of a cell during glycolysis. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria and is
decarboxylated (removal of CO2) and dehydrogenated (removal of H) to acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA
is thus the connecting link between glycolysis and the next series of reactions that yield more
Lecture note

energy in the form of ATP. Acetyl CoA can also be generated from fats and proteins.

27
Krebs’ Cycle or the citric acid cycle
Acetyl CoA is the molecule entering the Krebs’ Cycle taking place in the matrix of the
mitochondria.Details of this cycle were worked out by Sir Hans Krebs in the 1930s. It is also
known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle or TCA cycle.
Summary of this phase in respiration
2Pyruvic acid + 8NAD + 2FAD + 2ADP → 6CO2 + 8NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP
 H-carrier NAD and FAD are derived from the vitamin B complex and are known
as coenzymes
 Acetyl group (2 carbon) enters the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate (4 carbon),
to form citrate (6 carbon). This initiates the citric acid cycle.
 As the acetyl group passes around the cycle, the 2 carbon atoms are lost in CO2 in two
decarboxylation reactions, and hydrogen is added to hydrogen carriers in four
dehydrogenation reactions, resulting in a total of 3 NADH2 and 1 FADH2 molecule.
The Respiratory Chain or Electron Transport Chain (E.T.C.) or Oxidative-Phosphorylation
The hydrogen carriers now move to the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. This membrane
has folds called cristae, which increase its surface area.
The hydrogen ions carried to the cristae undergo stepwise oxidation using molecular oxygen and
energy is released in a series of small steps. Some of this energy is used to make ATP from ADP
and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This is called oxidative phosphorylation.
Significance of Krebs’ Cycle and Acetyl CoA
(i) It is the major pathway to release reduced coenzymes and energy, in a
controlled manner.
(ii) It is the common pathway for the oxidative breakdown of glucose,
(carbohydrates), fatty acids and amino acids. The fatty acids undergo β
oxidation to produce acetyl CoA and amino acids from proteins enter
Krebs’ Cycle after deamination (removal of –NH2 group) of amino
acids.
(iii) Krebs’ Cycle provides series of intermediate compounds needed for the
synthesis of other biomolecules like amino acids, nucleotides,
Lecture note

chlorophyll, and fats.

28
Oxygen and carbon dioxide also pass through the cell wall and plasma membrane of the cell by
diffusion. The diffusion of carbon dioxide may be aided by aquaporin channels inserted in the
plasma membrane.
9. GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANT
In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants need a supply of carbon dioxide and a means of
disposing of oxygen. To carry on cellular respiration, plant cells need oxygen and a means of
disposing of carbon dioxide (just as animal cells do). Unlike animals, plants have no specialized
organs for gas exchange (with a few inevitable exceptions!). The are several reasons they can get
along without them:
 Each part of the plant takes care of its own gas exchange needs. Although plants have an
elaborate liquid transport system, it does not participate in gas transport.
 Roots, stems, and leaves respire at rates much lower than are characteristic of animals.
Only during photosynthesis are large volumes of gases exchanged, and each leaf is well
adapted to take care of its own needs.
 The distance that gases must diffuse in even a large plant is not great. Each living cell in
the plant is located close to the surface. While obvious for leaves, it is also true for stems.
The only living cells in the stem are organized in thin layers just beneath the bark. The
cells in the interior are dead and serve only to provide mechanical support.
 Most of the living cells in a plant have at least part of their surface exposed to air. The
loose packing of parenchyma cells in leaves, stems, and roots provides an interconnecting
system of air spaces. Gases diffuse through the air several thousand times faster than
through water. Once oxygen and carbon dioxide reaches the network of intercellular air
spaces (arrows), they diffuse rapidly through them.
Leaves
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf (as well as the loss of water vapour in
transpiration) occurs through pores called stomata (singular = stoma).
Lecture note

29
 Structure of Stoma

Normally stomata open when the light strikes the leaf in the morning and close during the night.
The immediate cause is a change in the turgor of the guard cells. The inner wall of each guard cell
is thick and elastic. When turgor develops within the two guard cells flanking each stoma, the thin
outer walls bulge out and force the inner walls into a crescent shape. This opens the stoma. When
the guard cells lose turgor, the elastic inner walls regain their original shape and the stomata close.
Opening stomata
The increase in osmotic pressure in the guard cells is caused by the uptake of potassium ions (K+).
The concentration of K+ in open guard cells far exceeds that in the surrounding cells. This is how
it accumulates:
 Blue light is absorbed by phototropin which activates a proton pump (an H+-ATPase) in
the plasma membrane of the guard cell.
Lecture note

 ATP, generated by the light reactions of photosynthesis, drives the pump.

 As protons (H+) are pumped out of the cell, its interior becomes increasingly negative.

30
  This attracts additional potassium ions into the cell, raising its osmotic pressure.
Closing stomata
Although open stomata are essential for photosynthesis, they also expose the plant to the risk of
losing water through transpiration. Some 90% of the water taken up by a plant is lost in
transpiration. In angiosperms and gymnosperms (but not in ferns and lycopsids), Abscisic acid
(ABA) is the hormone that triggers the closing of the stomata when soil water is insufficient to
keep up with transpiration (which often occurs around mid-day).
The mechanism:
 ABA binds to receptors at the surface of the plasma membrane of the guard cells.
 The receptors activate several interconnecting pathways which converge to produce
o a rise in pH in the cytosol
o transfer of Ca2+ from the vacuole to the cytosol
 These changes stimulate the loss of negatively charged ions (anions), especially NO3− and
Cl−, from the cell and also the loss of K+ from the cell.
 The loss of these solutes in the cytosol reduces the osmotic pressure of the cell and thus
turgor.
 The stomata close.
Open stomata also provide an opening through which bacteria can invade the interior of the leaf.
However, guard cells have receptors that can detect the presence of molecules associated with
bacteria called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). LPS and flagellin are examples.
When the guard cells detect these PAMPs, ABA mediates closure of the stoma and thus close the
door to bacterial entry.
This system of innate immunity resembles that found in animals.
Density of stomata
The density of stomata produced on growing leaves varies with such factors as
the temperature, humidity, and light intensity around the plant. It also depends on the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the air around the leaves. The relationship is inverse; that is,
as the concentration of CO2 goes up, the number of stomata produced goes down, and vice versa.
Lecture note

Some evidence:

31
 Plants grown in an artificial atmosphere with a high level of CO2 have fewer stomata than
normal.
 Herbarium specimens reveal that the number of stomata in a given species has been
declining over the last 200 years — the time of the industrial revolution and rising levels
of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Lecture note

32