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Bockheim y Gennadiyev 2000
Bockheim y Gennadiyev 2000
53–72
Abstract
Modern soil taxonomic systems, including Soil Taxonomy ŽST. and the World Reference Base
ŽWRB. for Soil Resources, classify soils using diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials.
Although these systems are based on genetic principles, the approaches used have de-emphasized
the role of soil processes in soil taxonomic systems. Meanwhile, a consideration of soil processes
is important for understanding the genetic underpinnings of modern soil taxonomic systems and
developing quantitative models of pedogenic systems. Seventeen generalized soil-forming pro-
cesses are identified, briefly discussed, and linked to soil taxa and diagnostic horizons, properties,
and materials in ST and the WRB. The processes are illustrated in simple diagrams and include:
Ž1. argilluviation, Ž2. biological enrichment of base cations, Ž3. andisolization, Ž4. paludization,
Ž5. gleization, Ž6. melanization, Ž7. ferrallitization, Ž8. podzolization, Ž9. base cation leaching,
Ž10. vertization, Ž11. cryoturbation, Ž12. salinization, Ž13. calcification, Ž14., solonization, Ž15.
solodization, Ž16. silicification, and Ž17. anthrosolization. The implications of soil-forming
processes on present and future soil classification systems and pedogenic models are discussed.
q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: pedology; soil genesis; soil classification; soil processes; soil taxonomy; soil taxon-
omy; World Soil Reference Base
)
Corresponding author. Fax: q1-608-265-2595.
E-mail address: bockheim@facstaff.wise.edu ŽJ.G. Bockheim..
0016-7061r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 6 - 7 0 6 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 8 3 - X
54 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72
1. Introduction
During the first half of the twentieth century, soil classification systems paid
considerable attention to soil-forming processes, beginning with the pioneering
efforts in 1903 of Dokuchaev Ž1948. and including soil classification systems
used in the USA from 1927 until the late 1950s Ž Marbut, 1927; Baldwin et al.,
1938. ŽFig. 1.. However, starting with the ‘‘Seventh Approximation’’ Ž Soil
Survey Staff, 1960. and culminating with Soil Taxonomy Ž ST. ŽSoil Survey
Staff, 1975. , soils in the USA and in countries adopting ST were classified with
quantitative properties, particularly morphological properties, delineated as diag-
nostic epipedons and horizons. Soil-forming processes were de-emphasized and
kept in the background.
A similar approach was used by the FAO-UNESCO Ž 1974. and more recently
in the World Reference Base ŽWRB. for Soil Resources ŽFAO, 1998. . In Russia,
soil taxonomic systems are converging with ST and the WRB as reflected in
schemes by Fridland Ž1982., Shishov and Sokolov Ž1990. and Shishov et al.
Ž1997. that emphasize soil properties Žsee Gennadiyev et al., 1995, 1996. .
However, some Russian, European Ž e.g., Aubert, 1968; Avery, 1973. and
Australian ŽIsbell, 1996. soil classifications continue to emphasize the soil-pro-
cess approach.
The movement away from an emphasis on soil processes was predicated on
the assumption that soil properties result from soil processes and are more
readily quantifiable than soil processes Ž Arnold, 1983. . Moreover, soil processes
were considered to be poorly understood, and specific pedogenic processes
Fig. 1. Historical development of global soil taxonomic systems. Note: soil classification in the
USA proceeded from a property approach to a soil-process approach and then back to a property
approach with the advent of the Seventh Approximation. Traditionally from a process approach,
soil classification in Russia has moved to a combined processrproperties approach ŽSibertsev,
1901; Whitney, 1909; Coffey, 1912; Gerasimov et al., 1939; Ivanova, 1956; Rozov and Ivanova,
1967; Glazovskaya, 1972..
J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 55
™ ™
to classify soils: soil-forming factors soil-forming processes diagnostic
horizons, properties, materials soil taxonomic system.
™
There are several advantages to a process-related emphasis in soil classifica-
tion. A process emphasis is useful as a framework for explaining the concepts of
soil classification, i.e., to show the genetic ‘‘threads’’ of diagnostic horizons and
taxa. Secondly, a process emphasis is consistent with modern quantitative
techniques in pedology, e.g., chemical mass balance and in situ solution
chemistry. Thirdly, a process emphasis enables forecasting of long-term bio-
spheric changes. For example, much of the current research in global earth
systems in which the pedosphere is recognized as a key part is process-oriented
ŽLevine et al., 1993; Lovelock, 1993; Kutzbach et al., 1996.. In addition,
mechanistic models of pedogenesis ŽLevine and Ciolkosz, 1986; Hoosbeek and
Bryant, 1992; Phillips, 1993. require an understanding of soil processes. Finally,
a process emphasis in soil classification is consistent with sustainable manage-
ment of soil resources. Accordingly, the objective of this paper is to identify the
key soil-forming processes and their relationship to soil taxa and diagnostic
horizons, properties, and materials and to illustrate these processes in simple
diagrams.
2. Approach
3. Results
3.1. ArgilluÕiation
59
60
Table 3
Soil-forming processes in relation to diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials by soil group in WRB ŽFAO, 1998.
Number Soil group Diagnostic horizon, Soil-forming processes Representative
properties, material horizon sequence
1 Histosols histic or folic horizon paludization H1–H2–H3
Fig. 2. Diagrams illustrating 17 key soil processes as related to the 12 orders in Soil Taxonomy
Ž1998. and the 30 soil groups in the WRB Ž1998..
3.3. Andisolization
3.4. Paludization
3.5. Gleization
12 soil orders in ST and at the great group level in Aridisols and Gelisols Ž Table
2.. In the WRB, gleization occurs in Gleysols and in some Plinthosols and
Planosols ŽTable 3..
3.6. Melanization
3.7. Ferrallitization
3.8. Podzolization
3.10. Vertization
3.11. Cryoturbation
3.12. Salinization
3.13. Calcification
3.14. Solonization
3.15. Solodization
3.16. Silicification
3.17. Anthrosolization
4. Discussion
Global soil classifications systems such as ST and the WRB are becoming
increasingly complex and difficult for persons other than experts to use.
Soil-forming processes not only provide the ‘‘genetic signal’’ for these systems,
but also they are a simplification of these complex systems. A general knowl-
edge of the major soils and an appreciation for their diversity and relation to the
soil-forming factors can be gained through an understanding of the 17 key
soil-forming processes.
68 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72
5. Summary
Acknowledgements
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