Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Lesson 7.4
Taxa and Nomenclature of the Linnaean Classification
System
Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 3

Carl Linnaeus 3
The Concept of Taxa 4
Taxonomic Ranks 4
The Process of Classification 6
Binomial Nomenclature 7
Format 8
Name Origins 9
Authority 10
The Importance of the Linnaean System 10
Uniqueness of the Name 10
Uniformity 11
Organization 12

Key Points 12

Check Your Understanding 13

Challenge Yourself 14

Photo Credits 15

Bibliography 15
Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Lesson 7.4
Taxa and Nomenclature of the
Linnaean Classification System

Introduction
Are you fond of eating desserts? What types of desserts are you most partial to? What
features do the desserts that you are most fond of have in common? You may notice, for
example, that you particularly like cakes. Some people, on the other hand, like candies or
other pastries. How would you classify which among the desserts that you eat are candies,
cakes, or pastries?

Classification is one of the most important functions that the fields of taxonomy and
cladistics have. Much like how you attempted to classify the desserts in the example earlier,
scientists also make an active effort to classify organisms based on their similarities and
differences. This lesson will focus on how biological classification is performed and why it is
important to classify organisms into groups.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the

Identify the unique/distinctive
following: characteristics of a specific taxon
● Explain the concepts involved in the relative to other taxa

Linnaean classification system. (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15).

● Define the concept of a taxon.

● Identify the proper ways of writing a
scientific name.

Warm Up

Organism Names 20 minutes

You may have noticed that organisms are usually referred to by different names. In the
same vein, some names refer to many different species. This activity will let you research
some of them.

Materials
● a cartolina sheet
● a device connected to the Internet
● drawing and coloring materials
● used paper for creating lots (items listed below)

Procedure
1. Divide yourselves into groups of five for this activity.
2. Your teacher shall create paper lots for each of the following items below.
● coconut ● crab
● sardines ● rambutan
● dahong-palay ● radish
● tawilis ● python

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

3. Randomly pick an item from the paper lots indicated above.

4. On a sheet of cartolina, draw the organism that you have picked.
5. Go online to research the organism’s scientific name, common name, and other
local names from different places.
6. Write these down in the cartolina beside the illustration.
7. Present your output to the class. Make sure that you take note of any similar names
between organisms or multiple organisms referred to by the same name.

Guide Questions
1. Which among the organisms above share local names with each other? Which of
them refer to multiple species?
2. What is the importance of being aware of an organism’s multiple names?
3. How can confusion be prevented between different species names?

Learn about It!

What are the concepts in the Linnaean

classification system?

Carl Linnaeus
Born Carl Linnaeus on May 23, 1707, in Sweden, Linnaeus
is now widely known as the father of taxonomy. His
contributions in botany, taxonomy, and other fields have
led to his works still being recognized today.

Perhaps the most notable of his contributions are the

following:
● He recorded descriptions on many known plant
species, with these descriptions still applicable in
today’s taxonomic knowledge.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

● He used his knowledge of plant anatomy and morphology to establish a system of

descriptions for their classification.
● He put forth a system of hierarchy for classifying organisms.
● He also put forth the binomial system of nomenclature, which gives two names
unique to each biological species.

The Concept of Taxa

Linnaeus considered the taxon (plural, taxa) to be a unit for the classification of organisms.
Each taxon, regardless of rank, describes a certain set of organisms that have been grouped
together on the basis of their similarities.

Note that the concept of evolutionary relationships was still not very well known during
Linnaeus’ time, which was a century before Charles Darwin. This means that the organisms
that were grouped together in the early Linnaean concepts of classification were purely
based on physical characteristics. Today, however, most taxa are classified on the basis of
evolutionary relationships.

Taxonomic Ranks
As was mentioned earlier, Linnaeus proposed a classification system based on a taxonomic
hierarchy. Linnaeus’ proposed system has been modified by other scientists over the
centuries, but the essence of this contribution still remains. Today, there are eight major
taxonomic ranks, which are as follows:
● The (1) domain rank, which separates organisms into the three-domain system,
includes the Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea.
● (2) Kingdom refers to the broadest classification that follows domains. Plants,
animals, and fungi are classified into their own kingdoms.
● (3) Phylum refers to the rank that follows a kingdom. This refers to the broad
classifications of organisms that share common characteristics.
● (4) Class, (5) order, (6) family, (7) genus, and (8) species, respectively, are all
classified as the lower levels or ranks in the hierarchy after the phylum.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

For all known species, each taxon in the hierarchy corresponds to a specific given name that
denotes its classification. As is seen in the photo in Figure 7.4.1 below, the names of the
classification for a red fox from domain to species levels are Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata,
Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae, Vulpes, Vulpes vulpes, respectively.

Fig. 7.4.1 This photo shows the classifications for the different ranks of a red fox.

If you look at the classifications for the ranks of other similar organisms, you may notice
that they may share similarities in the names for specific ranks. Comparing the taxon names
of the fox to the lion shown in Table 7.4.1 below, you may notice that they have several
similarities. Specifically, everything from Order Carnivora and above is the same. This means
that foxes and lions are related to each other as close as the order level.

Table 7.4.1. Different ranks in the classification of lions

Ranks Taxon Names

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Carnivora

Family Felidae

Genus Panthera

Species Panthera leo

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Another organism, the giant clam, is shown in Table 7.4.2 below. This organism is more
distantly related to both the red fox and the lion, with the lowest rank similarity seen in the
kingdom level of Animalia.

Table 7.4.2. Different ranks in the classification of giant clams

Ranks Taxon Names

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Mollusca

Class Bivalvia

Order Cardiida

Family Cardiidae

Genus Tridacna

Species Tridacna gigas

Also, note that the higher levels in the taxonomic hierarchy, from domain to species, are
arranged from most inclusive to most exclusive. The levels above the hierarchy are most
inclusive because of the number levels below it, as well as the apparently greater number
of organisms belonging to them. By contrast, ranks that are located at lower levels in the
hierarchy tend to be more exclusive because of the relatively lower number of organisms
they have.

The Process of Classification

Upon the discovery of potentially novel species, scientists follow specific steps in order to
establish the identity and uniqueness of these newly-discovered or newly-identified
organisms. These steps are performed in order to prevent confusion between similar
species and to formally establish the natural existence of the organism for the scientific
community.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Some of these steps performed in biological classification are the following:

● Comparison and description. After the specimen has been obtained and prepared,
descriptions of the characteristics, such as the morphological and anatomical
features of the organism, must be done. These will then be compared with the
characteristics of similar organisms in order to determine if the new organism is
indeed unique.
● Molecular evidence analysis. This can also be done concurrently with comparison
and description. Molecular evidence, such as DNA sequences, are used to determine
whether the organism is indeed novel.
● Naming. If the organism is new to science, then it will be given a formal scientific
name based on international standards. These standards vary based on whether the
organism is an animal, plant, or another life form. This will be discussed in further
detail later on.
● Classification. The novel species will then be classified into existing ranks or be
given a new one based on uniqueness. The evolutionary history of the organism will
also be determined in order to generate a more accurate classification.

Did You Know?

There are no prohibitions in naming a species after yourself if you
discovered it. However, the general consensus is that this act is
unethical.

Scientific names that contain the names of scientists are often named
after them by other people.

Binomial Nomenclature
Linnaeus is perhaps best-known for his proposal and use of the binomial nomenclature
system. As the name implies, the binomial nomenclature system uses two names to refer
to a species. Each species has its own unique binomial name. This means that a binomial
name (commonly also referred to today as the scientific name) will only refer to one
species and that species alone.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Did You Know?

Sharing specific epithets between organisms of different genera is
common. There are, however, rare occurrences of different genera
sharing the same name. When this occurs, however, the organisms
are never in the same kingdom. For example, the genus name
Prunella is used for both a genus of birds and an unrelated genus of
plants.

Left photo: Prunella vulgaris ; Right photo: Prunella modularis

Format
A binomial name is made up of two words, which include the genus name and the specific
epithet. These two, when used together, refer to a distinct species. Examples can be seen in
Table 7.4.3 below:

Table 7.4.3 Examples of genus names and specific epithets for selected species

Common Name Genus Name Specific Epithet Binomial Name

Orca Orcinus orca Orcinus orca

Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca Ailuropoda melanoleuca

Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi Pithecophaga jefferyi

Dwarf tapeworm Hymenolepis nana Hymenolepis nana

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Creating a binomial name is as simple as stringing together the genus name and the specific
epithet. There are certain formatting guidelines to be followed, however. Some of these
guidelines are the following:
● The first letter of the genus name should be capitalized. The first letter of the specific
epithet should not be capitalized.
● When encoded digitally, the binomial name must be italicized.
○ Example: Orcinus orca
● When written down manually, the binomial name must be underlined separately.
Space must not be underlined.
○ Example: Orcinus orca

Name Origins
The names for both genus and specific epithet are usually derived from Latin. This is
because Latin is a dead language, which means that the definitions of its words are now
unchanging. This is in contrast with modern languages, whose words still evolve to have
new definitions. The use of a dead language ensures that the descriptions used in a
scientific name are still applicable even as time passes. An example of these words can be
seen below in Table 7.4.4.

Table 7.4.4. An example of a binomial name and its word origins

Common Name Scientific Name Origins

Frangipani (Italian), Plumeria alba Plumeria is derived from Charles

Kalachuchi (Filipino (white-flowered species),
or Tagalog) Plumeria rubra (red-flowered
species)
Plumier’s surname. Charles Plumier
was a French botanist.
The term alba means white, and
rubra means red in Latin.

Aside from using words that describe the organism, sometimes, the scientific name may be
based on the place or locality where the organism can be found or a person who has made
a significant contribution to its discovery. An example of a scientific name being named after
a person was given in Table 7.4.4. On the other hand, an example of a scientific name being
named after a place is Naja philippinensis or the Philippine cobra, which is native to Luzon.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Why is it important to use a dead language to

standardize scientific names?

Authority
A scientific name, when used in publications, should include the authority of the name on
its first mention. The authority of a name refers to the person who first used the scientific
name. The way of writing these may vary based on whether the organism is an animal,
plant, or another life form. Examples can be seen below.
● Plant: Arum maculatum L.
○ The “L.” in this case stands for “Linnaeus.”
● Animal: Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)
○ The surname of the author and the year of description must be added in
parentheses after the binomial name.

There are also several governing conventions that establish the rules on the naming of
organisms and the use of scientific names. Some of these include:
● The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, which is abbreviated as ICZN,
governs the naming of animals.
● The International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants, which is
abbreviated as ICN, governs the naming of the groups mentioned.

The Importance of the Linnaean System

Classifying organisms into hierarchical ranks and giving them binomial names have several
benefits. Some of these include uniqueness, uniformity, and organization.

Uniqueness of the Name

All binomial names are unique. This means that a scientific name can refer to one species
of organisms and that species only. This can prevent confusion when referring to
different species of organisms.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Ailuropoda melanoleuca refers to the giant panda and nothing else. This binomial name is
unique to the giant panda alone.

Uniformity
The use of a binomial name is universal. This means that the binomial name is used by the
scientific community all around the world. This can prevent confusion because species
names tend to have local variations depending on the area.

For example, what we know as the maya in the Philippines are known as sparrows in
English-speaking countries. These, however, are known as gorrión in Spanish-speaking
localities and suzume in Japan. The term “sparrow” can also refer to a variety of similar birds
of different species. The accepted common name for the mayas we know in the Philippines
is the Eurasian tree sparrow. Therefore, to prevent confusion stemming from the use of all
these names, the binomial name Passer montanus would be better. This binomial name, like
all scientific names, is recognized internationally and is not shared by any other species.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

The Eurasian tree sparrow is one of the most common species of sparrows on Earth. They
are found in a wide range of areas and have different local names.

Organization
The use of ranks also provides organization regarding the relationship between organisms.
Looking at the respective hierarchical ranks can provide an indication of how closely-related
or distantly-related organisms are from each other.

Key Points
_______________________________________________________________________________________
● Carl Linnaeus, known as the father of taxonomy, had many contributions that are
still relevant today in the different fields of biology.
● The hierarchical system of ranking organisms begins with the highest level, which
is the domain, followed by the kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
species, respectively.
● All known organisms have a binomial name composed of the genus name and the
specific epithet. These comprise the standard scientific names of organisms.
● The ICZN and ICN establish the conventions for naming organisms.
● Referring to organisms by using their binomial names in scientific work prevents
confusion due to the existence of local or common names.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Features and functions of the Linnaean classification system

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the terms being described by the statements below.

1. This convention governs the nomenclature of animals.

2. This convention governs the nomenclature of plants.
3. This language is the most commonly used for binomial names.
4. This is the highest rank in the hierarchy of classification.
5. This refers to any group of any rank.
6. The name added to a binomial name indicating its first mention is known by this
term.
7. A binomial name is composed of these two names.
8. This rank is the highest common classification of animals, plants, and fungi.
9. This rank is the lowest level in the taxonomic hierarchy.
10. This format must be used in writing down a scientific name by hand.

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

B. Identify whether the scientific name given is written in the correct

way or not. Write good if it is and bad if it is otherwise.

1. Naja philippinensis
2. Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)
3. Mus musculus
4. Musca domestica
5. Panthera leo L.

C. Identify whether the statement given is true or not. Write true if it is

and false if it is otherwise.

1. Genus names cannot be shared even across kingdoms.

2. The uniformity of names used is a disadvantage of using scientific names.
3. The recommended language for use in scientific names is English because
definitions are still evolving.
4. Binomial names are different across countries.
5. All known organisms have a scientific name.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. What can you say about the evolutionary relationship of two organisms within the
same genus?
2. Why is it important to use binomial names in scientific work?
3. Why is the use of a modern language not ideal in naming an organism’s binomial
name?
4. Are organisms of the same species similar or different in terms of genetics? Explain
your answer.
5. Why is there a need for an established convention for binomial nomenclature?

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Unit 7: Taxonomic Concepts and Principles

Photo Credits
Prunella_vulgaris_-_harilik_käbihein by Ivar Leidus is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

Dunnock_crop2 by Smaljim is licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Bibliography
Berg, Linda R. Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment. Belmont, CA:
Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Hickman, Cleveland P. Animal Diversity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.

Miller, Stephen A., and John P. Harley. Zoology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2010.

Russell, Peter J. Biology: The Dynamic Science. Student Ed. Belmont, CA:
Thomson/Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Starr, Cecie, Ralph Taggart, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: the Unity and Diversity
of Life. Boston, MA: Cengage, 2019.

7.4. Taxa and Nomenclature of the Linnaean Classification System 15