Introduction
• The Sensors are devices that responds to a physical
SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
What is a sensor?
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity.
● Example: When you touch an object, sensors on your
fingers send signals to your brain so that it measures
temperature, and so your brain recognizes the object as
being hot or cold.
● The skin in your fingers contains millions of sensitive
nerve endings that can detect stimuli (physical
quantities) such as temperature.
● This stimulus is converted to neuronal impulses that are
sent via nerves to a specific region in the brain, which
interprets it as being hot or cold.
● The same happens with pressure and pain signals.
3 4
stimulus heat, light, sound, pressure, magnetism,
motion, etc , and convert that into an electrical signal.
• They perform an input function
• The Devices which perform an output function are
generally called Actuators and are used to control.
some external device, for example movement.
• Both sensors and actuators are collectively known as
Transducers. Transducers are devices used to
convert energy of one kind into energy of another
kind.
What is a transducer?
• A sensor is a device that senses or detects a signal. Signals are forms of energy, and
a sensor senses a signal by typically converting one form of energy to another. This
act of converting is also called transducing, and so sensors are also called
transducers.
è So, a transducer is a device that converts one signal to another.
• Examples: A microphone converts sound to electricity, a car speedometer converts
wheel rotation to a speed reading. These signals are sent to the computer (or the
brain).
è So, a sensor is also called a transducer.
Physics and engineering concepts are used to develop a variety of transducers, which you will learn
about later. For instance, a type of pressure sensor converts strain (stretch) into an electrical signal.
1
Sensors provide information to make decisions: Human Sensors
from stimulus to response } Your sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose and skin) provide information to your
brain so that it can make decisions. They work in a manner similar to the working
stimulus > sensor > coordinator > effector > response
of robot sensors. Your brain continuously uses the information that it receives
touch > pain receptor > nervous system > muscle > movement from your sensory organs to make your body function.
The sequence of steps above describes what happens when you touch } Five main human senses:
something hot—the stimulus is touch, the sensor is the temperature receptor ○ Your eyes allow you to see the world
○ Your ears allow you to hear sounds
on your finger that senses it and relays it to the nervous system (spinal cord
○ Your skin lets you feel objects through touch
and brain), which is the coordinator. The coordinator makes the decision of ○ Your nose lets you smell the many scents in the world
how to react, and then commands the hand muscles (the effector) to jerk back ○ Your tongue lets you taste
quickly. } Plus additional sensors in our bodies that you do not notice directly:
○ Sensors in the inner ear give the brain information about balance
In summary: We go from stimulus (touch) to response (movement of hand).
○ Sensors in muscles let the brain know body position
Do This: Sketch out the stimulus-to-response sequence for how this might be implemented in a robot. ○ Sensors throughout the body that detect temperature
Identify all the components, as in the example above . (Answers on slide 26) ○ and others…

5 6

Sensors & Transducers Role of Sensors in Mechatronic system

A sensor in response to a physical quantity
• The output signal of a sensor/transducer
/phenomenon such as force, temperature, speed, relates to the physical quantity to be
produces a corresponding proportional change in measured. Usually, the output of the sensor is
physical phenomena, such as electrical, desired to be an electrical signal .
mechanical and magnetic etc. • Sensors : A sensor in response to a physical
However, a transducer outputs usually in terms of quantity /phenomenon such as force,
changes in electrical parameters like temperature, speed, produces a corresponding
resistance/ inductance/ capacitance/ voltage/ proportional change in physical phenomena,
current. such as electrical, mechanical, and magnetic,
usually in terms of changes in resistance,
inductance, capacitance, voltage, and current,
as shown in fig 2.3.

2
 Sensing Mechanism Classification of transducers
It includes sensors and transductor or transducer which
receives energy from environment /system parameter or
its change to produce an analog signal.

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University University

Transducers Sensor Systems

• Transducer Typically interested in electronic sensor
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a – convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
corresponding signal with a different energy form • General Electronic Sensor
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc. – primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into
electrical signal
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer) digital values
real primary analog secondary usable
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
world transducer signal transducer values
– acquires information from the “real world”
sensor
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus • Typical Electronic Sensor System
input
sensor intelligent microcontroller network
real feedback
s ignal
sensor s ens or data
(meas urand) analog/digital signal processing dis play
world communication
actuator system

3
 Example Electronic Sensor Systems Primary Transducers
• Components vary with application • Conventional Transducers
– digital sensor within an instrument large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad – thermocouple: temperature difference
– signal timing signal timing
– compass (magnetic): direction
sensor memory display
– data storage
• Microelectronic Sensors
handheld instrument

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC – photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card • infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– multiple sensors displayed over internet – piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
internet
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
sensor sensor – chemical senors: O2 , CO2 , Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
sensor bus sensor bus
processor
comm.
PC processor
comm.
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
comm. card

Example Primary Transducers Displacement Measurements

• Light Sensor • Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
– photoconductor
• light à ΔR • Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
– photodiode movement through the heart (indirect)
• light à ΔI • Primary Transducer Types
– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors
– membrane pressure sensor
• resistive (pressure à Δ R) • Secondary Transducers
• capacitive (pressure à ΔC) – Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers

4
 Strain Gage: Gage Factor Temperature Sensor Options
• Remember: for a strained thin wire • Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– ΔR/R = ΔL/L – ΔA/A + Δρ/ρ – Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
• A = π (D/2) 2, for circular wire – positive temperature coefficients
D L
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
• Poisson’s ratio, µ: relates change in diameter D to – formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
change in length L
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
– ΔD/D = - µ ΔL/L
• Thermocouples
• Thus – based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps. à signal
– ΔR/R = (1+2µ) ΔL/L + Δρ/ρ
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

– G = ΔR/R = (1+2µ) + Δρ/ρ

ΔL/L ΔL/L

Examples of Thermocouple Materials Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor

• Platinum /30% Rhodium ---- 0 to 1800 • Sensor operation
– small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
• Chromel/ Contantan---- -200 to 1000 attached to ends of two optical fibers
• Iron/ Constantan--- -200 to 900 – light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
• Chromel/ Alumel---- -200 to 1300 – percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
• Copper/ Constantan----- -200 to 400 temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological implantation

GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason

5
 Photo Transducer Photo resistive Transducer
A photovoltaictransducer converts light energy into electricity directly at the The resistance of the photo resistive material decreases with
atomic level. Materials that exhibit this property are known as
photoelectric materials, and the effect is called photoelectric effect. increase in light intensity like potentiometric transducer.

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reserved. reserved.

Photodiode Photo transistor

The incident light energy excites hole –electron pair of A phototransistor consists of a light-sensitive CB junction, when
the photo diode allows to flow current in reverse base is exposed to light energy , base current flows
proportional to light intensity.
biased mode .

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reserv ed . reserv ed .

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 Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers Connecting Smart Sensors to PC/Network
sensor µC keypad • “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
signal timing
– e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Analog sensor memory display
instrument • Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D – PC card with analog and digital I/O
• 8-bit to 12-bit common – interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs • Communication Links Common for Sensors
• Digital – asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
– serial I/O – 1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol

• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze • RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
– can buy a chip to convert fromUART to RS232
• synchronous (with clock)
– synchronous serial comm.
– must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc. • serial peripheral interface (SPI)
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data – 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable
– must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc. – I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus
– frequency encoded • designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
– IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications

Sensor Calibration Types of Transducers:

• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
– offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
– nonlinearity: output not linear, with parameter changes Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer)
– cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature
• It is device that converts electrical energy
• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter into ultrasound.
– analog signal conditioning 7.000
• Ultrasound are sound waves above normal
– look-up table range of human hearing (greater than 20K
6.000
T1
– digital calibration
hertz).
5.000
1001
Frequency (MHz)

• T = a + bV +cV2,
1010
4.000
T2
• Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave)
1001

– T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; 1101

offset

3.000

back from surface, ultrasound transducer will

1110
– a,b,c = calibration coefficients 1111
2.000

• Compensation T3
– remove secondary sensitivities
1.000
turn sound waves into electrical energy which
– must have sensitivities characterized
0.000
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Temperature (C)
40 50 60 70 can be measured and displayed
– can remove with polynomial evaluation
• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

7
§ Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is applied
to it, same crystal can be used as an ultrasonic detector
§ Some systems use separate transmitter and receiver components
while others combine both in single piezoelectric transceiver
§ Alternative methods for creating and detecting ultrasound include
magneto-striction and capacitive actuation.
• Sound is transmitted through propagation of pressure
in air
• Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at 0oC and
343 m/sec at 20oC for dry air
• Digital signal processor embedded in sensor
calculates distance between sensor and object

Pulse echo
sensor

Transmit-Receive
sensor

• Piezoelectric crystals have property of

changing size when voltage is applied.
§Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency
• Applying alternating current (AC) across them
sound waves and evaluate echo which is
causes them to oscillate at very high
received back by the sensor
frequencies, thus producing very high
frequency sound waves.
§Sensors calculate time interval between
• Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to sending signal and receiving echo to determine
radar or sonar distance to object.
–Evaluate attributes of target by interpreting echoes
from radio or sound waves respectively

8
 Applications
Medical:
§ Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes) come in variety of
different shapes and sizes for use in making pictures of
different parts of body.
§ Doctors who perform ultrasound-guided procedures often
use a probe positioning system to hold the ultrasonic
transducer.
§ Technology can be used for measuring:
– Movement of robots for obstacle avoidance
– Wind speed and direction (anemometer),
– Fullness of tank, and speed through air or water
– Measuring amount of liquid in tank, sensor
measures distance to surface of fluid.
– Other applications include: burglar alarms, non-
destructive testing etc.

Inductive Transducers(LVDT) Working

• As the primary winding of the LVDT is connected to the AC power
supply, the alternating magnetic field is produced in the primary
Change in force /displacement causes change in voltage. winding, which results in the induced emf the secondary windings.
Main Parts:(i)Primary coil (ii) S1&S2 secondary coils (iii) movable • Let us assume that the induced voltages in the secondary windings S1
iron core. and S2 be E1 and E2 respectively. Now, according to Faraday’s Law,
the rate of change of magnetic flux, i.e., dØ/dt is directly proportional
to the magnitude of induced emf’s, i.e., E1 and E2.
• Hence, the induced emf in the secondary windings will be more if the
value of ‘dt’ will be low (dØ/dt ∝ E1 and E2), and the low value of ‘dt’
implies that the soft iron core present inside the LVDT is moving
faster.
• Thus, emf of large magnitude will induce in the secondary windings
S1 and S2 if the movement of the core is faster inside the LVDT.

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reserv ed .

9
 Null position in LVDT LVDT Characteristics
• When the physical center of the core is in line
with the electrical center of the coils, the
voltage in each secondary is equal in
magnitude, but opposite in
phase. Differencing the two secondary
voltages results in “zero” output volts. This is
the null position of the LVDT.

© Oxford University Press 2015. All rights

reserved.

Pressure Sensors
Pressure Sensors
Types
• Used to detect pressure of
fluids or gasses.
• Differential Pressure
• Technologies (many)
– Difference between two or more
– Strain gage
pressures introduced as inputs
– Piezoresistive
to the sensing unit
– Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) – 2 input
• Each sensor has a pressure • Absolute/Gage Pressure
range that it works in.
– Pressure relative to perfect
• Most have analog outputs vacuum pressure or set pressure
that need amplification (such as pressure at sea level)
– Some have built-in
amplifiers for direct – 1 input
connection into
microcontroller

10
 Pressure Sensors
Applications
• Measure pressure of gas or
fluids
• Measure altitude
– For planes or weather balloons
• Measure flow
– pressure sensors in conjunction
with the venturi effect to
measure flow
• Measure depth of water
– When measuring liquids, most
sensors are not rated to have
unclean liquids contact the
sensor components. A small
amount of air in the tube right
before the sensor will create a
barrier from the liquid.
Accelerometers
Applications
• Can be used to sense
orientation, vibration and
shocks.
• Used in electronics like the
Wii and iPhone for user
input.
• Acceleration integrated once
gives velocity, integrated a
second time gives position.
– The integration process is not
precise and introduces error
into the velocity and position.
Accelerometers
• Used to measure acceleration
– Common SI units
meters/second2 (m/s2) or
popularly in terms of g-force (1
g is earth’s gravity)
• At rest an acceleration will
measure 1 g in the vertical
direction
• They can come in 1, 2 or 3
axis configurations
– With 3 axis it gives a vector of
the accelerations direction
(after accounting for gravity)
Hall Effect Sensors
• Used to provide a Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed
noncontact means
to detect and
measure a
magnetic field
• Named based on
their use of the
Hall Effect,
discovered by
h ttp ://farm1 .static.flick r.co m/6 2 /22 772 900 6_fab8 8c16 68.jp g ?v=0
Edwin Hall in
1879
11
 How they work Applications
• Presence of magnetic field
• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
deflects electrons flowing
through a conductive Depiction of the Hall Effect – Used to determine position of cam shaft
material • Brushless DC Motor Control
– Sensors determine position of permanent magnet
• As electrons move to one end rotor
of a conductive material, a • Assembly Lines
potential is developed in the
– Shaft position and velocity sensors
direction perpendicular to
gross current flow – Contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
• This potential indicates the
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Hall_effect_
A.png – Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors
strength of the magnetic
field

Implementation and Words of Variable Reluctance Sensors

Warning • Used to measure speed and/or
• Sensors may be affected by temperature position of a moving metallic Industrial Variable
variation. Some sensors incorporate circuitry to object Reluctance Sensor
reduce this error. • Sense the change of magnetic
• Sensors may be directional, in which care must reluctance/resistance
be taken with respect to orientations of sensor (analogous to electrical
and magnet resistance) near the sensing
element
• Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence of http://www.motions ens ors .com/railwithoring2.jpg

ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic fields • Require conditioning circuitry

to yield a useful signal (e.g.
LM1815 from National Semi.)

12
 How Variable Reluctance Typical Application
Sensors Work • Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction
• A magnet in the sensor creates a magnetic control
field • Crank and cam shaft position sensors
• As a ferrous object moves by the sensor, the
resulting change in the magnetic flux induces Sensor Schematic
Installed on CV axle

an emf in the pickup coil

Variable Reluctance Sensor Construction

Typical Configuration

http://www.me.gatech.edu/mechatronics _lab/Projects/Spring07/Group1/dorthy6.J PG

http://www.ins tronics .com/images /s ensoronix/image.ds .drawing.vr.jpg

Interfacing Concerns Other Examples of various Sensors

§ Emf is proportional to the rate of change of

the magnetic flux. Accelerometer
Touch s ens or
Active pixel s ens or
Electrolyte–ins ulator–
s emiconductor s ens or
Las er dis tance
meas urement s ens or
infrared s ens or
Nitrogen oxide s ens or
Rain s ens or
Rain gauge
Touch pad
Trans ducer
Electromechanical film Level s ens or Reed s witch
§ Indictates the ferrous material must be moving
Optode Touch s creen
Air flow meter
Electronic nos e Light-addres s able Oxygen s ens or Res is tance thermometer
Alarm s ens or Triangulation s ens or
Electro-optical s ens or potentiometric s ens or Rotary encoder
for the sensor to generate a signal. Bedwetting alarm Parktronic Ultras onic s ens or
Ethanol s ens or Linear encoder Parking s ens ors Scintillation counter
Bhangmeter Variable reluctance
Fis h counter Linear variable differential
Pas s ive infrared s ens or Seis mometers
Biochip s ens or

§ Output voltage depends on velocity of

Flow s ens or trans former Pellis tor Sens or array
Bios ens or Variometer
Force-s ens ing res is tor Liquid capacitive Photodiode Sens or node
Breathalyzer Video s ens or
Gas detector inclinometers Photoelectric s ens or Shack-Hartmann

toothed wheel
Capacitance probe Velocity s ens or
Geophone M achine vis ion Photoionization detector Smoke detector
Carbon pas te electrode Vibrating s tructure
Hall effect s ens or M agnetic anomaly detectorPhotomultiplier Sniffer coil (detects
Carbon monoxide detector gyros cope
Hall probe M agnetic level gauge Photores is tor electromagnetic fields )
Vis cos ity s ens or
§ Performance may be reduced at slow speeds
Catadioptric s ens or
Heat flux s ens or M agnetometer Photos witch Soft s ens or
Catalytic bead s ens or Wavefront s ens or
Hydrogen micros ens or M AP s ens or Phototrans is tor Speed s ens or
Cationic s ens or Wheel s peed s ens or
Hydrophones M as s flow s ens or Phototube Staring array
Charge-coupled device Wired glove
Hygrometer M etal detector Piezoelectric s ens or Strain gauge
Chemical field-effect Yaw rate s ens or
Image s ens or M HD s ens or Potentiometer Stud finder
trans is tor magnetic reed s ens or
Inclinometer M icrobolometer Potentiometric s ens or Sulphur dioxide s ens ors
Carbon dioxide s ens or
Inductive s ens or M icrophone Pos ition s ens or Thermal s ens or
Colorimeter
Inertial Reference Unit M icrowave chemis try Pres s ure s ens or Thermis tor
Crank s ens or
Infrared point s ens or s ens or Proximity s ens or Thermocouple
Curb feeler
Infrared thermometer M icrowave radiometer Pyranometer Throttle pos ition s ens or
Current s ens or
Intelligent s ens or M olecular s ens or Pyrgeometer Tilt s witch
Defect detector
Lab-on-a-chip M otion detector Quantum s ens or Torque s ens or
Dis placement receiver
Lace Sens or a guitar pickup Net radiometer

13
 Typical Sensor Resistances High-Impedance Sensors

Factors Influencing the choice of

Conti..
Transducer.
8. Loading effects.
9. Environmental compatibility
1. Operating Principle 10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals
2. Sensitivity 11. Usage and Ruggedness
3. Operating Range 12. Electrical aspects
4. Accuracy 13. Stability and Reliability
5. Cross sensitivity 14. Static characteristics.
6. Errors
7. Transient and frequency response

14
1. Operating Principle: The transducers are
many times selected on the basis of
operating principle used by them. The
operating principle used may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo
electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be
sensitive enough to produce detectable
output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should
maintain the range requirement and have a
good resolution over the entire range.
7. Transient and frequency response : The
transducer should meet the desired time
domain specification like peak overshoot,
rise time, setting time and small dynamic
error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should
have a high input impedance and low output
impedance to avoid loading effects.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into
account when measuring mechanical
quantities. There are situations where the
actual quantity is being measured is in one
plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain
the expected input-output relationship as
described by the transfer function so as
to avoid errors.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be
assured that the transducer selected to
work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output
relationship and does not break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The
transducer should be minimally sensitive
to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
15
 11. Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness
both of mechanical and electrical 14. Static Characteristics :Apart from low
intensities of transducer versus its size static error, the transducer should have a
and weight must be considered while low non- linearity, low hysteresis, high
selecting a suitable transducer. resolution and a high degree of
12. Electrical aspects: The electrical aspects repeatability.
that need consideration while selecting a
transducer include the length and type of
cable required.
13. Stability and Reliability : The transducer
should exhibit a high degree of stability
to be operative during its operation and
storage life.

Dynamic Characteristics
•
•
Response time:
Time constant:
• Thanks
• Some slides are from Ref: Mechatronics by Dr.
• Rise Time:
Tilak Thakur
• Settling time:

• Selection of Sensors & Transducers:

Based on linearity, sensitivity, wide range,
accuracy, physical size, cost, reliability etc.

© Oxford
University

16