Ringelmann Smoke Chart

▪ A chart which has been used in air pollution evaluation in

assessing in degree of blackness in smoke emanating
from a source (chimney stacks from factories etc.)
▪ The observer compares the shades of grey (white to
black) with a series of shades diagrams.
 Nuclear Power – promises &
problems
 As the threat of global warming, non-renewable sources of fossil
fuels (petroleum & coal), non-reliable petroleum output from the
Gulf region, hydroelectric power is already heavily developed,
solar power technology is still lagging…. → develop non-fossil-
fuel energy sources through nuclear activity.
 Nuclear power → does not contribute to global warming,
there’s sufficient uranium to fuel nuclear reactors well into
21st.century, possible to extend nuclear fuel supply by
indefinitely through re-processing technologies.
 33 nations have nuclear plants.
 Some nations (France & Japan) main power → nuclear power
(78% & 60%).
 Nuclear power generates ~17% of world’s electricity.
Who uses nuclear power?
 HOW NUCLEAR POWER WORKS
• Nuclear power technology = to control nuclear reactions so that
energy is released gradually as heat energy.
• The heat is used to boil water & produce steam, which then
drives conventional turbo generators.
• Large plants, generating up to 1400 Megawatts.
 Fission = a large
atom of 1 element
is split to produce
2 smaller atoms
of different
element.
 Fussion = 2 small
atoms combine to
form a large atom
of different
element.
• In both fission & fusion, the
mass of the product(s) is less
than the mass of the starting
material, & the lost mass is
converted to energy (E=mc2,
mass-energy equivalence).
• The sudden fission/fusion of a
mere 1kg of material releases
the devastating explosive
energy of a nuclear bomb.
 All current nuclear power plants
employ the fission of uranium-235
(235=mass number=proton+neutron).
 The element uranium occurs naturally
in various minerals in Earth’s crust.
 Exist in 2 primary forms (or isotopes):
Uranium-238 (238U) & Uranium-235
(235U).
 Uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for
99.3% and U-235 about 0.7% of
natural uranium as found in the
Earth's crust
 The isotopes of a given element
contain different numbers of neutrons
but has same number of protons &
electrons.
 238U = 92 protons & 146 neutrons.

 235U = 92 protons & 143 neutrons.

Uranium

 It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4

ppm
 Common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten and
molybdenum.
 Occurs in seawater, and could be recovered from
the oceans if prices rose significantly.
 Uranium was apparently formed in super novae
about 6.6 billion years ago
 Its slow radioactive decay provides the main source
of heat inside the earth, causing convection and
continental drift.
 WHO HAS AND WHO MINES URANIUM?
• Australia’s resources ~ 30% of the world’s total.
• Others with significant uranium resources in order
are: Kazakhstan (16% of world total), Canada (12%),
USA, South Africa, Namibia, Brazil, Nigeria and Russia.
• Many more countries have smaller deposits which
could be mined if needed.
• Canada=main supplier of uranium to world
markets.
• Uranium is sold only to countries which are
signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty,
and which allow international inspection to verify that
it is used only for peaceful purposes
 U Enrichment
• After mining, the ore is ground & extract →end product=
uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8). This is the form in
which uranium is sold.
• next is to convert the uranium oxide into a gas, uranium
hexafluoride (UF6), which enables it to be enriched.
• Enrichment increases the proportion of the uranium-235
isotope from its natural level of 0.7% to 3 - 4%.
• Enrichment enables greater technical efficiency in reactor
design and operation, particularly in larger reactors, and
allows the use of ordinary water as a moderator.
 FUEL ROD
After enrichment, the UF6
gas is converted to uranium
dioxide (UO2) which is
formed into fuel pellets.

These fuel pellets are placed

inside thin metal tubes
(called fuel rod) which are
assembled in bundles to
become the fuel elements or
assemblies for the core of
the reactor.

When the uranium fuel has

been in the reactor for about
3 years, the used fuel is
removed, stored, and then
either reprocessed or
disposed off underground.
• TECHNICIANS READY THE CORE HOUSING TO RECEIVE
URANIUM FUEL ELEMENTS IN THIS NUCLEAR REACTOR.
 Fission
Reaction
• (a)Chain
Reaction.When a U-
atom fisses, it release
2/3 neutrons. The
released neutron then
hit another U-atom, &
this process repeat.
• (b)A chain reaction
leading to nuclear
explosion.
• (c)The extra neutrons
are absorbed in control
rods so that
amplification does not
occur
Nuclear Explosion
 WATER/DEUTERIUM/GRAPHITE AS
MODERATOR
• A CHAIN REACTION CAN BE ACHIEVED IN A
NUCLEAR REACTOR ONLY IF A SUFFICIENT
MASS OF ENRICHED URANIUM IS ARRANGED
IN A SUITABLE GEOMETRIC PATTERN & IS
SURROUNDED BY A MATERIAL CALLED A
MODERATOR.
• THE MODERATOR SLOWS DOWN THE
NEUTRONS THAT PRODUCE FISSION SO THAT
THEY ARE TRAVELING AT THE RIGHT SPEED TO
TRIGGER ANOTHER FISSION.
 THE NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
• HEAT FROM
REACTOR IS USED
TO BOIL WATER TO
PROVIDE STEAM TO
MOVE TURBO
GENERATOR.
• 1 WAY TO BOIL
WATER IS TO
CIRCULATE THE
WATER THROUGH
THE REACTOR.
• IN US, A DOUBLE-
LOOP IS EMPLOYED
(TO ISOLATE
HAZARDOUS
MATERIAL).
 Meltdown
• If the reaction vessel should break, the sudden lost of water
from around the reactor could result in the core’s
overheating.

• The lost of moderator-coolant water would cause fission to

cease.

• But the fuel core can still overheat (heat comes from the
radioactive decay in the newly formed fission products).

• The uncontrolled decay would release enough heat energy

to melt the materials in the core →meltdown.

• Then the molten material falling into the remaining water

could cause a steam explosion.

• To guard against all this, there are backup cooling systems

to keep the reactor immersed in water should leaks occur.

• And the entire assembly is housed in a thick concrete

containment building.
Containment
Building
Comparison of Nuclear Power with
Coal Power
• Nuclear power has some decided environmental
advantages over coal-fired power.
• Comparing a 1000-megawatt nuclear power plant with a
coal-fired plant of a same capasity:
• Fuel needed. Coal plant needs 3 million tons of coal.
If strip-mining → environmental destruction & acid
leaching problem; if deep mining → accidental deaths
& impaired health. Nuclear plant needs 30 tons of
enriched uranium (from mining 75,000 tons of ore).
• CO2 emision. Coal plant emits over 7 million tons CO2
(green house gas). Nuclear plant emits way less than
this amount.
Comparison of Nuclear Power with
Coal Power

• Sulfur dioxide & other emission. Coal plant emits over 300,000 tons
of SO2 & other acid forming pollutants (which must be captured by
precipitator & scrubber); also release low levels of many radioactive
chemicals found naturally in the coal. The nuclear plant produce no
acid-forming pollutants but may release low levels of radioactive
waste gases.

• Solid waste. Coal plant produces ~600,000 tons of ash, requiring

land disposal. Nuclear plant produces ~ 250 tons of highly radioactive
wastes requiring safe storage & ultimate safe disposal.

• Accidents. Worst case in coal plant →fatalities to workers &

destructive fire. Accident in nuclear plant can range from minor
emissions of radioactivity to catastrophic release that can lead to
widespread radiation sickness, scores of human deaths, untold
numbers of cancers, & widespread, long-lasting environmental
contamination.