Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Telephone Laboratories
M.M. Irvine
This article relates highlights from the digital computer development
activities at Bell Telephone Laboratories for roughly the period
1937–1958. The history begins with a researcher using relays to build
a binary adder on his home kitchen table, continues with relay
computers designed for military use, and culminates with computers
developed after Bell Labs invented the transistor.
It is my intent to convey the flavor of comput- tinguish between the terms calculator and
er development at Bell Telephone Laboratories computer. For example, one could take the
(Bell Labs) during the 20-some years following position that the Model I was a calculator and
Bell Labs’ entry into the digital computer era. not a computer because of its lack of a stored
In doing so, I describe various problems that program and other deficiencies depending on
Bell Labs was addressing and characteristics of one’s exact definition of computer. Also, I will
the machines developed as solutions. During not discuss Bell Labs’ telephone call-switching
this period, Bell Labs was AT&T’s research and machines.
development arm, and Western Electric was
AT&T’s manufacturing division. Western Model I
Electric and AT&T each owned 50 percent of Bell Labs’ entry into the digital computer era
Bell Labs, and AT&T owned 100 percent of occurred in 1937 when a research mathemati-
Western Electric. The combination of AT&T, cian, George R. Stibitz, noticed similarities
Western Electric, Bell Labs, and the telephone between circuit paths through electromagnet-
companies owned or controlled by AT&T was ic relays (used by telephone companies for
frequently referred to as the Bell System. switching telephone calls) and the mathemati-
In what follows I will not attempt to dis- cal binary notation for numbers. To explore
this thought over a weekend, Stibitz used some
relays to build a binary adder. This adder would
give, as output, the binary digits for the sum of
two one-digit binary numbers that were input
to the device. He called it the Model K, the K
referring to his kitchen where he constructed
it. Figure 1 shows a replica of the Model K that
Stibitz, shown in Figure 2, constructed in 1991
for George Keremedjiev, director of the
American Computer Museum. When Stibitz
demonstrated the device to his management
the following week, they were unimpressed
that relays could perform binary arithmetic.
However, in 1938, Stibitz was asked to
design an electromechanical relay digital
computer that could perform arithmetical cal-
culations using complex numbers. Samuel B.
Williams, a telephone system design engineer,
was assigned to supervise its engineering and
manufacturing. What had happened was that
Stibitz’s management had become aware that
Bell Labs’ computational staff was in an over-
Figure 1. G.R. Stibitz’s Model K binary adder. load situation and felt that a Stibitz-designed
(Courtesy of the American Computer Museum.) relay machine could help alleviate the over-
July–September 2001 23
Early Digital Computers
References
1. M.D. Fagen, ed., A History of Engineering &
Science in the Bell System—National Service in
War and Peace (1925-1975), Bell Telephone
Laboratories, New York, 1979.
2. A.A. Currie, “The General Purpose Analog
Figure A. Richard W. Hamming setting up a Computer,” Bell Laboratories Record, New York,
problem on Gypsy. (A History of Eng. & Science Mar. 1951, pp. 101-108.
in the Bell System Comm. Sciences [1925-1980], 3. E. Lakatos, “Problem Solving with the Analog
courtesy AT&T Archives.) Computer,” Bell Laboratories Record, New York,
the sidebar, “The Gypsy Computer,” for addi- knobs of the M-9, exactly as a person would
tional M-9 information. move them, in tracking an attacking aircraft and
During the development process, Bell Labs check to determine if the signals issued by the
found itself requiring test equipment that did M-9 would keep the gun accurately aimed.
not exist. This equipment would move the input Stibitz designed a dynamic tester for the M-
July–September 2001 25
Early Digital Computers
Table 1. Design characteristics of Models I to VI, adapted and modified from work by Andrews.9
* This column applies to the Model III before its modification in 1949.
** With multiplier specified in program.
***Very limited application.
machines’ useful work by estimating how many The Model VI was installed at Bell Labs in
people, while using desk calculators, would be 1950 where researchers used it to solve a large
necessary to perform the equivalent amount of variety of Bell Labs’ research and development
work. Stibitz estimated that the Model III did problems. It was the first digital computer I ever
the work of 25–40 people, depending on the saw in operation. In 1956, Bell Labs donated it
type of problem being solved, and that the to the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn where
Model V did the work of 225 people. it was used for research and instructional pur-
The first Model V was delivered to the poses. In March 1960, it was given to the Bihar
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Institute of Technology in India where, I was
at Langley Field, Virginia, in 1946; the second told, it was India’s first digital computer.
one was delivered to the Ballistic Research These relay machines had high reliability
Laboratories, Aberdeen, Maryland, in 1947. The and high accuracy, and they were able to run for
Aberdeen machine was later sent to an army long periods of time unattended. During their
site at Fort Bliss, Texas, and after a period of use entire working life, only two errors were ever
was donated to the University of Arizona. reported from all three Model V and Model VI
In 1958 the first Model V was donated to machines as a result of machine failure.
Texas Technological College. While on its way Stibitz1 has given a delightful account of his
to Texas, however, the truck transporting it involvement with these computers, and
tipped over, critically damaging the machine. Andrews2 has published a review of them. An
The damaged Model V served out the rest of its excellent account of the machines’ design and
life as spare parts for its twin at the University use can be found in Williams’s book.3 For still
of Arizona. more details, see the literature for specific infor-
mation on the respective models.4-8
Model VI Table 1 lists some of the machines’ character-
Bell Labs built one last machine of this series istics. Figure 4 shows the Model VI, and Figure 5
for its own use. Named the Model VI, it was a shows one of the remote operating stations.
simplified version of the Model V. It had only
one arithmetic unit and about half the number The AMA computer
of relays as its predecessor (4,600 versus 9,000). The success of these early relay machines
Additional features included the capability to encouraged Bell Labs to apply the same tech-
handle 10-digit numbers in contrast to the nology to an area vital to AT&T—the billing of
Model V’s seven-digit capability. telephone customers for calls made.
July–September 2001 27
Early Digital Computers
Figure 8. The assembler-computer, which consisted of 11 relay bays, The throwdown machine
one tape reader, and up to 14 tape perforators. (“The AMA Assembler- In developing the call-switching machines,
Computer,” Bell Laboratories Record, Oct. 1957, courtesy AT&T Bell Labs conducted extensive simulations of
Archives.) proposed designs to determine how well they
would perform under various telephone call-
cumbersome tape sorting system might seem ing patterns and traffic loads. These simula-
strange today. However, it was not until the tions enabled the design engineers to locate
Bell System Data Processing project (more bottlenecks in the system and better optimize
about that later) that Bell Labs decided to com- their call-switching design. The input to these
puterize the sorting operation. simulations was various calling patterns and
The AMA computer, shown in Figure 7, con- traffic loads.
sisted of four cabinets of relay equipment with To test the operation of a new switching
lamps and control panels, a tape reader, and 14 machine called the No. 5 crossbar, a manual sim-
tape perforators.12 ulation was run by a team using card files,
Although the just-described system may ledgers, and written records. Dice would be
seem overly complex and unwieldy, it worked thrown down during the simulation to make
well. At this time the Bell System had about 25 random decisions, which led to the following
million customers making nearly 200 million machine’s being called the throwdown machine.
calls per month. These calls had to be billed to In 1949, William Keister, Alistair Ritchie,
July–September 2001 29
Early Digital Computers
termed ATEWA (Automatic Target Evaluator As remarked earlier, the simulated defense
and Weapon Assigner). could be carried out either manually or auto-
Thus, officers would conduct the air defense matically. Manual override of automatic deci-
by using sophisticated displays and switching sions could always be made, thus permitting
facilities, with the possibility of carrying out comparison between manual and automatic
the defense automatically, using the ATEWA control of the defense.
computer but subject to manual override. It The GSS consisted of about 40 racks of
was further proposed that a gunnery system equipment and was probably one of the largest
simulator (GSS) be built to simulate the attack aggregates of electronic equipment up to that
and the defense response in order to compare time.
the effectiveness of manual and automatic The simulations carried out in 1950 and 1951
defenses against the postulated attacks. The proved to be very valuable, and, as a result, the
Bureau of Ordnance agreed with the recom- Navy asked Bell Labs to build a system for the
mendations, and Bell Labs designed and built USS Northampton based on the preceding work.
both the ATEWA and the GSS. The equipment, called the Gun Fire Control
The GSS had the capability of simulating System Mark 65, was installed in the ship and
attacks of up to 10 aircraft against a defense received extensive shipboard testing.
installation of four tracking radars and gun Although the equipment did an excellent job
directors, and four gun mounts. Target flight in controlling the gunnery defense, antiaircraft
paths were input by teletypewriter punched guns gave way to surface-to-air missiles. Bell
paper tapes. The targets would then be priori- Labs modified the defensive system to control
tized, either manually or automatically, by surface-to-air missiles, with one or two missile
estimated time to reach the ship. The most launchers per ship, keeping the track-while-scan
threatening targets would be assigned (manu- elements. Over a period of some 20 years,
ally or automatically) to the tracking radars and weapon director systems for air defense were
to the gun mounts that were most favorably sit- installed in 74 US combatant ships and in 20
uated to engage them. ships of seven foreign navies.16 The systems first
The real-time ATEWA computer consisted of used Terrier and later Tartar missiles.
multicontact relays and implemented defense Walter MacWilliams, in a 7 November 1999
strategies based on quantifying the threats of letter to me, relates that an important bit of
individual targets and the availability of track- serendipity occurred during these simulation
ing radars and gun mounts. Once an incoming runs:
aircraft was assigned to a particular tracking
radar and gun mount, simulated gunfire would The Simulator contained a great many vacuum
start. The simulated gunfire began after an tubes and electronic components and of course
appropriate slewing time delay, which repre- many component failures occurred, causing time
sented the time required to move the gun lost in locating and replacing the failed parts. We
mount from its initial position to the position became very sensitive to downtime resulting from
necessary to fire on the attacking aircraft. component failures! As a result, the design of the
The effects of gunfire on the attacking air- equipment that was to be installed in ships was
craft were simulated as well. A probability of kill subjected to a painstaking process of scrutiny.
for each shot, represented by the symbol p, was Electronic components were used at well below
established based on the aircraft’s flight path their rated voltages and power dissipations to min-
and the distance of the target from the ship at imize the chance of failure. In addition, account
that instant. A single-shot kill probability com- was taken of over-voltages that could occur from
puter calculated the probability that each indi- component failures, so that in many cases a circuit
vidual shot would destroy the aircraft being would not be disabled by even a single (unlikely)
fired at, as a function of the aircraft’s range for component failure. As a result, the equipment that
that shot. A separate computer, the Electronic was installed aboard ships had an unparalleled
Dice Thrower, determined, on a probabilistic record of reliability, leading to demonstrative affec-
basis, whether each particular shot would tion on the part of fire control personnel.
destroy its attacking aircraft based on the com-
puted kill probability of that shot. Data were The transistor gating matrix
accumulated on the success of that particular The GSS contained, as one of its compo-
simulated attack, and the attacks were replicat- nents, the first use anywhere of transistors to
ed to obtain statistical significance. No gun perform a circuit function other than one char-
mount would be eligible for reassignment until acterizing its electrical properties. It came about
destruction of the attacking aircraft was assured. in this way: MacWilliams, who had proposed
July–September 2001 31
Early Digital Computers
July–September 2001 33
Early Digital Computers
Table 3. TRADIC computers and the names they have been known by. TRADIC Phase One was developed to
explore the feasibility, in the laboratory, of
Computer Also known as using transistors in a digital computer that
TRADIC Phase One computer Feasibility Model TRADIC could be used to solve aircraft bombing and
TRADIC navigation problems.
Flyable TRADIC TRADIC Phase Two Flyable TRADIC was used to establish the
TRADIC Flyable Model feasibility of using an airborne solid-state com-
Flyable Model TRADIC puter as the control element of a bombing and
Flyable Research Model TRADIC navigation system.
TRADIC Leprechaun was a second-generation labora-
Leprechaun Second TRADIC Feasibility Computer tory research transistor digital computer
XMH-3 TRADIC Control Unit for XMH-3 System designed to explore the capabilities of new solid-
Flyable TRADIC state devices for airborne computers. It was also
XMH-3 Computer used to demonstrate that a stored-program con-
trol machine could be built using transistors and
to conduct programming and logical design
Table 4. The TRADIC Phase One Computer. Germanium point- research for digital computers to be used in real-
contact diodes were used for logic operations and other circuit time control loops in weapon systems.
functions. Point contact transistors were used in circuits to reshape XMH-3 TRADIC was to be a solid-state com-
pulses distorted by the logic networks. puter meeting military environmental specifi-
cations as the control unit for a bombing and
Component Description navigational system to be installed in a to-
Number of transistors 684 Bell Labs Type 1734 Type A cartridge be-developed Air Force plane, the B-68.
transistors Each of these four computers has been
Number of diodes 10,358 germanium point-contact diodes referred to by different names, as listed in Table
Word size 16 bits-serial. Each word was stored in a 3, and that has led to some confusion.
separate electrical delay line 16 The naming confusion extends to the
microseconds long. acronym TRADIC as well. Its origin is transis-
Number storage 16 addressable electrical delay lines. torized airborne digital computer; frequently,
Constants were input using toggle transistorized is changed to transistor.
switches. Many Bell Labs personnel, including
Addition or subtraction time 16 microseconds Morton, for example, detested the word tran-
Multiplication or division time Less than 300 microseconds sistorized. To them it implied that transistors
Digital-to-analog converters Two that converted numbers to voltages were merely substituted for vacuum tubes in
Clock 30 watts at 1 megacycle supplied by an older circuit designs. Of course, the solid-state
electron tube because no transistors machines were completely new designs.
were available which could supply this
much power at this frequency. The TRADIC Phase One computer
The TRADIC Phase One computer was built
to demonstrate successful laboratory operation
Although this machine did not go into pro- of a high-speed, general-purpose, solid-state
duction, the knowledge gained during its design digital computer together with input-output
and construction was applied to the Nike Zeus (I/O) equipment representative of its use as the
Acquisition Radar Data Processing System (a control unit of an aircraft bombing and navi-
track-while-scan system). That system used spe- gation system.24,25 General purpose here means
cial-purpose reporter-sorter and track-initiator the computer can add, subtract, multiply, and
computers. A general-purpose computer han- divide numbers and move them among its
dled the remaining track-while-scan functions internal units and I/O equipment, all under
such as data smoothing and tracking, a satellite control of any program that has been prepared
test, impact point prediction, and handover of for and inserted into it. The programs, which
targets to a precision target-tracking radar. controlled the machine, were introduced via a
removable plugboard. Table 4 gives a summary
The TRADIC project of some of its characteristics.
The other project begun in 1951, with more Felker led the development team and Harris
long-lasting and far-reaching impact, was was the supervisor reporting to Felker. The
TRADIC. This Air Force-sponsored develop- TRADIC Phase One computer was completed
ment program called for four versions of Bell in January 1954. It was the first large transistor
Labs’ solid-state computers. digital computer. Also, it was probably the
July–September 2001 35
Early Digital Computers
duced 65 of these systems for the Air Force’s B- neers reconfigured the TRADIC Phase One
66B aircraft. The control units were vacuum machine to withstand the aircraft’s environ-
tube analog computers. The Flyable TRADIC mental conditions, including vibration, shock,
computer was to be flight-tested with the radar and humidity, for example. Design changes to
portion of this system, with Flyable TRADIC the TRADIC I/O circuits were necessary so that
replacing the vacuum tube analog computer as the TRADIC computer could interface correctly
the control unit. with the radar portion of the K-5 system. Other
To achieve this objective, the Bell Labs engi- changes assured reliable operation in the
harsher environment. For example, Table 5. The Flyable TRADIC computer was a synchronous, binary, serial
the plugboards for entering programs computer with parallel multiplication.
into the TRADIC Phase One comput-
er would be unreliable in aircraft Feature Specification
operation and also too complex with Number of transistors 2269 (WECO 2N67)
the longer program. Consequently, 416 (WECO GA-52996)
George G. Smith developed a new Number of diodes 10,740
storage mechanism for programs by Word size 16 serial bits
using a Mylar sheet with punched Number of storage slots (variable) 52 serial delay-line storage slots
holes, a system reminiscent of Number of storage slots (constant) 80 fixed constant-storage slots
punched-card storage. Program store Mylar sheet with punched holes
Two Flyable TRADIC machines Addition or subtraction time 16 microseconds
were constructed, one for flight- Multiplication time 64 microseconds
testing purposes aboard a loaned Air Division time 304 microseconds
Force EC-131B cargo plane and the Program solution time 50 milliseconds
other for program development and Input/output 8 shaft-angle inputs
debugging in the laboratory. The 6 incremental inputs (slew and track)
operator’s position is shown in Figure 16 manual inputs (hand set and track)
15. Figure 16 shows the EC-131B 28 outputs (meters, servos, radar)
cargo plane with the equipment Clock 4 phase, 1.036 MHz
installed. Table 5 gives some of the Weight 1,193 pounds (excluding air conditioning)
characteristics of Flyable TRADIC. Size 39.5 cubic feet
Louis C. Brown, who did much of Power 450 watts
the Flyable TRADIC’s programming
and flight testing, has written an
Annals article giving a detailed account of the military real-time control loops.
system and of the issues encountered during its Initially, Felker led the development team and
development.28 Harris, a supervisor then, reported to him. Later,
Felker was reassigned to another Bell Labs com-
Leprechaun puter project and was replaced by Jack A. Baird.
Leprechaun, a second-generation TRADIC Six months later, Harris was transferred to the
computer, enabled Bell Labs engineers to fur- same project as Felker, and shortly after that, Jack
ther explore the capabilities of solid-state A. Githens was appointed Harris’ replacement.
devices for use in airborne computers. Much Leprechaun does not fit any discernible pat-
time was devoted to programming and logical tern, compared to the naming origins of other
design research for computers to be used in TRADIC computers, and the reason behind it
July–September 2001 37
Early Digital Computers
July–September 2001 39
Early Digital Computers
Table 7. The XMH-3 TRADIC computer’s proposed characteristics. puters, developed in partnership with Univac.
Five computers were to be built: one laboratory breadboard model, These new computers were used on the Nike
one flight test model, and three deliverable models for the B-68. Zeus, Nike X, Sentinel, and Safeguard inter-
continental ballistic missile defense systems.
Feature Specification
Program storage Punched-card storage as used in Flyable The Bell System data processing
TRADIC computer
Flight-plan storage Ferrite-core memory made nondestructible When transferred from the Leprechaun proj-
by the placement of permanent magnets ect, Felker was appointed systems engineering
near each core that should show a “1”. director of a project charged with developing a
This type of memory was referred to as a computer for the Bell System telephone com-
Shachell Store. Stored in this memory panies’ use in business operations. This com-
would be up to four flight paths in a puter, initially envisioned as a replacement for
flight plan, using a maximum of 30 fix- the assembler-computer, would use magnetic
and-aim points. Each fix or aim point tape instead of perforated paper tape to capture
required 161 bits. the call data. Later, under Felker’s leadership,
Variable memory storage Ferrite-core memory, minimum capacity of the charter was broadened to include some of
256 18-bit words the telephone companies’ business operations.
Logic circuitry DCTL as used in Leprechaun, although The organization to carry out the develop-
where Leprechaun used about 5,500 ment work was established in 1956, and the
transistors, this would be 10,000 computer under development was called the
transistors. Bell System Data Processing (BSDP). Initially, a
Computing cycle 0.25 second or less. Operation would be separate computer was to be used for the four-
asynchronous between start and stage tape-sorting operation discussed earlier.
completion. However, as the work progressed it became
Operation and address size 17-bit word (5 bits specify operations, 11 clear that the sorting operation could be
bits specify addresses and constants, and accomplished in the BSDP and a separate com-
1 bit indicates a program step that the puter would be unnecessary. Personnel were
computer cannot modify) drawn from the Bell System telephone compa-
Weight 273 pounds nies to aid in establishing the requirements for
Size 10,560 cubic inches of space the new computer. Many of the Bell Labs engi-
Power 160 watts neers who had experience with the earlier com-
puters were reassigned to the project, and this
is the project to which Harris was transferred
“Gypsy” sidebar) by Bell Labs’ Mathematics from the Leprechaun project.
Research Department. A favorite exercise was The requirements were established and the
to fly low over the English Channel toward the machine’s major components’ design was
White Cliffs of Dover, which gave the terrain under way when, in 1958, Bell Labs manage-
avoidance component a good workout. ment made the decision to cancel the project.
The XMH-3 TRADIC design relied heavily on A survey of soon-to-be-available commercial
the experience gained during development of computers convinced management that the
TRADIC Phase One, Flyable TRADIC, and telephone companies’ needs could best be met
Leprechaun. Major changes had to be made to by using commercially available machines.
meet the size and weight requirements as well as A footnote to this history is that shortly
the military specifications covering, for example, after the cancellation of the BSDP computer (it
humidity, temperature, and vibration. The com- had never had another name), Felker was trans-
puter’s major characteristics are listed in Table 7. ferred from Bell Labs to AT&T and later served
The Air Force, in April 1956, delivered a C- as operations vice president of New Jersey Bell
131B to Bell Labs to be used in initial flight test- before he retired to Spain to paint.
ing of the XMH-3 Bombing and Navigation Bell Labs then established an organization,
System. In the fall of that year, the Air Force reporting to a vice president, called Business
cancelled the 302A Weapon System project for Information Systems-Programs (BISP) for the
budgetary reasons. Additional information on purpose of developing software for commer-
the XMH-3 TRADIC can be found in the Third cially available computers for the telephone
Interim Engineering Report.34 companies’ business operations. Once again,
The digital technology developed on this engineers from the telephone companies were
project and the projects discussed earlier were assigned to Bell Labs to aid in establishing sys-
used as the basis for a series of new digital com- tem requirements, and Felker was coaxed out
July–September 2001 41
Early Digital Computers
Offices,” Bell Laboratories Record, New York, Dec. the History of Computing, vol. 21, no. 4, Oct.-Dec.
1951, pp. 565-570. 1999, pp. 55-61.
11. G.G. Drew, “The AMA Assembler,” Bell Laborato- 29. J.A. Githens, “The TRADIC Leprechaun
ries Record, New York, May 1952, pp. 227-232. Computer,” Proc. Eastern Joint AIEE-IRE Computer
12. A.E. Hague, “The AMA Computer,” Bell Laborato- Conf., 1956, pp. 29-33.
ries Record, New York, July 1952, pp. 289-294. 30. J.A. Baird, “Leprechaun Computer,” Bell Laborato-
13. J. Meszar, “Basic Features of the AMA Center,” ries Record, New York, Feb. 1960, pp. 58-63.
Bell Laboratories Record, New York, Feb. 1952, 31. “TRADIC Computer Research (Second Stage),”
pp. 70-74. Summary Eng. Report 1, Dec. 1958, AD-208621,
14. T.C. Rehm, “The AMA Assembler-Computer,” Bell J.A. Githens and M. J. Gilmartin, eds.; TRADIC
Laboratories Record, New York, Oct. 1957, pp. Computer Research (Second Stage),” Summary
423-427. Eng. Report, Supplement: Leprechaun, A Solid-State
15. G.R. Frost, W. Keister, and A.E. Ritchie, “A Throw- Digital Computer, 1 Dec. 1958, Contract
down Machine for Telephone Traffic Studies,” AF33(600)-34977, U.S. Air Force, Air Materiel
The Bell System Tech. J., vol. 32, no. 2, Mar. 1953, Command, AD-208622, J.A. Githens and M. J.
pp. 292-359. Gilmartin, eds. Also, Tradic Computer Research
16. M.D. Fagen, ed., A History of Engineering & Program Supplement I, A Handbook of Direct-
Science in the Bell System—National Service in War Coupled Transistor Logic Circuitry, 1 June 1957,
and Peace (1925-1975), Bell Telephone Laborato- Reporting Period 1 Feb. 1954 to 31 Dec. 1956,
ries, New York, 1978. Contract AF33(600)-21536, US Air Force, Air
17. W.H. MacWilliams, “A Transistor Gating Matrix Materiel Command.
for a Simulated Warfare Computer,” Bell Labora- 32. J.R. Harris, “Direct Coupled Transistor Logic Cir-
tories Record, New York, Mar. 1957, pp. 94-99. cuitry,” IRE Trans. Electronic Computers, vol. EC-7,
18. Transistor Technology, H.E. Bridgers, J.H. Scaff, no. 1, Mar. 1958.
and J.N. Shive, eds., vols. 1, 2, and 3, Van 33. J.A. Baird et al., “TRADIC Computer Research Pro-
Nostrand, New York, 1958. gram,” Summary Eng. Report, US Air Force, Air
19. J.R. Harris, “A Transistor Shift Register and Serial Materiel Command, Washington, D.C., 1 June
Adder,” Proc. Inst. of Radio Engineers (IRE), New 1957.
York, Nov. 1952, pp. 1597-1602. 34. Bell Telephone Laboratories, XHM-3 System Third
20. J.R. Harris, “The Earliest Solid-State Digital Com- Interim Engineering Report, Air Materiel
puters,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Command, USAF, Washington, D.C., 15 Nov.
vol. 21, no. 4, 1999, pp. 49-54. 1956, AD-115 302.
21. J.H. Felker, “Regenerative Amplifier for Digital
Computer Applications,” Proc. IRE, Nov. 1952, M.M. Irvine retired from Bell Labs in 1984, which he
pp. 1584-1596. joined in 1955 after teaching physics at Lehigh
22. J.A. Baird, “Military Applications,” Bell Laborato- University, following service in World War II as a
ries Record, June 1958, pp. 221-225. radio officer for the merchant marine. His responsi-
23. W.A. Cornell, “A Special-Purpose Solid-State bilities at Bell Labs focused on software development
Computer Using Sequential Access Memory,” for various ballistic missile defense systems and, later,
Proc. Western Joint AIEE-IRE Computer Conf., Mar. for the Bell System operating companies. He served
1959, pp.74-79. on the editorial board of the Bell Laboratories Record
24. J.H. Felker, “Performance of TRADIC Transistor from 1978 to 1983. Irvine received a BS in engineer-
Digital Computer,” Proc. Eastern Joint AIEE-IRE ing physics from Montana State College and an MS
Computer Conf., ”Performance of TRADIC Transis- and a PhD in physics from Lehigh University. He is a
tor Digital Computer,” Computers and Automation, Senior Life member of the IEEE, a member of the
vol. 4, no. 1, Jan. 1955, p. 16 (abstract). American Physical Society, and of the American
25. J.R. Harris, “TRADIC: The First Phase,” Bell Labora- Association of Physics Teachers.
tories Record, vol. 36, Sept. 1958, pp. 330-334. Contact M.M. Irvine at 511 South Willson Ave.,
26. W.H.T. Holden, US Patent No. 2,299,898; Patent Bozeman, MT 59715; email mmirvine@montanadsl.
and Trademark Office, Washington, D.C., filed 16 net.
Oct. 1941; issued 27 Oct. 1942.
27. A.W. Horton, US Patent No. 2,244,700; Patent
and Trademark Office, Washington, D.C., filed 21
Sept. 1939; issued 10 June 1941. For further information on this or any other com-
28. L.C. Brown, “Flyable TRADIC—The First Airborne puting topic, please visit our Digital Library at
Transistorized Digital Computer,” IEEE Annals of http://computer.org/publications/dlib.