FEEDBACK AND CONTROL

SYSTEMS
SYSTEM MODELLING:
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
Modeling in the Frequency Domain
• Electrical System
• Equivalent circuits for the electric networks usually consist of three basic passive components: resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. The table below summarizes the components and the relationships
between voltage and current and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.

v(t) = V (volts)
i(t) = A (amps)
q(t) = Q (coulombs)
C = F (farads)
R = Ω (ohms)
G = (mhos)
L = H (henries)
• Kirchhoff’s Law

• Kirchhoff’s law is the basic guiding principle in simple and complex circuit
analysis. It is divided into two laws: current law and voltage law.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law: At any node, the sum of the currents that enter the
node is equal to the sum of the currents that leave from the node.

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The sum of all voltage drops around a closed loop is
zero.
• Mesh Analysis

• It provides another common method in analyzing electric circuits, using

mesh currents as the circuit variables.

• Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is

convenient and reduces the number of equations that to be solved
simultaneously.

• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
• Steps in Solving Electrical Networks using Mesh Analysis
• Replace passive element values with their impedances.
• Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
• Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
• Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
• Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
• Form the transfer function.
Example
Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s), to the input voltage
Changing variables from current to charge using i(t)=dq(t)/dt
d 2 q(t ) dq(t ) 1
L 2
R  q(t )  v(t )
dt dt C
From q(t) = CvC(t)
d 2vC (t ) dv (t )
LC 2
 RC C  vC (t )  v(t )
dt dt

Taking the Laplace transform and assuming

zero initial conditions,
Summing the voltages around
the loop, assuming zero initial LCs 2
 RCs  1VC ( s)  V ( s )
conditions. Solving for the Transfer function VC(s) / V(s)
t
di (t ) 1
L  Ri (t )   i  d  v(t ) VC s  1 LC
dt C0 
V s  s 2  R s  1
L LC
Simplifying the solution for future problems.

1. Take the Laplace Transform of the equations 2. Define the following transfer function:
in the voltage-current column, assuming zero
V s 
initial conditions.  Z s 
I s 
For the capacitor,
1 [Sum of impedances]I(s) = [Sum of applied voltages]
V s   I s 
Cs  1 
 Ls  R   I s   V s 
 Cs 
For the resistor,

V s   RI s 

For the inductor

V s   LsI s 
 Solving for I(s)/V(s),

I s  1

V s   1  Equation 1
 Ls  R  
 Cs 

But the voltage across the capacitor, Vc(s), is the product of the
current and the impedance of the capacitor. Thus,
1
 1 
 Ls  R   I s   V s  Vcs   I s  Equation 2
 Cs  Cs

Solving Equation 2 for I(s) into Equation 1, and simplifying yields the
same.
VC s  1 LC

V s  s 2  R s  1
L LC
• Mesh Analysis Application in Complex Electrical Networks

• Mesh Analysis can be applied to find the transfer function of complex

circuits. The number of simultaneous equations is equal to the number of
circuit branches whose current is unknown.
• Steps in Solving Complex Electrical Networks using Mesh Analysis

• Change the source and all passive component time variables with their
Laplace transform.
• Place a transform current loop in each mesh.
• Apply the Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
• Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
• Form the transfer function.
• Nodal Analysis

• It provides a common method for analyzing electric circuits using node

voltages as the circuit variables.

• Using node voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the

number of equations that are needed to be solved simultaneously.
• Steps in Solving Electrical Networks using Nodal Analysis
• Replace passive element values with their admittances.
• Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
• Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources.
• Write Kirchhoff’s current law at each node.
• Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
• Form the transfer function.
Example: Nodal Analysis
VC ( s) VC ( s )  V ( s )
 0
1 / Cs R  Ls

Arranging the derived equation:

1
VC ( s)R  Ls   VC ( s )  V ( s )  1 1 VC ( s) 1
Cs  R  Ls  Cs VC ( s) V ( s) 
 1   Cs V ( s)  1 
Cs R  Ls  
 R  Ls   1   1 
 Cs   R  Ls   R  Ls   Cs 
 Cs   Cs 
1 1
RVC ( s)  LsVC ( s )  VC ( s )  V ( s ) 1 1
Cs Cs V ( s)R  Ls  VC ( s)

1
 1  Cs Cs V ( s) RCs  LCs 2  1
 R  Ls  VC ( s ) 
 1  1
 Cs   R  Ls  R  Ls 
 Cs  Cs
 1 1
 R  Ls  Cs VC ( s )  Cs V ( s) VC ( s)Cs

1
 1  V ( s)  1 
 R  Ls   R  Ls  
 Cs 
 Cs 
By Voltage Division
1
VC ( s )  Cs V s 
 1 
 R  Ls  
 Cs 

1
VC ( s) Cs

V ( s)  1 
 R  Ls  
 Cs 

VC ( s)Cs 1

V ( s)  1 
 R  Ls  
 Cs 

VC ( s) 1

V ( s)  1 
Cs R  Ls  
 Cs 

VC ( s) 1

V ( s) RCs  LCs 2  1
Operational Amplifiers
• An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier used as
a basic building block to implement transfer functions.

• Operational Amplifiers Characteristics

• Differential input, v2(t) – v1(t).
• High input impedance, Zi = ∞ (ideal)
• Low output impedance, ZO = 0 (ideal)
• High constant gain amplification, A = ∞ (ideal)
• The output, vO(t), is given by vO(t) = A(v2(t) – v1(t))
Inverting Operational Amplifier
• Input is applied through a series impedance, Z1(s), to the
inverting (-) input.
• The output is fed back through Z2(s) to the same input.
• The noninverting(+) input is grounded
• The transfer function is given by
VO ( s) Z 2 ( s)

Vi ( s) Z1 ( s )
• Steps in Solving Inverting Operational Amplifier
• Combine all series or parallel impedances in the input and at the
feedback section of the non-inverting op-amp.
• Apply the general formula of inverting op-amp.
• Find the transfer function.
 Find the transfer function, V0(s)/Vi(s), for the circuit given
Z2
Recall: VO ( s ) Z ( s)
 2
Z1 Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )
1 1 360 x103
Z1 ( s )   
1 1 2.016s  1
C1s  5.6 x10 6 s 
R1 360 x103
1 10 7
Z 2 ( s )  R2   220 x10 
3

C2 s s

VO ( s ) s 2  45.95s  22.55
 1.232
Vi ( s ) s
Noninverting Operational Amplifier
Find the transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) for the circuit:
VO ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )

Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s ) 1
Z1 ( s)  R1 
C1s

Z2 R2 1 / C2 s 
Z 2 ( s) 
R2  1 / C2 s 

VO ( s ) C2C1 R2 R1s 2  C2 R2  C1 R2  C1 R1 s  1


Z1 Vi ( s ) C2C1 R2 R1s 2  C2 R2  C1 R1 s  1