Pre Course - ECSE1102 Lecture Notes - AC Circuits and Op Amps

ECSE1102
AC CIRCUITS
Contents
• AC in R, RL, RC and RLC circuits
• The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
• Electrical filters
• Basic wireless communication
Faculty of Engineering UWI Mona

ECSE1102: Engineering Circuit Analysis and Devices Slide 2
Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor
Resistor resistance Capacitor capacitance Inductor Inductance
Stores electric energy: Q = CV Stores Magnetic energy

Resistance remains constant with
(static case)
Frequency
Unit of inductance: Henry
Unit of capacitance: Farads
R Reactance = X L  2fL ohms
(Ω) Reactance = XC  1 ohms
2fC As freq increase, X L increases
As freq increase, Xc decrease Linearly
Xc XL
(Ω) (Ω)
C shorts at high
frequency
freq
freq
d
The charge, q, and current I is freq vL  Li L (t )  L di (t )
The thicker a wire the smaller dt dt
Related by: or
Its resistance and greater its dq (t ) d dv t
iC   (Cv C )  C C 1
Current carrying capacity dt dt dt i L (t )  i L (0) 
L v
0
L (t / ) dt
Faculty of Engineering UWI Mona ECSE1102: Engineering Circuit Analysis and Devices
3
AC through circuits containing Resistance Only
i
Let v  Vm sin t 
Instantaneous value of current flowing is VR
v V sin t  Vm v I
i   m  sin t 
R R R
i  I m sin t 
Voltage and
Current are
in Phase
4
AC through circuits containing Resistance Only
Power: Power drawn by this circuit at any instant is the product of the instantaneous
voltage and current.
p  v  i  Vm sin t  I m sin t
P  Vm I m sin 2 t
average _ power _ for _ 1 _ cycle _ is
2
1
P
2  pd
0
2
1
 d   t
2
P V m I m sin
2 0
2
V I  1  cos 2 
P m m
2 0  2
 d

......
Vm I m V I
P  m . m  I .V _ Watts
2 2 2
Power Factor: The power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle
between voltage and current i.e.
cos   cos 0  1 _(unity )
Faculty of Engineering UWI Mona ECSE1102: Engineering Circuit Analysis and Devices 5
AC through Pure Inductive Circuit
If I is the instantaneous current flowing through the
i
Circuit, then
di v  Vm sin t 
v  L.
dt
Integrating both sides w.r.t. time
1
i
L  vdt  v  Vm sin t
v
1 V   cos t  Vm
i   Vm sin t  m     cos t  L  X L Phasor diagram
L L    L
i
   
i  I m sin  t   Therefore, Current lags Voltage by 90 o
  2 
Power:
p  v  i  Vm sin   I m sin   90  Vm I m sin  cos
Average power for 1 cycle is:
2 2
1  Vm I m sin 2
P
2 
0
pd 
2 0 2 d  0 i.e., a pure inductor does not consume any
Real power.
Its power factor is cos90 = 0
6
AC through Pure Capacitive Circuit
The voltage across the capacitor is:
i
1 dv 1
V   idt current _ flowing _ is :  .i
C dt C
dv d  v  Vm sin t 
i  C.  C  Vm sin t   C.Vm .. cos t
dt  dt 
1 Vm
but C  and  Im
XC XC I
therefore I leads V
i  I m cos t  I m sin(t  90 o )
Therefore the current in a pure capacitor leads voltage

The voltage by by 90o V
Power Power Factor

p  v  i  Vm sin  .I m cos   Vm I m sin  cos  In a pure capacitive Circuit the phase angle
between the voltage and current is 90o lead.
therefore,
Average power for 1 cycle Power Factor = cos90 = 0
2 2
1 1 sin 2
P 
2 0
V m I m sin  cos  
2
.
V m I m 
0
2
d  0
Therefore the pure cspacitor does not consume any real power.
7
AC through RL Circuit
At any instant, the applied voltage across the circuit
Is:
V  V R  V L  IR  jIX L  I R  jX L  VR VL
V
 R  jX L  Z
I
Z = R + jXL may be represented by a right angle

Triangle, or the voltage triangle
Since series circuit, the same current I flows through R and L
C 2 2 2
V  VR  VL
V  VR2  VL2  ( I 2 R 2  ( I 2 X L2 )  I R 2  X L2
I .Z
V
= V
 Z  R 2  X L2
VL = IXL I
From _ the _ triangle
X L L Re ac tan ce
 tan    
R R Re sis tan ce
A V = IR B
 Is the phase angle between the voltage and the current
8
AC through RL Circuit
Power:
Reactive Power
Using I as the reference Vector. Current I may be Reactive power is consumed when
resolve into two components. An active or real the current component that is in
component Ia which in phase with Vand a reactive quadrature with V flows though the
or quadrature component, Ir, which is at right RL circuit:
angles to I. Therefore: V
XL
I a  I cos  and I r  I sin  Preactive  VI a  VI sin  , but sin  
Z
Ia
therefore XL V
Preactive  VI   I  XL  I2XL
I 2  I a2  I r2  Z Z
I
I  I a2  I r2
The Actual Power Ir

The real or actual power is consumed in a
circuit when the current and voltage are in
phase
R
Pactive  VI a  VI cos  , but cos  
Z
R V
P  VI    I  R  I 2 R
Z Z
9
AC through RC Circuit
V  V R  VC  IR  jIX C  I R  jX C  VR VC
V
 R  jX C  Z
I
A B
 V = IR V 2  VR2  VC2
V V  VR2  VC2  ( I 2 R 2  ( I 2 X C2 )  I R 2  X C2
=
I. Z
VC = IXC V
 Z  R 2  X C2
I
From _ the _ triangle
1
XC 1
tan    C 
R R CR
The phase angle lies between 0 and -90 o. Here, Z = R –jXC = Z - -
10
AC through RC Circuit
Power: As in the case of R-L series, the power consist of two components. The actual power component and
the reactive or quadrature component
Actual Power = VIa = VI cos  Reactive or quadratic power = V Ir= V I sin 
Waveform:
The current and the voltage waveform is shown:
Pactive  I 2 R
Preactive  I 2 X C
If v  Vm sin t Is the applied wave, then
i  I m sin(t   ) Is the current equation

Vm
where Im 
Z
11
AC Through RLC Circuit
Voltage across R = I R
Voltage across L = I XL = + j I XL ….. V leads I by 90o
Voltage across C = I XC = - j I XC …. V lags I by 90o
v  Vm sin t 
The Applied Voltage is
V  V R  V L  VC  IR  jIX L  jIX C
V  I R  j  X L  X C  Phasor Diagram
V
 R  j X L  X C  VL = IXL If XL > XC  RL Circuit
I
V = IR If XL < XC  RC Circuit
R 2  X L  X C 
2
Z 
If XL = XC  Circuit is
resistive since reactive
V V components cancel out.
I   VC = IXC
Z R  X L  X C 
2 2
12
Phasor Diagram
Case 1: if XL > XC Case 1: if XC > XL
The circuit will behave like a RL circuit

The circuit will behave like a RC circuit since XC
since XL will dominate.
will dominate.
tan  
XL  XC


L  1C  XC  XL 1
 C
 L 
tan   
R R R R
  tan 1


 L  1
 C


  1
1 

C
 L  
  tan 
 R   R 
   
R
power _ factor  cos   R
Z power _ factor  cos  
Z
XL - XC
Z

R
R

X C - XL
Z
13
Resonance:
The plot shows the variation of R, XL and XC with frequency for I I0
XL
an applied voltage and current. Note the following:
(i) R is independent of frequency, so produced a straight
horizontal line. R
(ii) XL = 2πfL, so increases linearly with frequency XC

(iii) XC = 1/2 πfC, so decrease with frequency as shown.
For any combination of L and C, there must be one
frequency where XL =XC. AT this frequency the reactances Try to draw the variation of Z with frequency
cancels out leaving a purely resistive circuit. This frequency
is called the resonant frequency.
Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit
Z  
R 2  X L2  X C2  R
XL  XC
1
2f 0 L 
2f 0 C
4 2
f 02 LC  1
1
f0  Hz At resonance, Z = R, therefore I = V/R
2 LC
14
The Operational Amplifier
What are Operational Amplifiers?

• Originally used to describe an amplifier circuit which
performed various mathematical operations such as
differentiation, integration, summation and subtraction
• Operational Amplifier, or Op Amp, is now more loosely

applied to any high gain alternating current (ac) and
direct current (dc) amplifier capable of operating in
various configurations
• Op amps are a member of the family of linear integrated

circuits. Integrated circuits (ICs) consist of many
transistors and few resistors and capacitors. Transistors
are a special form of semiconductors with properties
similar to those of p-n junction diodes
15
What do they look like?
Single amp in 1 package Quad (4) amp in 1 package
Pin-out
16
Inside the LM741 Op Amp
17
Circuit Representation: Schematic Diagram
Pin numbers correspond to the LM741 Op amp
positive power supply voltage
7
2 -
Inverting input
6
Output
3
Non-inverting input +
4
Negative power supply voltage
Note: Pin numbers are different for different manufacturers and packages
18
The Ideal Operational Amplifier
• The ideal operational amplifier may be assumed to have the

following properties:
• An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V+ and V- will
caused the output to go to ‘saturation’. Saturation voltage cannot exceed
the power supply voltage. (will explain more on the next slide).
• An infinite input impedance (resistance). This ensures that no current
flows into the input terminals (V+ and V-). However, voltages may be
present.
• An infinite bandwidth. This assumes that it amplifies any input range of
frequencies.
• Zero output impedance (resistance). This ensures that the amplifier is
unaffected by whatever output circuit it is connected to
• An infinite slew rate. This means that the input and output frequency
changes are always exactly in synch.
• Zero voltage and current offsets. This ensures that when the input
signal voltages are zero the output will also be zero regardless of the input
source resistance.
19
Voltage Saturation
An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V+ and V- will caused the output
to go to ‘saturation’. Saturation voltage cannot exceed the power supply voltage.
Vout (Volts)
Vout (Volts) Vsupply

Region of
Region of Fixed output
Constant
reducing gain
Gain
Region of
Constant gain
0 Vin (mV)
0 Vin (mV)
Constant Gain Saturation
20
The Typical (Real) Operational Amplifier
Real op amps have characteristics that approach those of ideal op

amp, but never quite attained. They deviate from the ideal op amp in
the following ways:
• The open loop gain is usually in the range of 105 – 106. Although this is
high, it is not infinite.
• They have large but finite input impedances usually in the range of 106Ω
– 1012Ω. Thus, drawing very small, but measurable currents at their input
terminals.
• They have a finite bandwidth which is dependent on the gain. The higher
the gain the smaller the bandwidth. This is usually described in its
frequency response characteristics or the Gain-Bandwidth product.
• The output impedance is usually about 100 Ω.
• They have finite slew rate and voltage and current offsets.
21
The Op Amp as a Comparator
• The open-loop op amp has 3 possible signal configuration:
+ Vsupply + Vsupply
+ Vsupply
- -
-
+ + Vin +
Vin
Vin Vout  A0V  Vout  A0 (V  ) Vin Vout  A0 (V   V  )
- Vsupply - Vsupply - Vsupply
ground ground ground
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
1. Vout  A0V  Input signal (Vin) is on V+ input and V- terminal is grounded
2. Vout  A0 (V  ) Input signal (Vin) is on V- input and V+ terminal is grounded
3. Vout  A0 (V   V  ) for cases where a differential input signal is applied
22
Example 1: What is the output Voltage for an op amp circuit with the following
characteristics?
V+ = 1V V- = 0 Volt (or grounded) A0 = 105
+Vsupply = +12Volts -Vsupply = - 12 Volts
Solution:
(Use circuit in case 1 of Fig. 4)
Vout  A0V   10 5  1  100,000 Volts
But stop right here…Remember, you cannot get an output voltage that is
greater that your power supply voltages. Therefore, Vout cannot exceed
+Vsupply, i.e.
Vout = + 12 Volts
Whenever this happens, the op amp is said to be SATURATED. Saturation

voltages cannot exceed the power supply voltages.
Example 2: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 0, and V- = 1 Volt.
Solution: Vout = -100,000 Volts

But by now we know this cannot exceed the -12 Vsupply. Therefore the real
answer is: Vout = -12 Volts.
Example 3: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 1.3 V, and V- = 1.1 V
Solution: Applying Case 3 equation,

Vout  A0 (V   V  )  10 5 1.3  1.1
= 0.2 x 105 = 20,000 Volts
Again the actual value is:
Vout = +12 Volts
Application of the Comparator
• The comparator is used in many circuit applications
where two states need to be compared to produce a
desired output signal
• May also be used as a voltage-level-shifter
• Usually, when the op amp is used as a comparator, its

input terminals are connected to some kind of potential
divider circuit
 One of these potential dividers creates a fixed voltage that is
used as a reference, while the other varies in accordance with
some other physical or electrical property that may either be
internal or external to the circuit
Variable Resistance Sensors
Other forms of variable resistors exist that have only two terminals, instead of
three. Their resistances usually depend on some external physical condition,
like temperature, light or strain. Resistors with resistances that depend on the
amount of light present are called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) and those
that depend on temperature are called Thermistors.
• An LDR is made by sandwiching two metal electrodes by a film of cadmium sulphide.

In complete darkness, it has a resistance of about 10MΩ, but in bright sunlight, its
resistance falls to about 100Ω. Therefore, by varying the amount of light shining on
the LDR, we can vary its resistance. In Example 1 above, Replace R2 with a LDR
and calculate Vout for both darkness and sunlight cases.
• A thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor which is manufactured from the

oxides of various metals. They are made in all kinds of shapes and sizes. Negative
temperature coefficient types have resistances which becomes smaller as
temperature increases.
• A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangular of
thin plastic sheet in such a way that if the plastic is stretched (i.e. under strain), the
wire will be stretched, which in turn increases its resistance.
A light sensitive circuit

+9V
R1 R3
10kΩ 10kΩ
- R5
+
+
LDR
LED
9V
R2 R4 -
10kΩ
ground
+
9V
-
-9 V
Usually, LED draws a current of 10 mA and has1.8 V drop across it, therefore R5 value
 Vsup ply  1.8
is  720 .
0.01
Feedback in Op Amp Circuits
Basic feedback in amplifier
Vin+βVout
Vin Amplifier
Add Gain, A0 Vout
Vout  A0 Vin   Vout 

βVout
Feedback
Fraction, β
Vout  A0Vin  A0  Vout
A0Vin  Vout  A0 Vout

Vout A0

A0Vin  Vout 1  A0   Vin 1  A0  
The Inverting Amplifier
Rf
R1 VG
-
Vin +
Vout
The behavior of an op amp is such that when any of its input terminals is
grounded, it causes a virtual ground condition to exist at the other
terminal. This point is labeled VG
Deriving an expression for the gain in terms of the R1 and Rf

Rf Rf
Current, I Current, I
Current, I
R1 VG R1 VG
Current, I
- -
Current, I Current, I
+ve input + -ve input +

-ve output +ve output
0-volt
The same current, I, that flows through R1, also flows through Rf. Therefore, Ohm’s law
may be used to derive a simple expression of the voltage gain.
Current through R1 = Current through Rf
V R1 VR f

R1 Rf
VR1  Vin  0 VR f  0  Vout
Substituting
Vin  0 0  Vout

R1 Rf
Vin  Vout

R1 Rf
Vout Rf

Vin R1
That is, the voltage gain of an inverting amplifier is equal to the negative of the ratio of
its feedback resistance to its input resistance.
The Non-inverting Amplifier
Input voltage Vin is applied directly to the non-inverting input terminal, V+.
Rf
If not saturated, then V+ = V-
R1Vout
 
R1
V- Vin  V  V 
- R1  R f
V+
+ i.e. Rf and R1 forms a voltage divider for Vout
Vout
Vin
Vout Rf
0V  1
Vin R1
Using the previous technique
0  Vin Vin  Vout Vout Rf

 .....This _ gives.......  1
R1 Rf Vin R1
Frequency Response of Open-Loop Circuit
+ 12V
Because the open-loop gain is about

Circuit to measure 105, if Vsupply is ±12V then the maximum
-
Open-loop gain
output voltage would be 12Vpeak. This
Vac + means that the maximum input signal
Vout must be 12V ÷105 = 0.12 mV = 120
- 12V
μVpeak.
ground
gain
106
105
104
103
102 Frequency bandwidth = 10 Hz

(region with constant gain)
10
1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency response of the open-loop op amp circuit
Effect of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth
gain
106 Without feedback
105 With feedback
104
Overall gain = 1000 103
102
10
1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)
gain
105 With feedback

(a) Inverting setup
104
103
10
1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)
gain
105 With feedback
104
103
102
1
(b) Non-inverting setup 10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)
Gain x Bandwidth is Constant
Voltage Follower
Properties:
+Vs • Infinite input impedance

-
• Low output impedance
+
• Input and output are
-Vs Vout always in phase
Vin
• Output voltage is the

ground
same as the input
voltage. that is, Gain = 1
Voltage follower
Or • Maximum bandwidth
Unity gain amp
Or
Buffer
Summing Amplifier
V1
Itotal = I1 + I1 + I1
Itotal = I1+ I2 + I3 I1 
R1 I1
R1
V1 Rf
V2
R2 I2
- V2
I2 
V3
R3 I3
R2
+ Vout
V3
I3 
R3
 V1 V2 V3 
Vout = - Rf [ I1 + I2 + I3 ] therefore Vout   R f    
Using Kirchhoff’s current law
 R1 R2 R3 
Difference Amplifier
R2
R1
V2 -
R1
V1 + Vout
R2
R2V1 R2

V V  
Vout  V1  V2 
R1  R2 R1
Integrators
Vi  0 0  Vout

R1 1
jC
Vi 1
Vout 
jRC

RC  Vi (t ).dt
Typically, the input signal to an integrator is a square wave. If a sine wave is applied, its signal will
be integrated to produce a cosine wave which is a 90 o phase shift of the input wave. As frequency
increases, the capacitive reactance decreases, hence Vout decreases. Therefore, the circuit
allows only low frequency component to pass through, hence it’s a low pass filter.
At very low frequencies, C acts as an open circuit making Rf = infinity and cause Vout to saturate
at low frequencies. To avoid this, a resistor Rf is usually connected in parallel with C.
Differentiators
Vi  0 0  Vout

1 Rf
j C i
Vout   jC i R f Vi
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
dVi (t )
Vout   R f C i
dt
Vout  Rf As frequency increases, Xc decreases. Hence Vout increases. That

Gain  is, the circuit acts as a high pass filter. AT very high frequencies Xc
Vi jX Ci
= 0 and Gain = infinity. To prevent this a resistor R is placed in
series with C so that
1
fc 
2RC i
Electrical Filters
The Decibel
If Zin = Zout, then
V P
Gain( dBm )  10 log
Pout
Gain( dB )  20 log out Gain( dB )  10 log out
Vin Pin 1mW
Relative Measurement Absolute Measurement
If several amplifiers are cascaded, then the total gain

in dB is the sum of the individual gains in dB
Voltage Gain dB levels
0.5 -6
in out
GdB1 GdB2 GdB3 GdB4 0.707 -3
1 0
10 20
100 40
GdBTotal  GdB1  GdB2  GdB3  GdB4 1,000 60
10,000 80
Electrical Filters
General Frequency Considerations
As discussed before, the frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the
behavior of the amplifier circuit. We have seen that it determines what transistor models to use in
analyses. AT low frequencies, coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be replaced by a short
circuit because of their reactances. AT high frequencies, all parasitic elements within the
semiconductor and circuit must be taken into consideration.
All amplifiers operate within a specific range of frequencies called their passband or bandwidth. The
bandwidth is defined as: BW  f 2  f1
Electrical Filters
Frequency Response
For a R-C circuit, the cut-off frequency is defined as the region where Xc = R. i.e. 1/2πfC =R.
therefore:
The filter function can be expressed in terms of cut-off
frequency 1 1 1
1 F ( )   
1  jRC 1  j (  c ) 1  j( f f c )
f cut off 
2Rtotal C
The filter function has value 1/(1+j1) 1/root 2 = 0.707 =
the half power frequency
To emphasis thus, lets look at the frequency

response plot of a RC type network:
Basic Wireless Communication
Basic Components
• Transmitter
• Channel or medium
• Receiver
• Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted information.
Basic Wireless Communication
• The “Transmitter” is a collection of electronic components and circuits that converts the
electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given medium.
• Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators,
frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits.
• The “Communication Channel” is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from
one place to another. Types of media include:
• Electrical conductors; Optical media; Free space
• System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
• A “Receiver” is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the

transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a form understandable by
humans (or computer). Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and
filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
• A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that both send and receive
signals. Examples are:
• Telephones; Fax machines; Handheld CB radios; Cell phones; Computer modems
• Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of wireless transmission. It is proportional to the
square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
• Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the communication system via the
communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted message.
Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are:
 One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions
 Analog or digital signals
Simplex
• The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as simplex.
• This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
• Radio, Paging services, Telemetry, Radio astronomy, Surveillance, Music services,
Digital radio; Facsimile; TV broadcasting; Beeper (personal receiver)
Full Duplex
• Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as duplex.
• When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The
telephone is an example of this type of communication. Other examples are the
internet and LANs
Half Duplex
• The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time is
known as half duplex. Examples are:
• Police, military, etc. radio transmissions; Citizen band (CB); Family radio; Amateur
radio
Analog Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or

current.
a. Sine wave “tone.” b. Voice. c. Video (TV) signal.
Digital Signals
• Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.

• Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
Telegraph (Morse
code).
Continuous-wave
(CW) code.
Serial binary code.
Signal Transmission
• Many transmissions are of signals that originate

in digital form but must be converted to analog
form to match the transmission medium.
 Digital data over the telephone network.
 Analog signals.
• They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter.
• The data can then be transmitted and processed by
computers and other digital circuits.
Modulation and Multiplexing
• Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting
information efficiently from one place to another.
• Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the
medium.
• Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently
over a single medium.
Baseband Transmission
• Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified over the medium
or can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium.
 In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on the wires and
transmitted.
 In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial or
twisted-pair cables for transmission.
Broadband Transmission
• A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by audio, video, or data.
• A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic signal that is able to travel long
distances through space.
A Basic Transmission System
Local
Oscillator
(usually a bandpass
Amplifier)
Modulation and Demodulation
• The two most common methods of modulation are:
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which the phase angle of
the sine wave is varied. Example QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying)
• Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is converted to
frequency-varying tones.
• Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate the data from digital
to analog and back again.
• Demodulation or detection takes place in the receiver when the original
baseband (e.g. audio) signal is extracted.
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium
or channel.
• The three basic types of multiplexing are:
 Frequency division; Time division; Code division
 Most recent technology is OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Basic Digital Signal via Wireless Transmitter
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all
frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz
– The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments:
Extremely Low Frequencies 30–300 Hz.

(ELF)
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz.
Very Low Frequencies (VLF) include the higher end of the
human hearing range up to
about 20 kHz.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.
Medium Frequencies (MF) 300–3000 kHz

AM radio 535–1605 kHz.
High Frequencies (HF) 3–30 MHz
(short waves; VOA, BBC broadcasts;
government and military two-way
communication; amateur radio, CB.
Very High Frequencies (VHF) 30–300 MHz
FM radio broadcasting (88–108 MHz),
television channels 2–13.
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300–3000 MHz
TV channels 14–67, cellular phones,
military communication.
Microwaves and Super High Frequencies 1–30 GHz

(SHF)
Satellite communication, radar, wireless
LANs, microwave ovens
Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) 30–300 GHz
Satellite communication, computer data,
radar
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum
• Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we refer to as light
• Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light
• Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light
• Light waves’ very high frequency enables them to handle a tremendous
amount of information (the bandwidth of the baseband signals can be very
wide).
Optical Spectrum: Ultraviolet

• Ultraviolet is not used for communication
• Its primary use is medical
Bandwidth (BW): Is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a

signal.
Channel bandwidth: refers to the range of frequencies required to

transmit the desired information.
BANDWIDTH
• Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately
30 kHz and 300 MHz is used
• There is tremendous competition for these frequencies, between

companies, individuals, and government services in individual carriers
and between the different nations of the world
• The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural
resources.
• Communication engineering is devoted to making the best use of that
finite spectrum.
• Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that
minimize the bandwidth required to transmit given information and
thus conserve spectrum space.
• This provides more room for additional communication channels and
gives other services or users an opportunity to take advantage of it.
Spectrum Management and Standards
• Spectrum management is provided by agencies

set up by the United States and other countries to
control spectrum use.
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the
National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA) are two agencies that deal in
spectrum management.
 Broadcast Commission in Jamaica
• Standards are specifications and guidelines

necessary to ensure compatibility between
transmitting and receiving equipment.

Pre Course - ECSE1102 Lecture Notes - AC Circuits and Op Amps

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Pre Course - ECSE1102 Lecture Notes - AC Circuits and Op Amps

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ECSE1102

• AC in R, RL, RC and RLC circuits

• The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)

• Basic wireless communication

Faculty of Engineering UWI Mona

Stores electric energy: Q = CV Stores Magnetic energy

As freq increase, Xc decrease Linearly

Therefore the current in a pure capacitor leads voltage

Power Power Factor

Z = R + jXL may be represented by a right angle

The Actual Power Ir

If v  Vm sin t Is the applied wave, then

i  I m sin(t   ) Is the current equation

The Applied Voltage is

The circuit will behave like a RL circuit

(ii) XL = 2πfL, so increases linearly with frequency XC

What are Operational Amplifiers?

• Operational Amplifier, or Op Amp, is now more loosely

• Op amps are a member of the family of linear integrated

Single amp in 1 package Quad (4) amp in 1 package

Pin numbers correspond to the LM741 Op amp

positive power supply voltage

Negative power supply voltage

• The ideal operational amplifier may be assumed to have the

Vout (Volts) Vsupply

Constant Gain Saturation

Real op amps have characteristics that approach those of ideal op

• The output impedance is usually about 100 Ω.

ground ground ground

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

1. Vout  A0V  Input signal (Vin) is on V+ input and V- terminal is grounded

2. Vout  A0 (V  ) Input signal (Vin) is on V- input and V+ terminal is grounded

3. Vout  A0 (V   V  ) for cases where a differential input signal is applied

Whenever this happens, the op amp is said to be SATURATED. Saturation

Example 2: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 0, and V- = 1 Volt.

Solution: Vout = -100,000 Volts

Example 3: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 1.3 V, and V- = 1.1 V

Solution: Applying Case 3 equation,

• Usually, when the op amp is used as a comparator, its

• An LDR is made by sandwiching two metal electrodes by a film of cadmium sulphide.

• A thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor which is manufactured from the

A light sensitive circuit

Vout  A0 Vin   Vout 

A0Vin  Vout  A0 Vout

Deriving an expression for the gain in terms of the R1 and Rf

+ve input + -ve input +

Current through R1 = Current through Rf

VR1  Vin  0 VR f  0  Vout

0  Vin Vin  Vout Vout Rf

Because the open-loop gain is about

102 Frequency bandwidth = 10 Hz

105 With feedback

Overall gain = 1000 103

105 With feedback

Overall gain = 100 102

105 With feedback

Gain x Bandwidth is Constant

+Vs • Infinite input impedance

• Output voltage is the

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

Vout  Rf As frequency increases, Xc decreases. Hence Vout increases. That

Relative Measurement Absolute Measurement