PRMO-2020 - Ch-2 - Number Theory

Chapter 2
Number Theory
Chapter Contents
Divisibility DIVISIBILITY
Congruence Modulo In this section, whenever a word 'number' is used we would mean ‘a natural
number’ unless specified otherwise. Let us consider two number ‘a’ and ‘b’
Euclid’s Division Lemma
such that b  a. We say that ‘b’ is divisible by ‘a’, if ‘b’ is an integral
Equations in Integers multiple of a i.e., ‘a’ is a factor of ‘b’.
Fermat’s Little Theorem So, 15 is a multiple of 5 and hence 15 is divisible by 5. This is denoted by
5|15 . In general if ‘b’ is divisible by ‘a’, then we denote it by a|b
Wilson’s Theorem
Tests of Divisibility :
Number Bases
Divisibility by 2
Floor Function
If the units digit of a number is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8, then the number is divisible
Modulus Function by 2.
Exponents and Radical For example, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ........
Equations Divisibility by 3 and 9
Inequalities If the sum of digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is divis-
ible by 3.
For example, 6, 15, 81, 144, 282, ........ etc.
Also, if the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by 9, then the number
itself is divisible by 9.
For example, 27, 729, 72333 etc.
Divisibility by 4
A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by its last two digits (i.e.,
units and tens) is divisible by 4.
For example, 24, 84, 124, 1284, 156284 etc.
Divisibility by 5
If the unit’s digit of a number is 0 or 5, then the number is divisible by 5.
For example, 10, 15, 100, 125, 1025 etc.
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12 Number Theory Pre-Regional Mathematical Olympiad
Divisibility by 6
A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by 2 as well as 3.
For example, 72, 462, 1578, etc.
Divisibility by 8
A number is divisible by 8, if the last three digits of the given number is divisible by 8.
For example, 16, 144, 2136 etc.
Divisibility by 10
A number is divisible by 10 when its unit digit is 0.
For example, 20, 70, 110, 250, 2700 etc.
Divisibility by 11
If the difference between the sum of the digits at odd places (from the right) and the sum of the digits at
even places (from the right) of the number is either zero or divisible by 11, then the number is divisible
by 11.
For example, 121, 1001, 1331 etc.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 : Show that, for all integers ‘n’, n2 + 2n + 12 is not a multiple of 121.
Solution : Given expression
s = (n2 + 2n + 1) + 11
i.e. s = (n + 1)2 + 11
Case I : If n + 1 is not a multiple of 11, then (n + 1)2 is also not a multiple of 11 and hence
(n + 1)2 + 11 is not a multiple of 11. Hence the given expression can not be a multiple
of 112 (=121) as it is not a multiple of 11.
Case II : If (n + 1) is a multiple of 11, then (n + 1)2 is a multiple of 112 (= 121). So, (n + 1)2 +
11 is a multiple of 11 but not 121.
Example 2 : Is it possible to form two numbers using only the digits 2, 3, 7, 8 such that one of them is 17
times the other?
Solution : No, it is not possible.
None of the numbers 2, 3, 7, 8 when multiplied by 7 results in one of these digits.
So we have no favourable digit for unit place.
Example 3 : It is known that 2 + a and 24 – b are divisible by 11. Prove that a + b is also divisble by 11.
Solution : a + b = (2 + a) – (24 – b) + 22
(a + b) mod 11  (2 + a) mod 11 – (24 – b) mod 11 + 22 mod 11
 0 (mod 11)
 11 divides (a + b).
Pre-Regional Mathematical Olympiad Number Theory 13
Example 4 : Given the pair of prime numbers p and 8p2 + 1, find p.
Solution : As p2 is always of the form 3k or 3k + 1 so 8p2 + 1 is divisible by 3 when p is not divisible by 3.
 One of p and 8p2 + 1 is always divisible by 3.
 p=3
Example 5 : Is there a three-digit number abc (where a  c) such that abc  cba is a perfect square?
Solution : There is no such number.
abc  cba = a (102 – 1) + b (10 – 10) + c (1 – 102)

= 99 (a – c) where a & c are different digits
This implies, the difference is divisible by 11 but not by 112.
Hence, the difference cannot be a perfect square.
n
Example 6 : If ‘n’ is a positive integer such that = 0 . d25 d25 ...... where d is a single digit in decimal
810
base. Find n. [KVS-JMO-2009]
d 25 100d  25
Solution : 0. d25 d25 ...... = =
999 999
So, the given equation becomes
n 25(4d  1)
=
810 9  3  37
n 25(4d  1)
 = ...(1)
30 37
 4d + 1 must be a multiple of 37.

Now, 37 = 1 + 4 × 9
 d = 9.
 Equation (1) becomes
n 25  (4  9  1)
=
30 37
n
 25
30
 n = 750.
Example 7 : The number a, b, c are the digits of a three digit number which satisfy 49a +7b + c = 286. What
is the three digit number (100a + 10b + c)?
Solution : 49a + 7b + c = 286
 7 (7a + b) + c = 280 + 6 ...(1)
Now, 7 (7a + b) and 280 are multiples of 7.
So, (6 – c) should also be a multiple of 7 or 0.
 c = 6 (Since ‘c’ is a single-digit number).

 7 (7a + b) = 280
 7a + b = 40
 7a + b = 7 × 5 + 5 ...(2)
Now, 7a and 7 × 5 are multiples of 7.
So, (5 – b) should be a multiple of 7 or 0.
But ‘b’ is a single digit number.
So, 5 – b = 0 i.e., b = 5
Putting b = 5 in equation (2), we get,
a=5
 abc = 556
i.e., 100a + 10b + c = 556.
CONGRUENCE MODULO
Congruences are an important and useful tool for the study of divisibility. Consider positive integers a, b and
n. If a – b is divisible by n, then a = nk + b, where k is some integer i.e., b is the remainder when a is
divided by n. This can be expressed as a b (mod n).
This is read as “a is congruent to b modulo (or mod) n” It simply means that when a is divided by n, the
remainder is b.
For example 2016 1 (mod 5) and 1999 3(mod 4)
Important properties of congruence
(a) If a b (mod n), then b a (mod n)
Proof : a b (mod n)
 (a – b) is divisible by n
 (b – a) is divisible by n
 b a (mod n)
(b) If a b (mod n) and b c (mod n), then a c (mod n)
 (a – b) is divisible by n ... (i)
b c (mod n)
 (b – c) is divisible by n ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have,
[(a – b) + (b – c)] is divisible by n
 (a – c) is divisible by n
 a c (mod n)
(c) If a b (mod n) and c d (mod n), then (a +c) (b +d) (mod n)
 (a – b) is divisible by n ... (i)
c d (mod n)
 (c – d) is divisible by n ... (ii)
[(a – b) + (c – d)] is divisible by n
 (a + c) – (b + d) is divisible by n
 (a + c) (b + d) (mod n)
(d) If a b (mod n) and c d (mod n), then ac bd (mod n)
 (a – b) is divisible by n
 a – b = k1n ... (i)
(where k1 is some integer)
Again, c d (mod n)

 (c – d) is divisible by n
 c – d = k 2n ... (ii)
(where k2 is some integer)
ac = [b + k1n] [d + k2n]
 ac = bd + bk2n + k1nd + k1k2n2
 ac – bd = n [bk2 + dk1 + nk1k2]
 (ac – bd) is multiple of n
 ac  bd (mod n)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 8 : Find the remainder when 32000 is divided by 13.
Solution : 32000 = 33×666+2 = (33)666 × 32
 32000 = (26 + 1)666 × 9
Now, 27  1 (mod 13)
 27666  1666 (mod 13)  1 (mod 13)
 27666 × 9  1 × 9 (mod 13)
 32000  9 (mod 13)
So, when 32000 is divided by 13, the remainder is 9.
Example 9 : Find the last two digits of 777.

Solution : 71 = 7 ; 72 = 49 ; 73 = 343 ; 74 = 2401
 74  01 (mod 100) ... (i)
Now, 777 = 74×19+1 = (74)19 × 71
So, 74  1 (mod 100)
 (74)19  119 (mod 100)
 776  1 (mod 100)
 776 × 71  71 (mod 100)
 777  7 (mod 100)
So, the last two digits of 777 is 07.
Example 10 : Find the remainder when 22005 is divided by 13. [KVS-JMO 2005]
Solution : 2 = 64  (–1) (mod 13)
6
Now, 22005 = 26×334+1 = (26)334 × 21

So, (26)334  (–1)334 (mod 13)
(26)334  1 (mod 13)
 (26)334 × 21 2 (mod 13)
 22005  2 (mod 13)
so when22005 is divided by 13, the remainder is 2.
Example 11 : Find the number of perfect squares in the sequence.
11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111, .........
Solution : All the numbers in the given sequence is of the form 3 (mod 4) i.e., 4k + 3 type. But the square
of any integer is either 0 (mod 4) i.e., 4k type or 1 (mod 4) i.e., 4k + 1 type. So, no number in
the sequence is a perfect square.
Example 12 : Prove that the difference between a number with oddly many digits and the number written with the
same digits in reverse order is divisible by 99.
Solution : Let the number be a1 a2 a3 .........a2n 1  N
Its reverse, R  a2n 1 a2n .......a1
N – (a1 + a2 +........+ a2n+1)  0 (mod 9)

S – (a1 + a2 +........+ a2n+1)  0 (mod 9)
 N – S  0 (mod 9)
 (N – S) is divisible by 9 ...(1)
As 10n  (–1)n (mod 11) we have
N (mod 11)  a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 +........+ a2n+1 and
S (mod 11)  a2n+1 – a2n + a2n–1 ........a2 + a1
 (N – S)  0 (mod 11)
 (N – S) is divisible by 11 ...(2)
(1) and (2) gives the number is divisible by 99.
Example 13 : Seven natural numbers are such that the sum of any six of them is divisible by 5. Prove that each
of these numbers is divisible by 5.
Solution : Let x1, x2, ........, x7 be the seven numbers.
Consider, s1 = x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7
and s2 = x1 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7
As per given condition s1  s2  0 (mod 5)
 s1 – s2  0 (mod 5)
 (x2 – x1)  0 (mod 5)
 x1  x2 mod 5
Repeating the above steps, we have
x1  x2  x3  ........... x7 (mod 5)
That means all the seven numbers give same remainder when divided by 5 and sum of any six of
them is completely divisible by 5.
Let xi = 5ki + r, i = 1, 2, 3,......7, 0 < r < 5
as 5 | S1
 5 | 5(k2 + k3 +.......+k7) + 6r 5 | 6r 5 | r r = 0
Hence, each of the numbers is divisible by 5.
7
Example 14 : Find the last digit of the number 77 .
Solution : As 74 has its last digit 1, the unit digit of 7n has a cycle of length 4.
So, we need to find remainder when 77 is divided by 4 first.
77 mod 4  (–1)7 mod 4  –1 mod 4  3
Hence, last digit of 777 = last digit of 73 = 3

Example 15 : Prove that 131 + 231+.........+3031 is divisible by 31.
Solution : For any odd n, 1n + 2n + ......+(n – 1)n is divisible by n.
Proof follows:
Consider the remainder of kn and (n – k)n when divided by n.
(n – k)n mod n  (–k)n mod n  –(kn) mod n. (as n is odd)
 kn + (n – k)n  kn – kn (mod n)
0
 The sum of kn and (n – k)n is divisible by n.
i.e. 1n + (n – 1)n is divisible by n, 2n + (n – 2)n is divisible by n, .......so on.
Hence, 1n + 2n + ...........+(n – 1)n is divisible by n when n is odd.
Example 16 : Prove that 3095 + 6196 is divisible by 31.

Solution : 3095  (–1)95  (–1) mod 31
6196  (1)96  (1) mod 31
 (3095 + 6196) mod 31  (3095 mod 31) + (6196 mod 31)
 –1 + 1  0 (mod 31)
 3095 + 6196 is divisible by 31.
Example 17 : A three-digit number was decreased by the sum of its digits. Then the same operation was carried
out with the resulting number, etc. 100 times in all. Find the final number.
Solution : After the first subtraction the result is divisible by 9. Hence, all the numbers we obtain in the process
has the sum of their digits not less than 9 (unless the number is reduced to zero).
If the original number is not greater than 891 = 9 × 99, then in 100 operations, we have result as
zero.
If the number is greater than 891 then after at most 6 operations (in case of 999), we obtain the
number 891 and after 5 operations on 891, we obtain 801 = 9 × 89.
So after at most 5 + 6 + 89 = 100 operations, we have zero as the final result.
The final number is 0.
Example 18 : The number 82019 is written on a blackboard. The sum of its digits is calculated, then the sum of
the digits of the result is calculated and so on, until we get a single digit. What is this single digit?
Solution : The answer is 8.
Since the remainders of a natural number and of the sum of its digits when divided by 9 are the
same, the remainder of 82019 coincides with the remainder of the final result x.
x  82019 mod 9  (–1)2019  –1 mod 9  8
Since, x is a single digit  x = 8
Example 19 : Does there exist an integer such that its cube is equal to 3n2 + 3n + 7, where n is integer?
Solution : Suppose there exist integers n and m such that m3 = 3n2 + 3n + 7
 m3  1 (mod 3)
 m  1 (mod 3)  m  3k + 1, k  z
Original equation becomes
(3k + 1)3 = 3n2 + 3n + 7
 27k3 + 27k2 + 9k + 1 = 3n2 + 3n + 7
 3k (3k2 + 3k + 1) = n2 + n + 2 = n(n + 1) + 1
As LHS is divisible by 3 but RHS is not, there is no integer satisfying the condition of the question.
Example 20 : What is the remainder when 91990 is divided by 11?
Solution : 91990 = 32×1990 = (35)796 = (243)796
Now, 243 = 11 × 22 + 1
 243 1 (mod 11)
 243796  1796 (mod 11)
 91990  1 (mod 11)
so when91990 is divided by 11, then the remainder is 1.
EUCLID’S DIVISION LEMMA
Euclid’s division lemma may be stated as “Given positive integers ‘a’ and ‘b’, there exists unique integers q
and r satisfying a = b q + r, 0 r < b.”
For solving problems on number theory, this lemma is often used.
Based on Euclid’s division lemma, the following important results can be proved.
(i) The square of an integer is of the form 4k or 4k + 1 type, where k is some non-negative integer. For
e.g. 62 = 36 = 4 × 9, 72 = 49 = 4 × 12 + 1, 82 = 64 = 4 × 16, 92 = 81 = 4 × 20 + 1 etc.
(ii) If ‘p’ is a prime number such that p > 3, then ‘p’ is of the form 6k – 1 or 6k + 1, where ‘k’ is some
positive integer. For example :
5 = 6 × 1 – 1, 7 = 6 × 1 + 1, 11 = 6 × 2 – 1, 13 = 6 × 2 + 1, 17 = 6 × 3 – 1, 19 = 6 × 3 + 1 etc.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 21 : Show that there are no integers a, b, c for which a2 + b2 – 8c = 6.

Solution : a2 + b2 = 8c + 6 = 4 (2c + 1) + 2
So, a2 + b2 is of 4k + 2 type.
But the square of an integer is either of 4k type or (4k + 1) type. So, a2 + b2 = 4k + 2 type only
if each of them is of 4k + 1 type i.e., ‘a’ and ‘b’ are both odd, if possible.
Let a = 2p + 1, b = 2q + 1, where ‘p’ and ‘q’ are some integers.
So, the given equation becomes,
(2p + 1)2 + (2q + 1)2 = 8c + 6
 4p2 + 4p + 4q2 + 4q = 8c + 4
 p2 + p + q2 + q = 2c + 1
 p (p + 1) + q (q + 1) = 2c + 1
But p(p + 1) and q (q + 1) are both even as the product of two consecutive integers is always
even. But 2c + 1 is odd. So, the given equation can not be true.
So, the given equation has no solution.
Example 22 : Find the G.C.D. of the numbers 2n + 7 and n + 4.

Solution : We have gcd (2n + 7, n + 4) = gcd (n + 4, n + 3)
= gcd (n + 3, 1) = 1
Example 23 : Find the G.C.D. of 250 – 1 and 260 – 1.

Solution : gcd (250 – 1, 260 – 1)
⎛ ⎛ 250  1 ⎞ 10 ⎛ 260  1 ⎞ ⎞
= gcd ⎜  210  1 ⎜ ⎟ ,  2  1 ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 210  1 ⎠ ⎝ 210  1 ⎠ ⎠
= gcd   210  11  210  220  230  240  ,  210  11  210  220  230  240  250  
= gcd   210  11  210  220  230  240  ,  210  1 250  
= gcd   210  1  some odd number  ,  210  1  some even number  
=  210  1  1023 .
EQUATIONS IN INTEGERS
In this section we shall learn, through examples, different ways to solve the equation(s) in which variables can take
only integer values. Sometimes an appropriate transformation of the equation can be of help. In some instances
remainders modulo some natural number would also be considered. Inequalities and estimate may also come handy
in solving some of the equations in integers.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 24 : Prove that there are no natural numbers a and b such that 2a2 – 3b2 = 7.
Solution : Take modulo 3 on both sides.
LHS = (2a2 – 3b2) mod 3  2a2 mod 3  0 or 2
RHS = 7 (mod 3)  1
Hence, 2a2 – 3b2 = 7 has no natural number solution.
Example 25 : Given natural numbers x, y and z such that x2 + y2 = z2, prove that xy is divisible by 12.
Solution : If neither of the numbers x or y is divisible by 3, then z2 gives a remainder of 2 when divided by 3,
which is impossible.  One of x or y is divisible by 3.
Both the numbers x and y cannot be odd as the square of an odd number always gives remainder
1 when divided by 8 while square of an even number (for RHS) when divided by 8 gives remainder
0 or 4.
On dividing by 8, square of an even number not divisible by 4 has remainder 4, and the square of
a multiple of 4 has remainder 0.
If one of x & y is even and other is odd, RHS is odd. Implying z2 (mod 8)  1 and x2 (mod 8)  1
 y2 (mod 8)  0
 If x is odd then y has to be a multiple of 4.
If both of x & y is even then also xy is divisible by 4 and 3 i.e. by 12.
Example 26 : Solve xy = x + y + 3 for integer values of x and y.

Solution : xy – x – y = 3
 (x – 1) (y – 1) = 4 = 1 × 4 or 4 × 1 or 2 × 2 or –1 × –4 or –4 × –1 or –2 × –2
 (x, y) = (2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 3), (0, –3), (–3, 0), (–1, –1)
Example 27 : Solve x2 = 14 + y2 for integer values of x and y.

Solution : x2 – y2 = 14
 (x – y) (x + y) = 14
As both the factors of LHS is of same parity, either the LHS is odd or an even number divisible by
4. But the number 14 of RHS belongs to neither of two.
 There is no integral solution.
Example 28 : Solve x2 + y2 = x + y + 2 for integer values of x and y.
Solution : We have x(x – 1) + y(y – 1) = 2 ...(1)
as t(t – 1) > 2 if t > 2 or t < –1 we have possibilities of x and y as 2, 1, 0, –1
when x = 2, y = 0 or 1
when x = 1, y = 2 or –1
when x = 0, y = 2 or –1
when x = –1, y = 0 or 1
 (x, y) = (2, 0), (2, 1), (1, 2), (1, –1), (0, 2), (0, –1), (–1, 0), (–1, 1)
Example 29 : Find all pairs of integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ for which 7a + 14b = 5a2 + 5ab + 5b2.
Solution : Consider this equation as quadratic in b.
5b2 + (5a – 14) b + 5a2 – 7a = 0
Its discriminant should be greater than or equal to zero.
 (5a – 14)2 – 20 (5a2 – 7a) > 0
 75a2 < 196
 –1 < a < 1
Put a = –1, 0, 1 in original equation to get b = 3, 0, 2 respectively.
 (a, b) = (–1, 3), (0, 0), (1, 2)
Example 30 : If p(x) denotes the product of digits of x then find all positive integers x for which p(x) = x2 – 10x
– 22.
Solution : As p(x) < x for all x  N, we have x2 – 10x – 22 < x
 x(x – 10) – 22 < x
 x < 12 ...(1)
As p(x) is a positive integer
 x2 – 10x – 22 > 0
 (x – 12) (x + 2) + 2 > 0
 x > 12 ...(2)
From (1) and (2), x = 12 can be the only solution.
One can directly check that x = 12 is indeed a solution.
Example 31 : Solve x2 + y2 + z2 = 8t – 1 for integer values of x, y, z and t.

Solution : x can be 8k, 8k ± 1, 8k ± 2, 8k ± 3 or 8k ± 4
 x2 can be 8k, 8k + 1 or 8k + 4
That is any of x2, y2 or z2 when divided by 8 leaves remainder 0, 1 or 4.
Hence, (x2 + y2 + z2)  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 (mod 8)
While 8t – 1  –1  7 (mod 8)
 Hence no such solution exist.
1 1 1
Example 32 : Solve    1 for integer values of a, b and c.
a b c
Solution : If all of a, b, c are positive, then either all of them are equal to 3 or at least one of them is less
than 3.
(a, b, c) = (3, 3, 3) is a solution.
1 1 1
When a = 2,    (b, c) = (4, 4)  (a, b, c) = (2, 4, 4)
b c 2
1 1
If one of the numbers – say a – is negative, then   1  either b or c is 1.
b c
 b = 1  a = –c
 Solution are (a, b, c) = (3, 3, 3), (2, 4, 4), (1, x, –x), (x, 1, –x), (x, –x, 1) where x is arbitrary
non-zero integers.
Example 33 : Solve x3 + 3 = 4y (y + 1) for integer values of x and y.
Solution : We have x3 = 4y2 + 4y – 3
 x3 = (2y – 1) (2y + 3)
As (2y – 1) and (2y + 3) are relatively prime, for (2y – 1) (2y + 3) to be cube of an integer, 2y + 3
should be equal to (2y – 1)2 which is not possible.
 no pairs of (x, y) exists.
FERMAT’S LITTLE THEOREM
For ‘a’ relatively prime to ‘p’, we have a p 1  1 mod p 
Corollary : Let p be a prime number. Then for any integer ‘a’ we have a p  a  mod p  .
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 34 : Find remainder when 33 divides 298.
Solution : From Fermat’s little theorem, 22  1 (mod 3) and 210  1 (mod 11)
298  (22)49  (1)49  1 (mod 3) ...(1)
298  (210)9 (28)  28  256  3 (mod 11) ...(2)
(1) and (2)
 298 = 3k + 1 = 11m + 3
take (modulo 3) on both sides
1  2m (mod 3)
 m  2 (mod 3)  m = 3n + 2
 298 = 11m + 3 = 11 (3n + 2) + 3
= 33n + 25
 298 (mod 33) = (33n + 25) mod 33 = 25
Hence, the required remainder is 25.
Example 35 : Find the value(s) of prime number(s) p such that 29p + 1 is a multiple of p.
Solution : 29p + 1  1 (mod 29)
 29 doesn’t divide 29p + 1  p can’t be 29.
 p and 29 are relatively prime.
Hence, by Fermat’s little theorem,
29p–1 1 (mod p) 29p 29 (mod p)
 29p + 1 30 (mod p) 0 (mod p) [as per the question]
 p divides 30
 p = 2, 3 or 5.
WILSON’S THEOREM
For all primes p > 2, we have (p – 1)!  –1 (mod p)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 36 : Find the remainder when 30! is divided by 899.
Solution : 899 = 29 × 31
30! = 30 × 29 × 28!  0 (mod 29) ...(1)
From Wilson’s theorem, 30!  –1 (mod 31) ...(2)
(1) and (2)  30! = 29k = 31m – 1
take modulo 29 to get
0  (2m – 1) mod 29
 2m  1 (mod 29)
 m  29n + 15
 30! = 31m – 1 = 31 × 29n + 31 × 15 – 1
= 899n + 464
 30!  899n + 464  464 (mod 899)
 The required remainder is 464.
Example 37 : Find the remainder when 97! is divided by 101.
Solution : From Wilson’s theorem, 100!  –1 (mod 101)
 100 × 99 × 98 × 97!  –1 (mod 101) ...(1)
Also, 100  –1 (mod 101), 99  –2 (mod 101), 98  –3 (mod 101)
 (1)  (–1) (–2) (–3) (97!)  –1 (mod 101)  6 × (97!)  1 (mod 101)
Let 97!  k (mod 101) then 6k  1 (mod 101)  k = 17
 Remainder = 17
NUMBER BASES
In a base ‘b’ number system (where ‘b’ is a natural number greater than 1), b digits corresponding to the first b
integers starting from zero are used. The symbol in the last position of the representation of a number in base b,
has its own value and as it moves to the left its value is multiplied by b. For example, in the decimal system
(base 10), the numeral 3247 means (3 × 103) + (2 × 102) + (4 × 101) + (7 × 100).
In general, if b is the base then the number an an 1 an 2 ......a0 = an bn + an–1 bn–1 + an–2 bn–2 + .....+a0b0
Some times, the base is added in subscript to the right of the number to discard ambiguity.
For example, (3247)8 = 3 × 83 + 2 × 82 + 4 × 8 + 7 = (1703)10
Fractions are also represented by dividing the digits in two groups by a dot.
For example, (10.11)2 = 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 + 1 × 2–1 + 1 × 2–2 = (2.75)10
In general,
n 
(an an–1.......a1 a0 . c1 c2 c3.......)b =  ak bk   ck b k
k 0 k 1
Note: In a base ‘b’ system the representation of a number ends with zero if and only if this number is
divisible by ‘b’.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 38 : Convert the number 25210 to the base 8 (octal) system.
Solution : 252 = 31 × 8 + 4
31 = 3 × 8 + 7
3=0×8+3
Thus, 25210 = 3748
Example 39 : In a number system with base ‘b’, 4 × 5 = 18. Find b.
Solution : Digits 4 and 5 of base b always represent
4 × b0 = 410 and 5 × b0 = 510.
Hence, the value of LHS in base 10 is 20.
RHS = 18b = 1 × b + 8 = 20  b = 12
Example 40 : Does there exist a number system where the following equalities hold simultaneously:
2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 11 ?
Solution : 2b × 3b = 11b
 210 × 310 = 11b  610 = 1 × b + 1 b=5
but in base 5, the digits from 0 to 4 are allowed. Then 2 + 3 = 5 doesn’t hold.
 There is no such number system.
Example 41 : Prove that from the set 0, 1, 2, .....,3k–1 one can choose 2k numbers so that none of them can
be represented as the arithmetic mean of some pair of the chosen numbers.
Solution : We will use the base 3 system.
Let us assume that the base 3 representation of any of the given numbers contains exactly k digits
if there are fewer than k, then we just fill the rest of the places with zeros.
Now we choose those numbers whose base 3 representation contain only 0’s and 1’s. There are
exactly 2k of them we show that this can serve as the required subset.
Suppose that there were three different numbers in the subset – say x, y and z – satisfying x + y
= 2z.
Since the numbers x and y must differ in at least one digit, we could then find the right most such
digit. The corresponding digit of their sum x + y would be 1. But the base 3 representation of 2z
contains only 0’s and 2’s. This is a contradiction.
FLOOR FUNCTION
Carl F. Gauss introduced the bracket notation in 1808. He used the symbol [x] to denote the greatest
integer not more than x. For example, [5.7] = 5, [– 3.82] = – 4, [– 3] = – 3, etc. Now a days, it is also
called the Floor Function and it is also denoted as ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ . In this section, we will use the symbol [x] for
bracket notation which is also known as Floor Function or Greatest Integer Function.
Now, obviously [x] x < [x] + 1. So, we get 0 x – [x] < 1. This expression ‘x – [x]’ is called the Fractional
Part Function. This is denoted by {x}. So, {x} = x – [x].
Some important results on [x] and {x} are as follows :
(i) [x] is always an integer
(ii) [x] x < [x] + 1
(iii) x = [x] + {x} or {x} = x – [x]
⎧  0, if x is an integer
(iv)  x     x  ⎨ 1, if x is not an integer
⎩
(v) 0 {x} < 1
⎧ 0, if x is an integer
(vi) x   x ⎨
⎩ 1, if x is not an integer
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 42 : Find the number of positive integers x which satisfy the condition :
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢⎣ 99 ⎥⎦  ⎢⎣101 ⎥⎦ [RMO 2001]
⎡x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
Solution : Let ⎢ ⎥  k  ⎢ ⎥
99
⎣ ⎦ ⎣101⎦
x
 k   k 1
99
i.e., 99 k x < 99 k + 99 ............... (1)
x
and k   k 1
101
i.e., 101 k  x < 101 k + 101 ............... (2)
From (1) & (2), we have,
101 k  x < 99 k + 99
Now, 101 k 99 k + 99
gives 2k 99
i.e., k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........., 49
⎛ ⎡x ⎤ ⎞
⎜ Note : If x is a positive integer then ⎢ ⎥  k is non  negative integer ⎟
⎝ ⎣ 99 ⎦ ⎠
For k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........., 48, the number of positive integral values of x are 99, 97, 95, ....., 3.
So, total
number of possible integral values of
x = (99 + 97 + 95 + ..... 3 + 1) – 1
= 502 – 1 = 2499
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ m2  4
Note : For any m  2, the number of positive integer x such that ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ is if
⎣ m  1⎦ ⎣ m  1⎦ 4
m2  5
m is even and if m is odd.
4
Example 43 : Calculate the sum
⎡ 1 ⎤  ⎡ 2 ⎤  ⎡ 3 ⎤  ⎡ 4 ⎤  .....  ⎡ 48 ⎤  ⎡ 49 ⎤  ⎡ 50 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
[Canadian Open Mathematics Challenge 2000]
Solution : 1  1, 4  2, 9  3, etc.
Number of times ⎡⎣ k ⎤⎦ = 1 is the number of numbers between 1 and 4 (1 included but 4 is not)
So, the gap between the two perfect squares

= (k + 1)2 – k2 = 2k + 1
i.e., ⎡ k ⎤ = 1 occurs 2 × 1 + 1 = 3 times

⎣ ⎦
⎡ k ⎤ = 2 occurs 2 × 2 + 1 = 5 times
⎣ ⎦
⎡ k ⎤ = 3 occurs 2 × 3 + 1 = 7 times
⎣ ⎦
and so on
Required sum
= 1×3 + 2×5 + 3×7 + 4×9 + 5×11 + 6×13 + 7×2 (Note that the sequence ends in 50 )
= 3 + 10 + 21 + 36 + 55 + 78 + 14
= 217
MODULUS FUNCTION
⎧ x, if x  0
The expression y = |x| called the modulus function represents y  ⎨
⎩ x, if x  0
So, |7.3| = 7.3, |8.923| = 8.923,
|–7.3| = 7.3, |–8.923| = 8.923
i.e., |x| is always non-negative.
Some important results :
⎧ x, if x  0
(i) |x| = ⎨
⎩  x, if x  0
⎧ x  a, if x  a
(ii) |x – a| = ⎨
⎩a  x, if x  a
(iii) The expression : y = |x – a| + |x – b|, a  b takes the minimum value when a  x  b and that
minimum value is (b – a).
(iv) The expression : y = |x – a| + |x – b| + |x – c|, a b c takes the minimum value when x = b and that
minimum value is (c – a) .
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 44 : |x – 1| + |x| + |x + 1| = x + 2. [KVS-JMO 2007]
Solution : |x – 1| + |x| + |x + 1|
⎧1  x  x  x  1, if x  1
⎪1  x  x  x  1, if  1  x  0
⎪
⎨
⎪1  x  x  x  1, if 0  x  1
⎪⎩ x  1  x  x  1, if x  1
⎧3 x, if x  1
⎪2  x, if  1  x  0
⎪
⎨
⎪ x  2, if 0  x  1
⎪⎩3 x, if x  1
1
Case I : x –1, then – 3x = x + 2 x = –
2
But that is not possible as x –1
Case II : –1 x 0, then 2 – x = x + 2 x = 0
which is not possible.
Case III : 0 x 1, then x + 2 = x + 2
which is always possible.
 0 x 1
Case IV : x 1, then 3x = x + 2

x = 1
So, the solution is 0 x 1
m
Example 45 : If the value of x for |x – 1| = |x – 2| is of the form , where m and n are co-primes, then find
n
value of m + n.
Solution : |x – 1| = |x – 2|
 x – 1 = x – 2, which is impossible
or x – 1 = – (x – 2)
3
i.e., x =
2
 m+n=3+2
3+2=5
Hence m + n = 5
EXPONENTS AND RADICAL EQUATIONS

Some important results :
(i) a0 = 1 (a  0)
(ii) ap × aq = ap+q
ap
(iii)  a p q
aq
(iv) ap × bp = (ab)p
a 
p q
 
p
(v)  a pq  aq
1
(vi) a p  (a  0)
ap
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 46 : If 3x + 2y = 985 and 3x – 2y = 473, what is the value of xy? [Pre-RMO 2015]
Solution : 3x + 2y = 985 ...(1)
3x – 2y = 473 ...(2)
(1) + (2) gives 2 × 3x = 1458
 3x = 729 = 36
x = 6 ...(3)
y
(1) – (2) gives 2 × 2 = 512
 2y = 256 = 28
 y=8 ...(4)
So, xy = 6 × 8 = 48
X1 X X X X
Example 47 : Suppose that 4 = 5, 5 2 = 6, 6 3 = 7, ............, 126 123 = 127, 127 124 = 128. If the value
m
of the product X1 X2 ........ X124 is of the form where m and n are co-primes then what is the
n
value of mn?
Solution :
X X X X 
128 = 127 124 = 126 123  124 = 126 126 124
X
= 125 X122  123 124  125 X122 X123 X124

X X
X X X X X
= 4 1 2 3......... 123 124
X X X X X
 128  27  4 1 2 3 ..... 123 124
2X X X X X
 2 1 2 3 ..... 123 124
 7 = 2X1 X2 X3 ...X123 X124
7
 X1 X 2 X 3 ...... X 123 X124 
2
 m×n=7×2
= 7 × 2 = 14
1
Example 48 : If  m – n , where m and n are positive integers, what is the value of
2011  20112 – 1
‘m + n’? [Pre-RMO 2012]
1
Solution : m n
2011  2010  2012
2
=
4022  2 2010  2012
2
=
2012  2010  2  2012  2010
2
=
2012  2010
2 ⎡⎣ 2012  2010 ⎤⎦
=
⎡ 2012  2010 ⎤ ⎡ 2012  2010 ⎤
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
2 ⎡ 2012  2010 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
=
2012  2010
=
1
2
 2012  2010 
= 1006  1005
m = 1006 and n = 1005
So, m + n = 1006 + 1005 = 2011
Example 49 : Arrange the following in ascending order :
25555, 33333, 62222 [KVS-JMO 2001]
 
1111
Solution : 25555  25  321111
 
1111
33333  33  271111
 
1111
62222  62  361111
Now, 27 < 32 < 36
 271111 < 321111 < 361111
 33333 < 25555 < 62222
Example 50 : If one root of a – x  b  x  a  b is 2012, then find the possible values of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Solution : ax  bx  a  b
squaring on both side, we get
  a  x    b  x   2  a  x  b  x   a  b  2 ab
  a  x  b  x   ab
 ab + ax – bx – x2 = ab
 x2 = ax – bx
 x = 0 or x = a – b
One possible value of x is 2012.
 a – b = 2012
So, let b = k, then a = k + 2012 are the possible values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ where ‘k’ is a positive number.
INEQUALITIES
Some useful results

(1) If a  b and b  c then a  c  a, b, c R
(2) If a  b and c  d then a + c  b + d  a, b, c, d  R
(3) If a  b then a + c  b + c  a, b, c R
(4) If a  b and c > 0 then ac bc a, b  R
(5) If a  b and c  d then ac bd for anya, b  R + or c, d R +
(6) If a, b, c  R such that a  b  c then a + b  a + c  b + c
(7) If a R then a2  0 with equality iff a = 0
(8) AM-GM Inequality
ab
For two non-negative numbers a and b,  ab
2
ab
where AM  GM  ab
2
(9) Harmonic Mean (HM)
2
is the harmonic mean for non-negative integers x and y and HM  GM  AM
1 1

x y
(10) Quadratic Function : For real number x, x 2  0 this is useful to find maximum or minimum of a
quadratic function ax 2 + bx + c.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
a b
Example 51 : If ab  0 then find value of n such that   n.
b a
Solution : As (x – 1) 2  0
 x2 + 1 – 2x  0
or x 2 + 1  2x
1
or x 2
x
a b
  2
b a
 n=2
Also by AM and GM inequality
a b

b a  a b

2 b a
a b
  2
b a
Example 52 : Prove that for x, y, z R+
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
x y z xy yz zx
1 1 2
Solution :  
x y xy
1 1 2
  [By AM-GM inequality]
y z yz
1 1 2
 
x z xz
On adding all above, we get
⎛ 1 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
2⎜   ⎟  2⎜   ⎟
⎝x y z⎠ ⎜ xz ⎟⎠
⎝ xy yz
Hence proved
Example 53 : A triangle with perimeter 7 has integer side lengths. If maximum possible area of such triangle is
a b
of the form . Find the sum of a + b + c.
c
Solution : Two such triangles are possible with sides (1, 3, 3) and (2, 2, 3) out of which (2, 2, 3) have more
area
3 7
By Heron's formula area of  
4
 a = 3, b = 7 and c = 4
 a + b + c = 14
Example 54 : Find the integer solution of the equation 13x – 7y = 0 satisfying the condition 80 < x + y < 120
and write the value of y – x.
Solution : 13x = 7y has integer solution (0, 0)
So general solution is x = 7t and y = 13t where t  Z, then x + y = 20t
 80 < x + y < 120
 4<t<6
 t=5
 x = 35 and y = 65
 y – x = 65 – 35 = 30
Example 55 : If x and y are positive real numbers and xy = 8. Find the minimum value of 2x + y.
Solution : By AM -GM inequality
2x  y
 2 xy
2
2x  y  2 2  8
2x + y  8
 Minimum value = 8
1 1 1
Example 56 : Find the number of ordered pairs of positive integers (a, b) satisfy the equation   .
a b 2004
ab 1
Solution : 
ab 2004
2004a + 2004b = ab
0 = ab – 2004a – 2004b
2004 2 = ab – 2004a – 2004b + 2004 2
= a(b – 2004) – 2004(b – 2004)
= (a – 2004) (b – 2004)
⎛ 20042 ⎞
Now, p ⎜ p ⎟  (a – 2004)(b – 2004)
⎝ ⎠
a = p + 2004
20042
b = 2004 +
p
2004 2 = (2 2 × 3 × 167)2
= 2 4 × 3 2 × 1672
Number of divisor of 20042 are 5 × 3 × 3 = 45
 b can take 45 different values and a can also
 Number of ordered pair = 45
Example 57 : What is the largest positive integer n such that n3 + 100 is divisible by n + 10?
Solution : Let n 3 + 100 = (n + 10) (n 2 + an + b) + c
= n 3 + n 2(10 + a) + n(b + 10a) + (10b + c)
Equating the coefficients yields
10 + a = 0  a = –10
b + 10a = 0  b = 100
10b + c = 100  c = –900
 n + 10 = gcd(n 3 + 100, n + 10)
= gcd(–900, n + 10)
= gcd(900, n + 10)
 Maximum value of n is 890.
Example 58 : Let N be the set of natural numbers suppose f : N  N is a function satisfying the following
conditions :
(a) f(mn) = f(m) f(n)
(b) f(m) < f(n) if m < n
(c) f(2) = 2
20
what is the value of ∑ f (K ) ?

K =1
[Pre-RMO 2012]
Solution : f(2) = 2
f(1) < f(2)
 f(1) = 1 [∵ f(1) < f(2) and only natural number are defined]
f(3) = 3 [∵ f(4) = f(2)f(2) = 2 × 2 = 4]
Similarly f(5) = 5 and so on
20
∑ f (K )
K 1
= f(1) + f(2) + ............. + f(20)
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ............. + 20
20  21
  210
2
Example 59 : Let P(n) = (n + 1)(n + 3)(n + 5)(n + 7)(n + 9). What is the largest integer that is a divisor of P(n)
for all positive even integers n? [Pre-RMO 2012]
Solution : As n = even
Let n = 2K
p(n) = (2K + 1) (2K + 3) (2K + 5) (2K + 7) (2K + 9)
 At least one of them is divisible by 3 and one by 5 always.
 P(n) is divisible by 15.
Example 60 : For how many pairs of positive integers (x, y) is x + 3y = 100? [Pre-RMO 2012]
Solution : x = 100 – 3y
As x  0
 100 – 3y  0
 100  3y
100
 y
3
 0  y  33
 Number of pairs are 33.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Find all the integers which are equal to 11 times the sum of their digits. [KVS-JMO 2010, 2011]
2. How many digits are there in the smallest number which is composed entirely of fives (eg. 55555) and which
is divisible by 99?
3. If A is the sum of the digits of 44444444 and B is the sum of the digits of A then find the sum of the digits
of B.
4. A number when divided by 7, 11 and 13 (the prime factors of 1001) successively leave the remainders 6, 10
and 12 respectively. Find the remainder if the number is divided by 1001. [KVS-JMO 2006]
5. Find the greatest number of 4 digits, which when divided by 3, 5, 7 and 9 leaves remainder 1, 3, 5 and 7
respectively. [KVS-JMO 2009]
6. Find the remainder when 9 × 99 × 999 × ...... 99 ............. 9 is divided by 1000.

9 occurring 9 times
7. Write the number of possible values of ten’s digit for any power of 3.
[RMO 1993]
8. What will be the remainder if the number 72015 is divided by 25?
[NSEJS 2015]
9. Show that the equation x2 + y2 = 1111 has no integral solutions.
10. Let p be a prime number such that p > 6. Show that (p2 – 1) is a multiple of 24.
⎡x⎤ ⎡x⎤
11. How many non-negative integral values of x satisfy the equation ⎢ ⎥  ⎢ ⎥ ? [Pre-RMO 2012]
⎣5⎦ ⎣7⎦
⎡3⎤ ⎡4⎤
12. Determine all values of x for which ⎢ ⎥  ⎢ ⎥  5 .
⎣x⎦ ⎣x⎦
⎡ 19 ⎤ ⎡ 20 ⎤ ⎡ 21 ⎤ ⎡ 91 ⎤
13. Suppose r is a real number for which ⎢r  ⎥  ⎢r  ⎥  ⎢r  ⎥  .......  ⎢r  ⎥  546 . Find [100r]
⎣ 100 ⎦ ⎣ 100 ⎦ ⎣ 100 ⎦ ⎣ 100 ⎦
14. ‘a’ is an integer satisfying the equation |2a + 7| + |2a – 1| = 8. Then find the number of solution for ‘a’.
15. If |x| + x + y = 10 and x + |y| – y = 12, then find x + y.
16. Solve the system x + 3y + |3 x – y| = 19, 2x + y = 6.
17. Solve the following system of equations :
x3
xy2 = 108 and  1010
y
18. Assume that a, b, c and d are positive integers such that a5 = b4, c3 = d2 and c – a = 19. Determine d – b.
[KVS-JMO 2016]
19. Real numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ satisfy the equations 3a = 81b+2 and 125b = 5a–3. What is ab?
20. If x and y are integers such that 3x+2 . 123 = 4x–2.9y, determine the value of y.
21. For some positive integers ‘m’ and ‘n’, 2m–2n = 1792. Determine the value of m2 + n2.
22. Determine the smallest positive integer y for which there is a positive integer x satisfying the equation
213 + 210 + 2x = y2.
23. Without actually calculating, find which is greater : 3111 or 1714. [KVS-JMO 2007]
24. Find all positive integers x, y, z such that 2x + 2y + 2z = 2336, where x < y < z.
2 2 2 2 2 2
25. Let p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6 be prime numbers, each greater than 3. Show that p1  p2  p3  p4  p5  p6 is
divisible by 6.
26. Prove that the equation x4 + y4 = 2020 has no integral solution.
27. Find the smallest positive integer x such that 12x = 25y2, where y is a positive integer.
28. Let n be the largest positive integer such that n 2 + 2016n is a perfect square. Determine the remainder when
n is divided by 1000.
3 3
29. Find the number of integers x which satisfy the inequality x .
1 3 5– 3
30. For m, n integers satisfying 3m + 2 = 5n + 3 and 30 < 3m + 2 < 40, find the value of mn.
m
31. If a + b = 1 and the maximum possible value of the product ab is of form where m and n are co-primes,
n
then find mn.
32. If a, b, c and d are four positive real numbers such that abcd = 1, then (1 + a) (1 + b) (1 + c) (1 + d)  n
where n is a positive integer, find the value of n.
m
33. If a, b, c are real numbers such that a + b + c = 0, a 2 + b 2 + c2 = 1 and a 2 b 2 c 2  , where m and n are
n
co-prime numbers, then find n – m.
p2 q2 r2 s2 t2
34. For any real numbers p, q, r, s, t  1,      x find x (where x is a natural
p –1 q –1 r –1 s –1 t –1
number).
35. Find the smallest natural number which has a remainder of 1 when divided by 2, a remainder of 2 when
divided by 3, a remainder of 3 when divided by 4, a remainder of 4 when divided by 5.
36. Find the product of all of positive integers n that satisfy the following inequality
n < 12 < n + 17 < 2n + 10 < n 2 – 51
37. What is the largest integer n for which n 3 + 1631 is divisible by n + 11?
38. Find the unit digit of 17 1 + 17 2 + 17 3 + 17 4 + ............ + 1716 + 17 17.
39. Let Sn = n 2 + 20n + 12, n a positive integer. What is the sum of all possible values of n for which Sn is a
perfect square. [Pre-RMO 2012]
40. What is the smallest positive integer K such that K(3 3 + 4 3 + 5 3) = a n for some the integers a and n with
n > 1?
41. Let S(M) denote the sum of the digits of a positive integer M written in base 10. Let N be the smallest
positive integer such that S(N) = 2013. What is the value of S(5N + 2013)? [Pre-RMO 2013]
8n
42. For how many natural numbers n between 1 and 2014 (both inclusive) is an integer?
9999 – n
[Pre-RMO 2014]
43. Let f be a one -to-one function from the set of natural numbers to itself such that f(mn) = f(m) f(n) for all
natural numbers m and n. What is the least possible value of f(999)? [Pre-RMO 2014]
44. For natural numbers x and y, let (x, y) denote the greatest common divisor of x and y. How many pairs of
natural numbers x and y with x  y satisfy the equation xy = x + y + (x, y)? [Pre-RMO 2014]
45. The digits of a positive integer n are four consecutive integers in decreasing order when read from left to
right. What is the sum of the possible remainder when n is divided by 37? [Pre-RMO 2015]
46. Let n be the largest integer that is the product of excatly 3 distinct prime numbers x, y and 10x + y, where
x and y are digits. What is the sum of the digits of n? [Pre-RMO 2015]
47. How many two-digit positive integers N have the property that the sum of N and the number obtained by
reversing the order of the digits of is a perfect square? [Pre-RMO 2015]
48. Let E(n) denote the sum of even digits of n. For example E(1234) = 2 + 4 = 6. What is the value of E(1) +
E(2) + E(3) .......... + E(100)? [Pre-RMO 2015]
49. A natural number a has four-digits and a 2 ends with the same four-digits of a. Find the value of (10080 – a).
[Pre-RMO 2016]
50. The five-digit number 2a9b1 is a perfect square. Find the value of a b – 1 + b a – 1. [Pre-RMO 2016]
51. Given that p, p + 1 and 2p + 1 are prime numbers, find the sum of all possible values of p.
52. Zero was inserted between the digits of a two-digit number divisible by 3, and the result was increased by twice
its hundreds digit. The number obtained happens to be 9 times the initial one. Find the original number.
53. The next-to-last digit of the square of a natural number is odd. Find the sum of all possible last digits of these
squares.
54. Find the least natural number divisible by 36 which has all 10 digits in its decimal representation.
55. Find the number of integral ordered pairs (x, y) satisfying x2 – 7y = 10


PRMO-2020 - Ch-2 - Number Theory

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PRMO-2020 - Ch-2 - Number Theory

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Chapter 2

Solution : Given expression

abc  cba = a (102 – 1) + b (10 – 10) + c (1 – 102)

 4d + 1 must be a multiple of 37.

 c = 6 (Since ‘c’ is a single-digit number).

Proof : a b (mod n)

 a – b = k1n ... (i)

(where k1 is some integer)

Again, c d (mod n)

Solution : 32000 = 33×666+2 = (33)666 × 32

 32000 = (26 + 1)666 × 9

Now, 27  1 (mod 13)

 27666  1666 (mod 13)  1 (mod 13)

 27666 × 9  1 × 9 (mod 13)

 32000  9 (mod 13)

So, when 32000 is divided by 13, the remainder is 9.

Example 9 : Find the last two digits of 777.

Now, 22005 = 26×334+1 = (26)334 × 21

Solution : Let the number be a1 a2 a3 .........a2n 1  N

Its reverse, R  a2n 1 a2n .......a1

N – (a1 + a2 +........+ a2n+1)  0 (mod 9)

Hence, last digit of 777 = last digit of 73 = 3

Example 16 : Prove that 3095 + 6196 is divisible by 31.

For solving problems on number theory, this lemma is often used.

Example 21 : Show that there are no integers a, b, c for which a2 + b2 – 8c = 6.

Example 22 : Find the G.C.D. of the numbers 2n + 7 and n + 4.

Example 23 : Find the G.C.D. of 250 – 1 and 260 – 1.

Example 26 : Solve xy = x + y + 3 for integer values of x and y.

Example 27 : Solve x2 = 14 + y2 for integer values of x and y.

Example 31 : Solve x2 + y2 + z2 = 8t – 1 for integer values of x, y, z and t.

FERMAT’S LITTLE THEOREM

For ‘a’ relatively prime to ‘p’, we have a p 1  1 mod p 

i.e., 99 k x < 99 k + 99 ............... (1)

i.e., 101 k  x < 101 k + 101 ............... (2)

From (1) & (2), we have,

Now, 101 k 99 k + 99

Example 43 : Calculate the sum

So, the gap between the two perfect squares

i.e., ⎡ k ⎤ = 1 occurs 2 × 1 + 1 = 3 times

So, |7.3| = 7.3, |8.923| = 8.923,

|–7.3| = 7.3, |–8.923| = 8.923

i.e., |x| is always non-negative.

Some important results :

Example 44 : |x – 1| + |x| + |x + 1| = x + 2. [KVS-JMO 2007]

Case II : –1 x 0, then 2 – x = x + 2 x = 0

which is not possible.

Case III : 0 x 1, then x + 2 = x + 2

which is always possible.

Case IV : x 1, then 3x = x + 2

So, the solution is 0 x 1

EXPONENTS AND RADICAL EQUATIONS

= 125 X122  123 124  125 X122 X123 X124

 7 = 2X1 X2 X3 ...X123 X124

m = 1006 and n = 1005

So, m + n = 1006 + 1005 = 2011

Example 49 : Arrange the following in ascending order :

25555, 33333, 62222 [KVS-JMO 2001]

Now, 27 < 32 < 36

 271111 < 321111 < 361111

 33333 < 25555 < 62222

Solution : ax  bx  a  b

squaring on both side, we get

Some useful results