Arithmetic and Statistics Module

I. Scientific Notation - rewriting numbers in the form a × 10n , where a<10 and n is an integer.
○ A large number in scientific notation - begin at the end of the number at the rightmost side, and move it as
many places to the left until there is only one digit left of the decimal point.
■ Example: Express 280,000,000,000 in scientific notation
■ Answer: 2.8 × 1011
○ A small number in scientific notation - begin at the end of the number at the leftmost side, and move it as
many places to the right until there is only one digit left at the right of the decimal point.
■ Example: 0.000000000000026
■ Answer: 2.6 × 1014
II. Rational and Irrational Numbers
○ A Rational number is a real number that can be written as a simple
fraction. Examples:
■ Number as a fraction: 3-3/1; 1.25-5/4; 0.01-1/100; 0.111…-1/9
○ An irrational number is a real number that CANNOT be written as a simple
fraction Examples: √2; ³√9; pi; e
III. Odd and Even Numbers
○ An odd number is an integer that CANNOT be divided exactly by 2. Its units digit should be 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9
○ An even number is an integer that CAN be divided exactly by 2. Its units digit should be 2, 4, 6, 8, or 0.
○ Addition and Subtraction of odd and even numbers
■ Even + Even = Even
■ Odd + Odd = Even
■ Even + Odd = Odd
○ Multiplication of Odd and Even Numbers
■ With at least one even factor = Even
■ With no even factor = Odd
○ Consecutive Integers
■ If a number k is even, then k + 1 is odd
■ If a number k is odd, then k + 1 is even
IV. Divisibility Rules

Description of Whole Number Number by which it is divisible

Even number 2

Sum of the digits of the number is multiple of 3 3

Last two digits of the number is multiple of 4 4

The number ends in 0 or 5 5

The number is multiple of both 2 and 3 6

The integer represented without its units digit minus twice the 7
units digit of the original integer is divisible by 7

Last three digits of the number is multiple of 8 8

Sum of the digits of the number is multiple of 9 9

The number ends in 0 10

 V. Order of Operations
○ The order of operations is given by the acronym PEMDAS; Parentheses ( () ), Exponents ( ^2 ), Multiplication ( *
), Division ( / ), Addition ( + ), and Subtraction ( - ).

Note: Sometimes, a more general G (Grouping) is used instead of P (Parentheses) to include higher grouping symbols like
square brackets ( [ ] ) and curly braces ( { } ).

VI. Fractions and Decimals

○ A fraction is a part of a whole. Fractions may be proper ( < 1) or improper (>1)
○ A decimal is a fraction expressed by figures placed to the right of a decimal

point. Conversion:

1. Fraction to Decimal:
● Divide numerator by denominator.
2
ex. 5 = 2 / 5 = 0.4
2. Decimal to Fraction:
● Write number in fraction form over 1.
● Multiple numerator and denominator by 10 until numerator is a whole number.
● Simplify the fraction.
ex. 0.75 = 0.75 100
1 * 100
75
= 100 = 43

○ Ratio and Proportion:

■ Ratio is a comparison of two numbers.
■ Ratios are easier solved in fraction form.
■ Ordering matters!
○ Proportion is a set of ratios equal to each other.
○ We can obtain a proportion by cross multiplying the ratios. 1 5
ex. 1 : 2 = 5 : 10 (can also be written as = )
2 10
● In this example, the numbers 2 and 5 are called your means, whereas 1 and 10 are your extremes.
*For any general case, the ratio a:b = c:d must satisfy the condition ad = bc

○ Percent:
■ Percent is taken from the Latin phrase per centum, meaning ‘by the hundred’.
■ A percent is a fraction/decimal/ratio expressed as part of a hundred.
ex. 0.75 = 0.75 * 100 = 75 = 75%
1 100 100
○ Conversion:
■ Decimal to Percent:
■ Multiply the decimal by 100.
■ Attach the % symbol.
ex. 0.75 = 0.75 * 100 = 75%
○ Percent to
Decimal:
■ Divide the decimal by 100.
38
ex. 38% = 100 = 0.38
○ Fraction to Percent:
■ Multiply a number to the numerator and denominator that will make the denominator 100.
■ Attach the % symbol.
ex. 3 = 3
*
20
= 60
= 60%
5 5 20 100
○ Percent to
Fraction:
■ Express percent as fraction by making its denominator 100.
■ Simplify.
88
ex. 88% = = 22
100 25
Note: It is much easier to convert to percent by expressing the fraction as a decimal, then multiplying it by 100.
 VII. Probability
○ Probability is the likeliness for something to happen.
The general formula for probability is:
Number of ways it can happen
Probability = Total number of outcomes
Note: For simultaneous instances, i.e. probability of two dice to yield a 2, denominator is multiplied to each other,
not added.

VIII. Mean, Median, Mode

○ Terms in Statistics

Given the ff. numbers: 1 2 3 3 5 6 7 8 9

○ Mean:
■ Defined as the average of the given numbers.
sum of numbers
ex. Mean = = 1+2+3+3+5+6+7+8+9 = 4.89
○ Median: # of numbers 9

■ Defined as the middle value of the given numbers (note: always round up when number of given
is odd. Also, numbers must be arranged in ascending order.)
ex. Given 9 numbers,29 = 4.5, 5th number is 5. Median = 5
○ Mode:
■ Defined as the number that occurs most.
ex. In the given set of numbers, 3 occurs the most. Mode = 3
IX. Counting Problems
■ Fundamental Counting Principle : If an event can happen in m ways, and another event can
happen in n ways, then the total number of ways that the two events can happen together is m x
n.

Example: If I have four shirts and four pairs of pants, how many combinations of clothing can I have?
Solution: 4 x 4 = 16 possible combinations of clothing
X. Multiplication
Rule
○ if an experiment can be done in N 1 ways, and if for each of these ways, a second operation can be performed
in N 2 ways, then the total number of different ways on which both can be done together is N 1 × N 2 .
Example: How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5 if two-digits can be
used only
Solution: For the units’ digit, there are four options so N 1 = 4. For the tens’ digit, we have three
options left since the numbers cannot be repeated, so N 2 = 3. Applying Multiplication Rule, 4 × 3 = 12.
Answer: 12 numbers.

XI. Permutations
○ All possible outcomes in which the order of the combinations matter. If no repetitions are allowed, the total
number can be computed by n!(n−r)! , wherein n is the number of given items and and we choose r of them.
Example: There are 10 contestants in a competition. How many ways can we award a 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
place prize among these contestants?
Solution: 10! = 10*9*8*7*67*6*5*4*3*2*1
(10−3)!
*5*4*3*2*1 = 720

○ Combinations: Unlike permutations, it is the number of all possible outcomes in which the order does
by n! .
not matter. Can be computed (n−r)!r!
Example: There are 10 students in a class. How many combinations of teams of 3 students can be
made?
Solution: 10! = 10*9*8*77*66*55*44*33*22*11=3 120
(10−3)!3! 2 1
* * * * * * * * *

Note: 0! = 1. The proof is left as an exercise to the reader

○ Sequences
a) To identify the number of terms (n), use n = last term−firstd term + 1 , where d is the common
difference.
b) To get the nth term, use an = a1 + (n − 1)d , where an is the nth term, a1 is the first term, and d
is the common difference.

Example: What is the 20th term of the sequence 2,4,6,8,…

Solution: The first term is 2, n=20 and d=2, 2 + (20 − 1)2 = 40
XII. Circular Permutations therefore,
 ○ Usually encountered in problems wherein a certain number of people should seat in a circular table. The
formula (n-1)! Is always applicable where n is the number of people.
Example: In how many ways can 6 people be seated at a round table?
Solution: (6-1)!
Answer: 120 ways

*Note: Please discuss the basics of Standard Deviation because as far as we can remember, there were items regarding
the topic hehe