PIH

Elaborate upon the contributions of Morarji Desai towards post independent India with a special emphasis on his
peace activism.
Morarji Desai was the 4th Prime Minister (1977-79) and the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.
Contributions of Morarji Desai towards post independent India
• Considered as a tough leader, Desai was also known for pioneering beliefs and enforcing strict discipline and
authority and thus possessed a radical mindset.
• Although a staunch Gandhian, Desai was socially conservative, pro-business, and in favour of free enterprise
reforms, as opposed to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s socialistic policies.
• In a petition filed by veteran socialist leader Raj Narain, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was convicted in June
1975 of wrongfully using government machinery for election work and corruption, Desai joined Jaya Prakash
Narayan and Raj Narain in organising mass protests throughout the country calling for her resignation.
• In a show of intolerance towards any sort of opposition, Indira Gandhi declared Emergency and had all the
opposition leaders including Desai arrested.
• Morarji Desai finally came into office as the Prime Minister when Jaiprakash Narayan picked him as the man
most likely to keep the coalition united.
• Controversial trials of prominent Congress leaders, including Indira Gandhi over Emergency era abuses
worsened the fortunes of his administration.
• His government undid many amendments made to the constitution during emergency and made it difficult
for any future government to impose national emergency.
• According to him, unless the poor and the under privileged living in villages and towns enjoy a decent
standard of life, the talk of socialism will not have much meaning.
• He gave concrete expression to his anxiety by enacting progressive legislation to ameliorate the hardships of
peasants and tenants.
• Sardar Patel deputed him to conduct meetings of farmers in Kaira district which finally led to the
establishment of the AMUL Cooperative movement.
• During his rule, he withdrew intervention in Public Distribution System and rationing shops were literally lost
due to cheap sugar and oil available in the market
• Desai worked to improve relations with neighbour and arch-rival Pakistan and restored normal relations with
China, for the first time since the 1962 war.
• He communicated with Zia-ul-Haq and established friendly relations and diplomatic relations were also re-
established with China.
• Since India’s first nuclear test in 1974, Desai kept India’s nuclear reactors stating “they will never be used for
atomic bombs, and I will see to it if I can help it”.
• He closed down much of the R&AW, and reduced its budget and operations
A stubborn man with a stern demeanor, a man who stuck to his ideas and principles regardless of the situation and
a man of obstinacy and discipline that lived almost a century. This is how history remembers Morarji Desai. The
Bhagavad Gita, a Parker pen, a Gandhi ‘topi’ and a ‘tulsi mala’, some of personal effects of the former Prime
Minister will be sent to the upcoming PMs museum
Operation Cactus enhanced India’s prestige enormously and showed our efficiency and capability to mount a
successful operation at short notice. Comment
‘Operation Cactus’, the code name for India’s military intervention in the Maldives in 1988, following an attempted
coup d’état against the government of President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom and his request for help, was
spontaneous and swift.
Background: Operation Cactus
• More than 60 of PLOTE’s mercenaries landed in the Maldivian capital of Male and soon gained control of the
city.
• Then-President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who was able to escape capture, requested military intervention
from several countries, including India.
• Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi responded to Gayoom’s call, dispatching paratroopers and naval warships to the
island nation.
• Operation Cactus started on the night of 3 November 1988, hours after the request for intervention.
• The Indian paratroopers rescued the President and soon returned control of the capital to the Maldivian

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 • The Indian paratroopers rescued the President and soon returned control of the capital to the Maldivian
government.
Operation Cactus: India’s intervention and rationale
• India’s intervention in the attempted coup became necessary as in the absence of Indian intervention,
external powers would have been tempted to intervene or even to establish bases in Maldives.
• Maldives being in India’s backyard would have been detrimental to India’s national interest.
• India’s whole security prospects in Indian Ocean was at stake due to this incident.
• Relations with Sri Lanka the same year was tense and hence could not risk two antagonistic governments as
its neighbors in Indian Ocean. India, therefore, intervened with “Operation Cactus”.
• It was carried out to preserve the security situation in the wider Indian Ocean Region, which would be under
threat if the attempted coup in Maldives was successful. Maldives was also an import sea line of
communication.
• Indian extradited some of the mercenaries captured from the freighter in July 1989 to stand trial in the
Maldives. Although they were all handed death sentences, President Gayoom commuted to life
imprisonment under Indian pressure. This also earned huge credibility to India
Success of the operation and its impact
• Operation Cactus was testimony to the fact that India could play a role in ensuring security in Asia. The role
was a precursor to India being a regional security provider in the Indian ocean region.
• India’s swift, decisive action was hailed by the international community, ranging from US President Ronald
Reagan to Margaret Thatcher.
• Operation Cactus enhanced India’s prestige enormously and showed our efficiency and capability to mount a
successful operation at short notice. There was universal acknowledgement of our role as a police force in the
area.
• One of the impacts of the development was close alignment on the security understanding between India and
Maldives.
• India has been helping in the capacity and capability development of the Maldivian armed forces. Since then,
thousands of Maldivian National Defence Force (MNDF) personnel have been trained in India.
India’s foreign policy is about non-interference in sovereign countries’ internal affairs but in 1988 the Maldivian
president requested India’s help through military intervention and as a responsible neighbour India was swift in its
action and within the bounds of legality per the ICJ Nicaragua. Most importantly, nations like USA, UK and others
recognized India’s clout and its importance in the Indian Ocean region. India’s stature on diplomatic pedestal was
raised high after Operation Cactus, making it a responsible nation contributing to world peace and security.
Examine the causes that led to the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. What were the reasons behind India’s
victory in the war?
Bangladesh War of Independence was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist
and self-determination movement in East Pakistan. Bangladesh’s independence has been considered India’s most
successful neighborhood intervention.
The causes that led to the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971
• Economic Prowess of East Pakistan: Most of the foreign exchange was earned by exports from East Pakistan
which was poorly defended when the big war of 1965 with India was fought.
• Disparity of Governance: Punjab and the Punjabi-dominated army ruled Pakistan soon after the birth of
Pakistan. The services were also dominated by Punjabis through quotas but East Pakistan dominated in
literacy and high education. Top seats in the civil services exams always went to East Pakistan.
• Military Rule: General Ayub Khan took over Pakistan in 1958, the East Pakistan’s needs and demands were
completely suppressed. Until 1962, martial law continued and Ayub purged a number of politicians and civil
servants from the government and replaced them with army officers.
• Distance factor: Pakistan couldn’t tackle the strange phenomenon of being divided by a thousand miles of
India.
• Six-Point Program discarded: The six point program of Mujib-Ur-Rahman in 1966 for economic and political
autonomy of East Pakistan was discarded.
• Imposition of Urdu: Urdu was made the “National Language” of Pakistan. The requests from East Pakistan
and option of Arabic were turned down.
• Genocides and Refugee Problems: There was a systematic ethnic slaughter which qualified as genocide. There
was clear ethnic or religious targeting of the Hindu minority among the Bengalis. By July-August 1971, 90% of

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 was clear ethnic or religious targeting of the Hindu minority among the Bengalis. By July-August 1971, 90% of
the refugees were Hindus concentrated in the border districts of West Bengal with large Muslim populations.
The Response of West Pakistan to 1970 cyclone which ravaged East Pakistan was minimal and lacked
compassion.
• Immediate Cause: The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national
elections in 1971 and demanded autonomy for East Pakistan. This victory also gave it the right to form a
government, but Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the Chairman of the Pakistan People’s Party refused to let the Sheikh
become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. This initiated the war.
India was compelled to intervene in the Bangladesh War of 1971 due to various strategic, domestic, economic and
humanitarian factors.
• Strategic: Having a hostile West Pakistan and East Pakistan on both sides of its borders was a strategic
concern for India. This was compounded by the strain in Sino-Indian relations which culminated in the war of
1962. provoked military aggression by Pakistan on the North-West India in 1972 needed to be responded in a
stringent manner. Therefore, the intervention in 1971 was necessary to safeguard the long term strategic
interests.
• Domestic: The constant influx of migrants from East Pakistan was creating various problems in the Border
States. The resources were limited and there was constant struggle between locals and refugees over the use
of these resources. Besides there were various other ethnic and social problems due to this inflow of
migrants.
• Economic: The country was spending huge resources to absorb these refugees. Being a closed economy, India
was not in a position to continue spending resources for long and hence a long term solution to the problem
was needed. Beside, having a hostile East Pakistan was hindering the development of northeastern part of
the country due to limited connectivity.
• Humanitarian: Lastly the atrocities committed on the people of East Pakistan forced India to intervene in the
conflict on humanitarian ground to prevent a large scale crisis.
Factors that led to India’s victory over Pakistan
• Timing of war -India chose to fight against Pakistan in the winter months when the Himalayan passes were
snowbound thus cutting China’s military support to Pakistan.
• Leadership Indira Gandhi had been a hawkish leader known for her firm decisions. Her stand didn’t collapse
even under US pressure by 7th Fleet Naval mobilization threat.
• Diplomacy The then Prime minister Indira Gandhi sought international opinion to the cause of Bangladesh
and made aware of India’s unbearable burden of refugees. She build a consensus to force a UN resolution
condemning the Pakistani atrocities in Bangladesh.
• Military assistance India not only gave sanctuary to the Bangladeshi government-in-exile but also trained and
equipped the Mukti Bahini. Large-scale usage of Indian Air Force compared to 1962 War against China.
Success of operations conducted by navy on western fronts by attacking Karachi and blockading of eastern
front by naval ships.
• Mutual cooperation Mutual cooperation between Indian armies and Bangladeshi local population in the East
Pakistan making it difficult for Pakistani armies to survive there.
• Friendship treaty:To secure itself against a possible U.S.-China intervention in case events led to war, India
signed on August 9 a 20-year Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation.
India played the great role in emergence of independent Bangladesh and was the first country to recognize
Bangladesh as separate state. India’s humanitarian intervention in Bangladesh has shaped South Asia, made it a
responsible power in the region. India’s links with Bangladesh are civilisational, cultural, social and economic. The
shared colonial legacy, history and socio-cultural bonds demand that the political leadership of the two countries
inject momentum into India-Bangladesh relations.
India’s role in liberation of Bangladesh:
• Indian government allowed Awami league leaders to form government in exile
• Gave military training to Mukti Bahini Sena on Indian soil.
• Provided food, shelter, clothing and medical aid to refugees in spite of tremendous strain on their resources.
• In December 1971, Indian armed forces directly undertook the operation for liberation of Bangladesh which
led to Indo-Pakistan war of 1971.
• India observed international refugee law and allowed refugees regardless of religion or language. It
internationalised their tragedy

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 internationalised their tragedy
Aftermath of War: Shimla agreement:
• Shimla Agreement was signed between India (Indira Gandhi) and Pakistan (zulfikar Ali Bhutto)
• Main agenda at Shimla was to deal with the aftermath of the 1971 War and usher in durable peace between
India and Pakistan.
• The following principles of the agreement also show that it was a peace treaty .A mutual commitment to the
peaceful resolution of all issues through direct bilateral approaches .To build the foundations of a cooperative
relationship with special focus on people to people contacts .To uphold the inviolability of the Line of Control
in Jammu and Kashmir, which is a most important CBM between India and Pakistan, and a key to durable
peace.
• Even though the agreement was in the interests of bringing peace in the relations of both the countries it
adversely impacted the future of Kashmir and despite being in a winning position India could not use its
diplomacy to the mark.
Bilateral relations:
• India and Bangladesh today enjoy one of the best periods of their relationship, with positive development in
the areas of diplomatic, political, economic and security relations.
• Bilateral trade was a little over $9 billion in FY 2017-18 and Bangladeshi exports increased by 42.91%,
reaching $1.25 billion in FY 2018-2019.
• The India-Bangladesh border is one of India’s most secured.
• By signing of the Land Boundary Agreement in 2015, the two neighbours amicably resolved a long-
outstanding issue.
• In 2018, in addition to the 660 MW of power imported by Bangladesh, Indian export of electricity increased
by another 500 MW.
• Train services on the Dhaka-Kolkata and Kolkata-Khulna are doing well, while a third, on the Agartala-Akhaura
route, is under construction.
• Today, Bangladesh contributes 50% of India’s health tourism revenue.
• India and Bangladesh share 4096.7 km. of border, which is the longest land boundary that India shares with
any of its neighbours. The India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) came into force following the
exchange of instruments of ratification in June 2015
• Relations between the two border guarding forces are at their best right now.
• India and Bangladesh share 54 common rivers. A bilateral Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) is working since June
1972 to maintain liaison between the two countries to maximize benefits from common river systems.
• India and Bangladesh share the historical legacy of cooperation and support during the Liberation War of
1971.Various Joint exercises of Army (Exercise Sampriti) and Navy (Exercise Milan) take place between the
two countries.
The Partition of India was one of the largest, most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of population that human
history has known. Examine the impact of partition on India
“Partition” – the division of British India into the two separate states of India and Pakistan on August 14-15, 1947 –
was the “last-minute” mechanism by which the British were able to secure agreement over how independence
would take place. At the time, few people understood what Partition would entail or what its results would be, and
the migration on the enormous scale that followed took the vast majority of contemporaries by surprise.
Social impacts
• Huge number of refugees belonging to religious minorities crossing over the border
• In terms of human resource the loss was enormous as it received about 16 million uprooted, homeless
refugees who had to be rehabilitated at
• Demographic changes due to migration and Overcrowding in border districts, towns and cities
• Emergence of ethno-cultural, ethno-religious minorities leading to inter-ethnic conflict
• Influx of people in the metropolis of Kolkata resulting to over-urbanization
• Logistics of rehabilitation of refugees
• Rise in the number of unemployed
• Later bouts of communal tension generated further movement, with a trickle of people still migrating as late
as the 1960s.
Economic impacts
• West Punjab and Sind traditionally formed a great source of food supply so much so that they were called the

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 • West Punjab and Sind traditionally formed a great source of food supply so much so that they were called the
granary of undivided India.
• But since the two regions came to belong to Pakistan after the partition, India was hit hard so far as food
production was concerned.
• The industrial sector suffered considerably from the impact on agriculture, for reasons of the traditional
linkage of industries with the agricultural sector for deriving raw materials produced in the agricultural
• In addition the riots that ensued after the partition led to a massive migration of skilled labour from India to
Pakistan. A majority of the skilled workers and artisans were incidentally the people of the Muslim
community.
• The biggest calamity in the jute sector arose from the fact that nearly 80% of jute production went to east
Pakistan because of the partition.
Geographical impacts
• Loss of territorial resources, i.e. fertile agricultural land, in this case an extensive area under jute crop, forest
lands, loss of huge mangrove forests in the deltaic region of Sundarbans
• Sharing of water resources between upper and lower riparian states
• Border disputes related to demarcation of boundary running through riverine delta areas and flat alluvium
plains
• Inadequate transport and communication network system between newly created independent nations
• Inadequate infrastructure for inter and intra-regional trade and commerce
• Enclaves on either side of the border
Geopolitical impacts
• The geopolitical situation is a direct impact of unwise partition of territories the implication of which is far-
reaching.
• In order to achieve a lasting peace in the sub-continent a pragmatic foreign policy and settlement of
unresolved issues such as sharing of water, border management, settlement of border disputes, disbanding of
terrorist outfits are of prime importance.
Today, the two countries’ relationship is far from healthy. Kashmir remains a flashpoint; both countries are nuclear-
armed. Indian Muslims are frequently suspected of harbouring loyalties towards Pakistan; non-Muslim minorities in
Pakistan are increasingly vulnerable thanks to the so called Islamisation of life there since the 1980s. Seven decades
on, well over a billion people still live in the shadow of Partition.
The relentless diplomacy and persuasion used by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel made the dream of united India a reality.
Discuss
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Iron Man of India, also considered to be the architect of modern India. India’s first
deputy prime minister and home minister is remembered perhaps most for the manner in which he united the
country by integrating 565 princely states soon after Independence. Modern Indian history is incomplete without
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. His vision, his work, and his principles were highly remarkable in Independent India
Dream of united India made true by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
• When India became independent in 1947, Sardar Patel took over the role as a deputy PM at a time when
Indian history was in a very critical stage.
• In a truly masterful display of statesmanship, Sardar Patel ensured a smooth integration of the troubled
domains by not allowing the situation to deteriorate into civil unrest.
• There was neither bloodshed nor any kind of rebellion as he went about the task of building a strong India
with a missionary zeal.
• Patel often invoked the patriotism of the princes in his attempt to convince them to join India.
• On other occasions he reminded them of the possibility of anarchy and on event of their refusal to join.
• He also introduced the concept of ‘privy purses’ as a payment to be made to the families of the princes for
their agreement to integrate with India.
• With great skill and masterful diplomacy & using both persuasion & pressure, Patel succeeded in integrating
hundreds of princely states.
• Most princely states joined Constituent Assembly with wisdom but others like of Junagarh, Kashmir, Manipur
and Hyderabad publicly announced their desire to claim an independent status.
• Sardar Patel had strong will and his decisiveness, taking tough decisions, and his undivided loyalty towards
Mahatma Gandhi marks him out among his peers.
• His skillful combination of diplomatic persuasion of pointing to the larger long term interests of the

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 • His skillful combination of diplomatic persuasion of pointing to the larger long term interests of the
population and also with a certain amount of arm-twisting which made it clear that there would be a price to
pay if the rulers did not accept the conditions the Indian government was putting.
Often referred to as the “Bismarck of India”, Patel was instrumental in bringing India together. Patel laid out the
initial framework for persuading the princes to join, it was his secretary, V.P. Menon, who did the actual groundwork
of coaxing them. The final touch in the process was applied by the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten.
Value-addition
• The roots of Amul can be traced back to his vision for empowering local communities, particularly women.
• It was Sardar Patel who also popularized the idea of cooperative housing societies, thus ensuring dignity and
shelter for man.
• Patel’s lasting contribution was protecting the Indian constitution from the ogre of communal electorates.
• He was a major driving force behind the liberal industrial policy resolution of 1948.
• Patel was among the few to see the dangers from China’s imminent takeover of Tibet.
• Junagarh -A small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian Territory -Had no link with Pakistan
yet Nawab announced accession to Pak -But majority of the people (majorly Hindu), desired to join India -This
led to a violent movement against Nawab along with Indian troops marching into the state -A plebiscite was
held which favoured joining India
• Jammu and Kashmir :-Hindu ruler Hari Singh tried to negotiate with India & Pak to have an independent
status for his state. Since majority population of the state was Muslim, the Pakistan thought Kashmir
‘belonged‘ to them. On 15th August Harisingh offered standstill agreement with both countries which allowed
the free movement of people & goods. Pakistan signed the agreement but India didn’t. Pakistan became
impatient & started violating standstill agreement. 24th October Hari Singh demanded military assistance
from India. Mountbatten pointed out that under international law India can send its troops only after state
signs a formal instrument of accession Thus on 26th Oct Maharaja signed instrument of accession which got
ratified in 1954. On 27th Oct. morning nearly 100 planes airlifted men and weapons to Srinagar. Pakistan
army left the main valley region but continue to occupy a large chunk of territory of Gilgit, Baltistan region –
Pak occupied Kashmir.
• Hyderabad -Largest princely state of India which was ruled by Nizam -Nizam led to tyrannical ways & aspired
to set up a Muslim dominion rather than integration with India -He wanted an independent status for
Hyderabad & thus entered into negotiation of standstill agreement with India -Meanwhile people revolted
against Nizam’s rule, particularly the peasants of Telangana due to his worst oppression measures. Nizam
retaliated on popular movement by unleashing a para-military force -150,000 soldiers were mobilized by
Nizam to fight against the Indian Union -They murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the
non-Muslims -In Sep 1948, Indian army under operation Polo invaded Hyderabad state & overthrew its
Nizam, annexing the state merged it into the Indian Union.
• Manipur -Indian government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions. Maharaja of
Manipur signed the instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the internal
autonomy of Manipur would be maintained. Under the pressure of public view, Maharaja held elections in
Manipur in June 1948 & thus state became a constitutional monarchy. Manipur was the 1st part of India to
hold an election based on universal adult franchise. Government of India succeeded in pressurizing the
Maharaja into signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected
Legislative Assembly of Manipur. This caused a lot anger and resentment in Manipur, the consequences of
which are still being felt.
The internal reorganisation of India presented the next big challenge in the post independent India. Discuss how the
reorganisation was done while preserving the unity of the nation.
The boundaries of provinces in pre-1947 India had been drawn in a haphazard manner as the British conquest of
India had proceeded for nearly a hundred years. No heed was paid to linguistic or cultural cohesion so that most of
the provinces were multilingual and multicultural. The interspersed princely states had added a further element of
heterogeneity.
Background
• Post-Independence, the reorganization of more than 500 princely states into effective provincial units was
one of the biggest tasks.
• In pursuance of the same, K. Dhar commission (1948) and JVP Committee (1948) advocated for reorganization
of states based on geographical contiguity, administrative convenience, financial self-reliance and potential

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 of states based on geographical contiguity, administrative convenience, financial self-reliance and potential
for development.
• However, with the sudden death of Potti Srirammalu following hunger strike in demand for Andhra state
created a volatile situation and Fazl Ali Commission was set up (in 1953) and its recommendation for
reorganization of state based on linguistic criteria was accepted.
Reorganization of India while preserving unity
• Official Language: The constitution-makers were aware that as the leaders of a multilingual country they
could not ignore, or even give the impression of ignoring, the interests of any one linguistic area. The
constitution provided that Hindi in Devanagari script with international numerals would be India’s official
language. English was to continue for use in all official purposes till 1965.
• Linguistic reorganization of states: On the basis of the State Reorganisation Commission’s(SRC)
recommendations, the linguistic reorganisation of 14 States and six Centrallyad ministered territories were
partially completed in 1956, with several other States to be reorganised later on. This was a massive state
rationalisation exercise, not simply to establish newer modes of power and authority but to rearrange social,
cultural, regional and linguistic diversities into more manageable enclaves of state power.
• Masses empowered: The formation of these states changed the nature of democratic politics and leadership.
The path to politics and power was now open to people speaking regional languages rather than the small
English-speaking elite.
• Tribal consolidation: Language coupled with the regional and tribal identity provided the most powerful
instrument for the formation of ethnonational identity in India. Special rights to tribal areas led to
preservation of tribal identity.
• Reorganization led to the local people participating in the administration in a larger number because of being
able to communicate in a common language
The political leadership of newly independent India had the foresight to visualize the consequences of not
acquiescing to popular aspirations. States’ reorganization did not, of course, resolve all the problems relating to
linguistic conflicts. Disputes over boundaries between different states, linguistic minorities and economic issues such
as sharing of waters, and power and surplus food still persist. However, their decision to linguistically reorganize the
states has removed one important factor that would’ve jeopardized India’s integrity and thus strengthened the
cause of Indian unity.
Nehru favoured the policy of integrating the tribal people in Indian society by making them an integral part of the
Indian nation, even while maintaining their distinct identity and culture. Elucidate.
The preservation of the tribal people’s rich social and cultural heritage lay at the heart of the government’s policy of
tribal integration. As Jawaharlal Nehru, the main influence in shaping the government’s attitude towards the tribals,
put it: ‘The first problem we have to face there [in the tribal areas] is to inspire them [the tribal people] with
confidence and to make them feel at one with India, and to realise that they are part of India and have an honoured
place in it.’ At the same time, ‘India to them should signify not only a protecting force but a liberating one’. Indian
nationalism, Nehru thought, was capable of accommodating the uniqueness of the tribal people.
Nehruvian idea of integrating tribal people in Indian society :
• There were two major approaches regarding the place to be accorded to tribals in Indian society. One
approach was to leave the tribal people alone, uncontaminated by modern influences operating outside their
world and to let them stay more or less as they were.
• The second approach was that of assimilating them completely and as quickly as possible into the Indian
society all around them. The disappearance of the tribal way of life was not to be regretted; it was to be
welcomed for that would represent their ‘upliftment’.
• Jawaharlal Nehru rejected both these approaches. The first approach, of treating the tribal people ‘as
museum specimens to be observed and written about’, was, he said, ‘to insult them’.
• The tribal people, he wrote, ‘could not be left cut off from the world as they were’.
• Isolation was in any case impossible at this stage, for the process of penetration by the outside world had
already gone too far and ‘it was not possible or desirable to isolate them’
• The second approach of allowing them ‘to be engulfed by the masses of Indian humanity ’,or of their
assimilation through the operation of normal outside forces was also wrong, according to Nehru.
• This would lead to the loss of the tribals’ social and cultural identity and of the many virtues they possessed.
Instead of these two approaches, Nehru favoured the policy of integrating the tribal people in Indian society , of
making them an integral part of the Indian nation, even while maintaining their distinct identity and culture.

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making them an integral part of the Indian nation, even while maintaining their distinct identity and culture.
Nehruvian tribal Panchsheel policy There were two basic parameters of the Nehruvian approach: ‘the tribal areas
have to progress’ and ‘they have to progress in their own way’. Progress did not mean ‘an attempt merely to
duplicate what we have got in other parts of India’. Whatever was good in the rest of India would ‘be adopted by
them gradually’.
Jawaharlal Nehru formulated the following five principles for the policy to be pursued vis-a-vis the tribals also
known as Tribal Panchsheel:
• People should develop along the lines of their own genius, and the imposition of alien values should be
avoided.
• Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected.
• Teams of tribals should be trained in the work of administration and development.
• Tribal areas should not be over-administered or overwhelmed with a multiplicity of schemes.
• Results should be judged not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the human character that is
evolved.
Nehru’s approach was in turn based on the nationalist policy towards tribals since the 1920s when Gandhiji set up
ashrams in the tribal areas and promoted constructive work. After independence this policy was supported by
Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, and other major political leaders.
Measures taken to preserve tribal identity and culture
• To give shape to the government’s policy, a beginning was made in the constitution itself which directed
under Article 46 that the state should promote with special care the educational and economic interests of
the tribal people and should protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation, through special
legislation.
• The governors of the states in which tribal areas were situated were given special responsibility to protect
tribal interests, including the power to modify central and state laws in their application to tribal areas, and to
frame regulations for the protection of tribals’ right to land and also their protection from money lenders.
• The application of the Fundamental Rights was amended for this purpose. The constitution also extended full
political rights to the tribal people.
• In addition, it provided for reservation of seats in the legislatures and positions in the administrative services
for the Scheduled Tribes as in the case of the Scheduled Castes.
• The constitution also provided for the setting up of Tribal Advisory Councils in all states containing tribal areas
to advise on matters concerning the welfare of tribals.
• A Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was appointed by the President to investigate
whether the safeguards provided for them were being observed.
How did the political class tackle the issue of tribal integration post independence? Critically analyse
The Government of India has adopted a policy of integration of tribals with the mainstream aiming at developing
a creative adjustment between the tribes and non tribes leading to a responsible partnership. By adopting the
policy of integration or progressive acculturation the Government has laid the foundation for the uninhibited
march of the tribals towards equality, upward mobility, and economic viability and assured proximity to the
national mainstream.
The task of integrating the tribal people into the mainstream was extremely complex due to:
• Diverse dwelling conditions
• Different cultures & tradition
• Varied languages
• Spread all over India
• Resided mostly in hills & forest areas in colonial India
• Lived in isolation
• Different habits and ways of life with their non-tribal neighbours
There were certain broad guidelines laid down by Nehru, with the help of V Elwin, which was called as “Tribal
Panchsheel”. They are:
• People should develop along the line of their own genius – avoid imposing anything on them
• Try to encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture
• Tribals rights to land and forest should be respected
• Technical experts needed for development but avoid introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory.
• Judge results not by statistics or amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character involved.

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 • Judge results not by statistics or amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character involved.
• Should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes
Other legislative measures were introduced by the Indian government postindependence under the Nehru
leadership and vision:
• Article 46 of the constitution emphasized the promotion of educational and economic upliftment of the
tribal people. At the same time provided for their protection from exploitation.
• The application of fundamental rights was amended for providing power to the governor of the states with
tribal areas to amend laws for the protection of tribal interests.
• Reservation of seats in the legislature as well as administration.
• Setting up of Tribal Advisory Councils in all states.
• Commissioner for scheduled tribes appointed by the President – to investigate whether the safeguards
provided to the tribal people are reaching as targeted.
In spite of the constitutional safeguards and the efforts for integration by central & state governments, the tribals
integration and welfare has been very slow and had few problems:
• Quite often the funds allocated for tribal welfare are not spent or are spent without corresponding results
and sometimes funds are even misappropriated.
• Administrative personnel are either ill trained or prejudiced against tribals.
• Denial of justice, often because of their unfamiliarity with the laws & the legal system.
• Violation of strict land transfer laws to tribals, leading to alienation of land & eviction of tribals.
• Rapid extension of mines & industries has worsened their conditions in many areas.
• The progress of education among the tribal people has been disappointingly slow.
• Exploitations from the forest officials and unsympathetic attitude of officials. The Christian missionaries
played a key role in creating anti-national feelings among the people of the northeast.
• The Naga’s declared themselves as a separate country in 1955 under the leadership of A.Z Phizo and also
the support of external agents. However, the Indian army took control in 1956 and took control of the
situation.
• They were living in acute poverty and although being central in terms of geographical location, they were
cut off in terms of delivery of goods and services.
• Central Indian tribals now took to arms under the inspirations of ideas of Mao, Karl Marx, Lenin etc. This
violent movement is since known as Naxalism. It is so-called as it originated in the region of Naxalbari in
West Bengal in 1967. The areas under the Naxal control are today referred to as the Red Corridor.
The situation today in the tribal areas indicates the coexistence of both the tribal and the non-tribal population
and their common demands of economic and social development as well as justice. It is important to understand
the aspirations of the tribal areas with respect to the region as when the region develops, all elements integral to
the region inevitably develop. However, care must be taken to ensure the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the
tribal people are not infringed upon in the name of development.

What were the causes behind the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)? What role did India play in its
conception? Evaluate the successes and limitations of NAM in achieving of its stated objectives.
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was created and founded during the collapse of the colonial system and the
independence struggles of the peoples of Africa, Asia, Latin America and other regions of the world and at the height
of the Cold War. The Non-Aligned Movement was formed as an organization of States that did not seek to formally
align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain independent or neutral. The
Movement has its origin in the Asia-Africa Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. “Ten Principles of
Bandung”, were proclaimed at that Conference were guiding principles of NAM.
India’s role in conception of NAM
• India’s role in the formation and sustenance of the NAM has been immense.
• Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister was not only one of the founding fathers of the
Movement but, he was also the driving force behind the principles NAM came to stand for.
• In fact, ‘Non-Alignment’ itself was a phrase coined by India’s Ambassador to the United Nations, V.K Menon.
• Nehru’s efforts towards NAM were shaped by his country’s experience as a newly independent nation free
from colonialism, both of which contributed significantly to many other newly independent states joining
India in the movement.
• India and Nehru were the driving force behind NAM, and voiced the concerns of newly independent nation

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 • India and Nehru were the driving force behind NAM, and voiced the concerns of newly independent nation
states that were actively being coerced and persuaded by the two Cold War powers to choose between two,
different political and social orders.
• Instead, India and NAM proposed the principle of nonalignment and a country’s freedom to choose its fate
while also highlighting the fact that multilateralism, non-violence and international cooperation was at the
heart of resolving international disputes.
• India propagated her passion for peace and cooperation rather than war or confrontation using NAM as a
medium.
Successes of NAM
• NAM helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were under colonial bondage.
• NAM assisted its members in safeguarding their national security and territorial integrity.
• NAM created a conducive environment for peace, justice, equality and international cooperation by
contributing to the relaxation of international tension by keeping clear of the two military blocs, USA and
USSR.
• NAM provided an international forum where members’ voices could be heard.
• The movement acted against the arms race of the superpowers during the time of the Cold War.
• It has supported the cause of international peace, justice and freedom. It has opposed all forms of injustice,
including the Suez Crisis of 1956, the aggressive policies of Israel and the unilateral American attack on Iraq.
• NAM has advocated the creation of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) based on greater economic
cooperation and justice. In fact, the first UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) held in 1964
was largely a result of the efforts of the Non-Aligned countries.
• NAM has made the developed countries realise that the continued deprivation of the third world would
negatively affect the global economy and their own prosperity.
• The movement has succeeded to create a strong front on the International level, representing countries of
the third world in the International organizations on top of which the United Nations.
Limitations of NAM
• World has again moved towards bi-polarity, one led by US and other by China-Russia. The war torn Syria is
prime example of this, where both US and Russia is asserting power.
• The escalating tension in Indo-pacific region due to China’s assertion and US acting as a counterweight to
check the Chinese expansionist policy.
• Issue of global climate change.
• Changing US policies, protectionism, prevalent terrorism and nuclearization of Middle East.
• The other challenges facing the NAM include the necessity of protecting the principles of International law,
eliminating weapons of mass destruction , combating terrorism, defending human rights.
• NAM is also facing challenge in working toward making the United Nations more effective in meeting the
needs of all its member states in order to preserve International Peace , Security and Stability, as well as
realizing justice in the international economic system.
• On the other hand, the long-standing goals of the Movement remain to be realized.
The Non-Aligned Movement, faced with the goals yet to be reached and the many new challenges that are arising, is
called upon to maintain a prominent and leading role in the current International relations in defence of the
interests and priorities of its member states and for achievement of peace and security for mankind.
The need of the hour is to call out for Non-Aligned Movement’s (NAM) revitalisation for it to be able to cater to
the 21st Century needs of Third World countries more efficiently. Comment.
The Non-Aligned Movement was formed during the Cold War as an organization of States that did not seek to
formally align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain independent or
neutral. The Movement has its origin in the Asia-Africa Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. “Ten
Principles of Bandung”, were proclaimed at that Conference were guiding principles of NAM.
NAM Since end of Cold war
• With the end of cold war and changing world order NAM is seen as losing its relevance.
• Several members of the NAM including India have been strengthening their engagement with the
developed world to invite capital, technology, better management practices, larger markets etc to improve
the economic conditions of their citizens.
• There has been scant agreement between members on policies required to address challenges related to
ensuring peace, security and economic development of developing countries.

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 ensuring peace, security and economic development of developing countries.
• Alternative platforms like BRICS, IBSA, SCO and G20 etc have emerged with overlapping agendas, reducing
need and scope for NAM.
Relevance of NAM in 21st Century
• World is more interconnected and interdependent than ever before. Climate change, environmental
degradation, terrorism, radicalisation, poverty, public health emergencies etc are challenges that can only
be faced together, not when world is divided.
• It requires collaboration, not coercion. In short, effective multilateralism remains the only answer. NAM can
be that answer.
• India called for the need for NAM keep pace with the changing times and reform and revitalise the current
arrangements and working methods.
• This will allow NAM to pursue a positive and forward-looking and focused agenda. NAM should not be
positioned as ‘for’ or ‘against’ any ideology or groups of nations.
• Rather NAM should identify select cross-sectoral challenges that require immediate attention.g. counter-
terrorism, global governance reform, sustainable development, and South-South cooperation.
• A democratic, effective, flexible, credible, transparent and representative, multilateral organisation like
NAM is imperative for 21 st century world order.
The philosophy and ideology of ”Non alignment” lays emphasis on strategic independence and autonomy, and
the ”Non-Aligned Movement” seeks to take a collective position on challenges faced by the developing world.
These principles shall always remain relevant.

The Sino-Indian War of 1962 had many consequences and India moved from an idealistic foreign policy to practical
one. Analyse.
China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on Aksaichin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and
Kashmir and NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency). The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured
some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh. The second wave of attack came next month. While the Indian forces could
block the Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east the Chinese managed to advance nearly to
the entry point of Assam plains. Finally, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they
were before the invasion began.
Consequences of Sino-Indian War of 1962
• First, the war of 1962 sealed the fate of the Tibet issue as an eternal source of tension in Sino-Indian relations.
This has had both strategic and tactical consequences.
• Strategically, the Dalai Lama’s presence in India, which the war made de facto irreversible, is a constant strain
on Sino-Indian relations and the embodiment of the unresolved status of the Tibet issue.
• For Beijing, the Dalai Lama’s government in exile in Dharamsala has been a constant challenge to its rule in
Tibet. For Delhi, it has been a symbol of Beijing’s refusal to grant real autonomy to Tibet.
• On a tactical level, Sino-Indian relations have been held hostage by events in Tibet and the relationship
between the Chinese government and the Tibetans.
• 1962 has bequeathed to China and India the border dispute that started the war and has made resolving it a
Herculean task. Thus to this day China continues to claim the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, while New
Delhi lays claim to the Chinese-controlled Aksai Chin territory.
• A series of incidents- including Indian officials visiting the disputed areas, Beijing refusing to issue visa’s to
Indian officers stationed in the disputed area, and official Chinese references to Arunachal Pradesh as “South
Tibet”- have rekindled the dispute and led to a new cycle of accusations and tensions.
• The territorial dispute has led to dangerous militarization of the Sino-Indian border, especially in disputed
areas. Both sides have built transportation infrastructure, airstrips, and outposts and have deployed large
numbers of troops to the border, including a Tibetan paramilitary special force employed by India’s
intelligence service.
• The result has been frequent stand-offs and even occasional skirmishes between Indian and Chinese soldiers,
as seen during last year’s Galwan valley clashes.
• The border war has instilled deep mistrust and a strong sense of rivalry between the two sides.
• To this day, Beijing suspects that India, with the help of the U.S., strives to undermine its rule in Tibet in order
to balance against China’s growing power. These suspicions have only been heightened by India’s hosting of
the Dalai Lama and the recent improvement in U.S.-Indian relations.

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 the Dalai Lama and the recent improvement in U.S.-Indian relations.
• For its part, India still sees China as a nationalist, aggressive power which seeks to dominate Asia and one that
might once again strike unexpectedly, just as it did in 1962.
• These stereotypes, often propagated by jingoistic media, have proved a major obstacle to building a strong
and stable Sino-Indian relationship.
Impact on foreign policy:
• The war of 1962 has also charged Sino-Indian relations with a strong sense of rivalry which has shaped the
foreign policies of both countries.
• Seeking to balance the other side, each country has forged relationships that act as a counterpoint to the
other; most notably, Beijing’s “all weather friendship” with Islamabad and Delhi’s partnership with Moscow.
• The rivalry has also led both sides to compete for influence in their peripheries, especially in Burma and
Nepal, and to resent the spread of the other’s influence close to their borders.
• Hence, Delhi has often obsessed over Chinese penetration in South Asia and its purported “string of pearls”
around India’s maritime borders, while Beijing has resented India’s growing involvement in Southeast Asia
and especially in the South China Sea.
Nearly a half a century since the brief war occurred, it continues to cast a long shadow over SinoIndian relations. The
legacy of the war enhances the inherent competition between China and India. While growing trade and
cooperation mitigate this competition, a long list of factors, such as the security dilemma engendered by the
militarization of disputed Sino-Indian border, keep it alive.
“If Panchsheel principles are applied not only between various countries but also in international relations
generally, they would form a solid foundation for peace and security”. Analyze why despite commitment to
Panchsheel, Sino-Indian war happened?
The Panchsheel agreement or the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence was signed in April 1954 between India
and China. As two republics born after the Second World War, Panchsheel was a sensible idea for India and China
to disengage from each other’s internal affairs and show the rest of the world their belief in unfettered national
sovereignty.
Five principles of Panchsheel
• Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• Mutual non-aggression
• Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
• Equality and mutual benefit
• Peaceful co-existence.
Panchsheel in international relations for Peace and Security
• One cardinal principle of Panchsheel has been equality and mutual benefit, which is opposed to one-
upmanship. Multilateralism must be upheld and nations must display sensitivity and reciprocity in
multilateral institutions like the United Nations Security Council and the WTO to cooperate for world
prosperity.
• Rhetoric of New Cold War or Cold war 2.0 is on the unveil. Trade war, military aggression in South China Sea
has become frequent. Peace co-existence can ensure threat of war.
• The Panchsheel, in order to be relevant, needs to shed its binary approach of west verses the east
recognising the seamlessness of global frontiers, which globalisation has brought in.
• China can shed its middle kingdom complex and prevent superpower rivalry with USA.
• Civil wars in Syria, Sudan and Libya and interference by foreign nations in these nations can be curbed.
Reasons for Sino-India war despite 1954 agreement
• The first sign of discord between India and China came in 1950 when China invaded Tibet. India’s protested,
but yet was made fait accompli to recognise Chinese sovereignty over Tibet in 1954. However, harbouring
Tibetan refugees antagonized China.
• The only two points accepted by India and China was that the Karakoram Pass and Demchok, were in Indian
territory. Opinion differed on how the line traversed between the two points. Thus, in effect, India and
China were faced with a ‘no man’s land’ in eastern Ladakh, where the contentious Aksai Chin lay.
• China illegally occupied the Aksai Chin and completed construction of their Western Highway through it in
1957.
• To counter continued Chinese aggression, India embarked on a ‘Forward policy’ of establishing a series of
small posts all along its Northern and Eastern borders with China, to prevent further incursions.

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 small posts all along its Northern and Eastern borders with China, to prevent further incursions.
India and China are two growing Asian powers and hence a clash of interests is inevitable. The key is to keep it
manageable and not allow it to flare up into another border war such as Galwan Clash. It will be tough test for our
diplomacy. However strong commitment to Panchsheel can show the way forward.
How did a hostile China shape India’s political and economic development post independence? Examine.
While both India and China have a long history, their histories are very different. China has been by and large a
stable, centrally run state through its history with limited periods of instability and lack of a single authority.
India’s history has been exactly the reverse.
• China was much advanced in science and technology, with gunpowder, printing, paper and paper
currency as its inventions. Nehru took keen interest in not just learning from it but also competing with it.
• The contrast between the two was most stark in agriculture. Being vast territories there is a similar
diversity in the eco- agricultural make up of regions in both countries.
• But China’s central rule meant that a uniform revenue collection system and land ownership pattern
prevailed especially while the central power was effective. India by contrast had different legal patterns
of revenue collection and different land tenures as a result of a lack of central authority reinforced by
British experimentation with Ryotwari, Zamindari, Mahalwari etc.
• Land reform was a straightforward issue of changing ownership of large landholding across China as far
as the Communists were concerned.
• They were also committed to it as soon as they could become the sole powers. In India land reform was a
maze of regional complexity and the Congress Party was not a revolutionary organization.
• Land reform thus became a state/ provincial subject rather than a union/central policy issue.
• Thus, India added legal and economic variation to the eco agricultural one.
• India diverted resources from domestic consumption goods production, especially of the machine
produced variety, to investment goods production in the industrial sector and small-scale industrial
consumer goods.
• Even its savings rate was not significantly raised and the growth rate remained modest.
• China seems to have concentrated its industrial efforts also on the basic goods sector initially, but soon
after the first three four years switched to an all-round emphasis on heavy as well as light industries.
• Apart from the aberration of back yard steel furnaces in the Great Leap Forward phase, it was not
saddled with a small-scale industry strategy. But China had a more successful resource mobilization
strategy than India did.
• The Indian Second Five Year Plan [ 1956-61] ran into a resource constraint by 1958. China on the other
hand ran into the evils of overweening ambition in launching the Great Leap Forward.
India and China are two of the oldest and still extant civilizations. For Europeans, they were legendary seats of
immense wealth and wisdom right up to the eighteenth century. Somewhere between the mid-eighteenth
century and early nineteenth centuries, both these countries became, in the European eyes, bywords for
stagnant, archaic, weak nations. China adopted a road that India could always have adopted; indeed, right after
independence.

The Green Revolution and the benefits that accrued out of it helped transform the Indian economy from a state of
food deficient country to a food surplus one. However, it had its own limitations. Analyse.
The green revolution in India led by M.S Swaminathan in 1960’s and 70’s refers to a period when Indian Agriculture
was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as the use of
HYV seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. The Economic Survey 2015-16 claimed Indian
agriculture to be “a victim of its own success—especially the green revolution”, by becoming cereal-centric,
regionally biased and input intensive (land, water and fertilizers)
In a nutshell, Green revolution in India led to Substantial increase in agricultural production and productivity and
reduction in the import of food-grains. The adoption of New technology and modernization of agriculture
strengthened the linkages between agriculture and industry. Rural employment in turn led to prosperity of the
farmers.
Impact of green revolution on agriculture
Positives
• Increase in Agricultural Production and productivity: The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize
and bajra has substantially increased.

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 and bajra has substantially increased.
• Less Dependence on Imports: After the green revolution, India was finally on its way to sel fsufficiency. There
was now enough production for the population and to build a stock in case of emergencies. In fact, India was
able to start exporting its agricultural produce.
• A Benefit to the Farmers: The Green Revolution has increased the income of farmers and landless labourers.
It enabled them to shift to commercial farming from only sustenance farming.
• Dispersal of Rice and Wheat cultivation to non-traditional areas: Green Revolution spread the Rice cultivation
to the semi-arid areas of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, and the wheat cultivation has spread
to the areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and some parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat
and West Bengal.
Negatives
• Food-grains centric: Although all food-grains including wheat, rice, jowar, bajra and maize have gained from
the revolution, other crops such as coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds were left out of the ambit of the
revolution.
• Monocropping: Major commercial crops like cotton, jute, tea and sugarcane were also left almost untouched
by the Green Revolution. This ultimately led to the dangerous trend of Monocropping.
• Displacement of small farmers: The Green Revolution has displaced the agricultural labourers, leading to rural
unemployment. The mechanical innovations like tractors have displaced agricultural labourers.
• Land Degradation: The overuse of chemical fertilizers to get high yield causes physical and chemical
degradation of the soil by altering the natural microflora and increasing the alkalinity and salinity of the soil
• Led to Regional Disparities: It led to growing disparities in economic development at inter and intra-regional
levels. Only 40 percent of the total cropped area benefitted while the rest was left untouched by it. The most
benefitted areas are Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in the north and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu in the south.
Constraints on the spread of High Yielding
• High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was restricted to only five crops: Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra and
Maize. Therefore, non-food grains were excluded from the ambit of the new strategy.
• The HYV seeds in the non-food crops were either not developed so far or they were not good enough for
farmers to risk their adoption.
• The benefits of Green Revolution were primarily reaped by the rich farmers as they had large land area, high
amount of funds to invest in buying fertilizers, machines, HYV seeds etc.
• Majority of farmers on the other hand had small land holdings, with less funds to invest; hence they could not
be benefited much from Green Revolution. In this way, GR further widened the gap between the rich and the
poor farmers.
• The high yield crops require more water and fertilizers as compared to the normal varieties of crops. This
constrained it to resource rich states and arid states could not benefit. Moreover, high input usage also led to
decrease in its reach throughout India.
Limitations of Green revolution:
• Focus only on Food Grains: Although all food-grains including wheat, rice, jowar, bajra and maize have gained
from the revolution, other crops such as coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds were left out of the ambit of the
revolution. Major commercial crops like cotton, jute, tea and sugarcane were also left almost untouched by
the Green Revolution. This ultimately led to the dangerous trend of Monocropping.
• Limited Coverage of HYVP: High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was restricted to only five crops: Wheat,
Rice, Jowar, Bajra and Maize. Therefore, non-food grains were excluded from the ambit of the new strategy.
• Led to Regional Disparities: It led to growing disparities in economic development at inter and intra-regional
levels. Only 40 percent of the total cropped area benefitted while the rest was left untouched by it. The most
benefitted areas are Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in the north and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu in the south. It has hardly touched the Eastern region, including Assam, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa
and arid and semi-arid areas of Western and Southern India. Only those areas which were already better
placed from an agricultural point of view benefitted from Green revolution leading to further aggravated
regional disparities.
• Rampant usage of Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides: The Green Revolution resulted in a large-scale use of
pesticides and synthetic nitrogen fertilisers for improved irrigation projects and crop varieties. However, little
or no efforts were made to educate the farmers, mostly illiterate, about the high risk associated with the

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 or no efforts were made to educate the farmers, mostly illiterate, about the high risk associated with the
intensive use of pesticides. This caused more harm than good to crops and also becomes a cause for
environment and soil pollution. Water Consumption: The crops introduced during the green revolution were
water-intensive crops. Most of these crops being cereals, required almost 50% of dietary water footprint.
Canal systems were introduced, and irrigation pumps also sucked out the groundwater to supply the water-
intensive crops, such as sugarcane and rice, thus depleting the groundwater levels. For instance, Punjab is a
major wheat- and rice-cultivating area, and hence it is one of the highest water depleted regions in India.
• Impacts on Soil and Crop Production: Repeated crop cycle in order to ensure increased crop production
depleted the soil’s nutrients. To meet the needs of new kinds of seeds, farmers increased fertilizer usage. The
pH level of the soil increased due to the usage of these alkaline chemicals. Toxic chemicals in the soil
destroyed beneficial pathogens, which further led to the decline in the yield.
• Unemployment: Except in Punjab, and to some extent in Haryana, farm mechanization under the Green
Revolution created widespread unemployment among agricultural labourers in the rural areas. The worst
affected were the poor and the landless labourers.
• Health Hazards: The large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides such as Phosphamidon, Methomyl,
Phorate, Triazophos and Monocrotophos resulted in resulted in a number of critical health illnesses including
cancer, renal failure, stillborn babies and birth defects.
The Green Revolution, which undeniably ended the country’s “ship-to-mouth” existence and transformed it into an
exporter of rice and wheat. In spite of the negative impact, the success of green revolution cannot be dwarfed. The
spill over effect of green revolution led to the growth of farm mechanization industries to provide tractors, Fertilizer
and pesticide, Agrobased industries etc. However, it has also led to lopsided growth in agriculture, causing regional
and other disparities. Now coupled with frequent droughts, Indian agriculture is under distress. Thus, there is a need
for a second green revolution. The second green revolution must be an Evergreen Revolution, which incorporates
technology in harmony with ecology.
Overall, the Green Revolution was a major achievement for many developing countries, specially India and gave
them an unprecedented level of national food security. However, lesser heed was paid to factors other than ensuring
food security such as environment, the poor farmers and their education about the know-how of such chemicals.
Need for second green revolution:
 [Ushering second green revolution
 Micro-irrigation System: It enables optimal synergies of 3 components of Green Revolutionimproved seed,
water and fertilizer.
 Organic Farming: Can restore degraded land and improve health benefits.
 Precision Farming: It is concerned with using fewer resources and reducing the production cost, by analysing
the variation in various aspects of field and environment like- weather, Soil, vegetation, water etc.
 Green Agriculture: A system of agriculture based upon, integrated pest management, integrated nutrient
management and it does not eliminate the use of minimum quantities of fertilizer and chemical pesticides]
• The need for a Second Green Revolution is being experienced more than ever before.
• One in every two Indians relies on agriculture for livelihood, yet India still has the second highest number of
undernourished people in the world.
• The agriculture sector is at crossroads with rising demand for food items and relatively slower supply
response in many commodities resulting in frequent spikes in food inflation. E.g.: Tomato, onion, pulses.
• There is a marked drop in the yield and production of cereals, underpinned by abysmally low nutrient
consumption per hectare.
• The farmers don’t get remunerative prices for their produce. By enhancing the returns farmers get on their
production is essential for incentivising the farmers to produce more
• The Economic Survey 2015-16 raised an alarm over the dismal performance of the farm sector saying the
Indian agriculture has not seen any big technological breakthrough since the 1960s.
• The food safety net for each of India’s billion-plus citizens requires enhanced agriculture production and
productivity.
• Special attention is required to increase production of nutrition-rich crops like pulses, fruits and vegetables —
which remained untouched in the first Green Revolution.
• There is a need for Indian agriculture to diversify from just crop farming to livestock, fisheries, poultry and
horticulture, besides focusing on raising farm productivity with adequate focus on rain-fed areas.
• The Green Revolution has made us self-sufficient in food grains, but the environmental consequences and

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 • The Green Revolution has made us self-sufficient in food grains, but the environmental consequences and
ecological costs are offsetting the progress made.
• The ground water is depleted and polluted. The lakes and ponds are becoming life less due to
eutrophication – a direct consequence of Green Revolution.
• Climate change is tightening its grip and threatening food supply, not just in India but worldwide. It has never
been more important to protect the scarce natural resources that are essential to agriculture.
What were the factors that led to nationalisation of banks? Examine its impact on economic development and job
creation.
It has been more than 50 years of bank nationalisation in India that began the midnight of July 19, 1969. It started
under the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi with nationalisation of 14 major lenders that accounted for 85 per cent
of bank deposits in the country at that time. Six more banks were later nationalised in 1980. The core objective for
nationalisation was to energise priority sectors at a time when the large businesses dominated credit profiles.
Factors and reasons that led to nationalisation of banks
• Lesser lending to rural areas: Even though the banks lent credit, the disbursal to the rural areas and small
scale borrowers was far less as compared to the industry despite the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
• Agriculture credit neglected: The loans by commercial banks to industry nearly doubled between 1951-1968
from 34 to 68 per cent, even as the agriculture received less than 2 per cent. The government of the time
believed that the banks failed to support its socioeconomic objectives and hence, it should increase its control
over them.
• Expansion of banking: The idea was to ensure reach of bank to unserved and underserved areas, especially
remote hinterland. This would result in formalising the economy to an extent.
• Mobilization of savings: Nationalisation aimed at mobilizing the savings of the people to the largest possible
extent and to utilize them for productive purposes.
• Economic and Political reasons: Bank nationalization was one of Indira Gandhi’s responses to the economic
and political challenges of the time. For example, there were two wars—with China in 1962 and Pakistan in
1965—that put immense pressure on public finances . Two successive years of drought had not only led to
food shortages, but also compromised national security.
• The main objective was to Reduce regional imbalance and increase Priority Sector Lending.
Impact on economic development and job creation
• Increase in Savings: Financial savings rose as lenders opened new branches in areas that were unbanked.
Gross domestic savings almost doubled as a percentage of national income in the 1970s.
• Improve in bank efficiency: Due to the nationalization of banks, the efficiency of the banking system in India
improved. This also boosted the confidence of the public in banks.
• Small scale industries boost: The sectors that were lagging behind like small-scale industries and agriculture
got a boost. This led to an increase in funds and thus increases in the economic growth of India.
• Penetration of banks: The nationalization of banks also increased the penetration of banks. This was mainly
seen in the rural areas of India.
• Financial inclusion: India’s nationalisation led to an impressive growth of financial intermediation. The share
of bank deposits to GDP rose from 13% in 1969 to 38% in 1991. The gross savings rate rose from 12.8% in
1969 to 21.7% in 1990. The share of advances to GDP rose from 10% in 1969 to 25% in 1991. The gross
investment rate rose from 13.9% in 1969 to 24.1% in 1990. Nationalisation also demonstrated the utility of
monetary policy in furthering redistributionist goals.
• Outreach increased: Banks were no longer confined to only metropolitan or cosmopolitan in India. In fact, the
Indian banking system has reached even to the remote corners of the country.
• Green Revolution: This is one of the main reasons for India’s growth process, particularly in the Green
revolution. It led to increased food security in India, reducing dependence on food grain imports
Negative impact of nationalisation of banks
• Bad loans: After nationalization, some banks were operating under losses .This is because banks advance loan
without adequate security. The recovery of loan was poor which lead to losses.
• Inefficiency: Due to the nationalisation of banks, there was a bureaucratic attitude in the banking sector.
There was no responsibility, accountability or incentive for it to progress within the public sector banks.
Unwarranted delays were the new norm within these banks.
• Long-term risks: Though liberal credit is necessary for the development of rural India; it had also created
harmful effects on the stability of the banking sector. The nationalised banks are now facing the problems of

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 harmful effects on the stability of the banking sector. The nationalised banks are now facing the problems of
overdue loans and the establishment of economically unviable branches.
• Political Interference: Another limitation of nationalized commercial banks was increasing the political
interference in granting loans, appointment of banks personnel, opening of new branches etc.
• Inadequate Facilities: Nationalized commercial banks have failed to provide adequate facilities and services to
population living in rural and sub urban area. Banks failed to mobilize rural deposit.
Although the government had succeeded in partially meeting its goal of implementing its developmental agenda
through the banking sector, many in India did not reap the benefits intended by the nationalisation of banks.
Bank nationalization was the pivot of a broader political economy strategy followed in the 1970s—a decade when
economic growth barely outpaced population growth and average incomes stagnated.It was a lost decade for India.
There is no doubt that exogenous shocks, such as rising energy prices or failed monsoons, played a part in the
stagnation, but economic policy also hurt. Bank nationalization succeeded in specific areas such as financial
deepening because of the rapid spread of branches, but it now needs a rethink.
Even though the concept of Total Revolution lies deeply embedded in Gandhian teachings, was Jayaprakash
Narayan’s Total Revolution a utopian ideal? Examine
Total Revolution, as a concept, was put forward by Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) in the wake of Bihar Movement in
Patna. It is a combination of seven revolutions, viz., political, social, economic, cultural, ideological or intellectual,
educational and spiritual. The main motive was to bring in a change in the existing society that is in tune with the
ideals of the Sarvodaya. It was aimed to solve the urgent problems of the country and usher in a new society.
The concept of Total Revolution lies deeply embedded in Gandhian teachings
• Jayaprakash Narayan, the leader of Total Revolution turned to Gandhian teachings as a result of his
disillusionment with what might be called “conventional wisdom of revolution and conventional technique”
of change.
• Infact, Total Revolution is a further extension of Gandhi’s thought on socio-economic problems and technique
of change in the context of contemporary social, economic and political reality.
• Jayaprakash Narayan’s Total Revolution is a grand vision of individual, state and society.
• It is based upon Gandhi’s basic postulates and it envisages non-violent methods of changing society with non-
violent techniques.
• Total Revolution is an all-enveloping process of change in the individual as well as in the society.
• The primary emphasis is on moral values, decentralisation of economic and political power and insistence on
non-violent means to achieve good ends.
• Social change in the Gandhian paradigm is a very comprehensive and inclusive term.
• According to Gandhi, a partial change in any one component of the social matrix is likely to produce
disequilibrium in society. Society, therefore, will tend to move towards a state of constant instability.
• In order to ensure that the social organisation maintains a steady and dynamic homeostatic state, an all-
round change is needed.
Total revolution: a utopian ideal ?
• Ghanshyam Shah rightly said, “JP gave no blue-print of alternative society nor outlined the various stages of
the Instead he gave a long list of proposals; agricultural development, equitable landownership, appropriate
technology, rural and small industries, political and economic decentralization, no caste etc. He did not spell
out how the land was to be so distributed, nor how the social and economic hierarchy was to be abolished.”
• JP is criticised on the ground that he “had no ideology, a blue-print for a new economic and political order
which he had outlined in considerable detail much before the Bihar agitation was even conceived of”.
• K. Barik, another critic of JP, supports the contention that JP had no ideology, by citing JP’s view as reported in
the Calcutta daily, Statesman of 16th June 1974.
• JP’s reasoned rejection of parliamentary democracy and his outline of a new Sarvodaya order may definitely
be said to constitute an ideology.
• JP failed to achieve his revolution and that political parties continued to rule where the people should have
stepped in, is a different story.
JP strongly believed that for democracy to be a lively and effective instrument there is an urgent need for a strong
opposition, powerful public opinion, free and fearless press, ideological and moral pressure from the academicians,
and trade unions. He, in fact, advised the people to revise their thinking and attitude towards democratic
functioning in India.

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The concept of Total Revolution as enunciated by Jayaprakash Narayan is a confluence of his ideas on seven
revolutions i.e. social, economic, political, cultural, ideological and intellectual, educational and spiritual.
Elucidate.
Total Revolution, as a concept, was put forward by Jayaprakash Narayan in the wake of Bihar Movement in Patna.
In a public meeting at Gandhi Maidan, Jayaprakash Narayan declared that the struggle was not going to be
limited to securing the demands of the students, including the resignation of the Minister and the dissolution of
the Assembly in Bihar, but would aim at bringing about a Total Revolution or Sampoorna Kranti, which alone
could solve the urgent problems of the country and usher in a new society.
The concept of Total Revolution lie deeply embedded in Gandhi’s teachings to which Jayaprakash Narayan, the
leader of Total Revolution turned as a result of his disillusionment with what might be called “conventional
wisdom of revolution and conventional technique” of change. Infact, Total Revolution is a further extension of
Gandhi’s thought on socio-economic problems and technique of change in the context of contemporary social,
economic and political reality. Jayaprakash Narayan’s Total Revolution is a grand vision of individual, state and
society.It is based upon Gandhi’s basic postulates and it envisages non-violent methods of changing society with
nonviolent techniques. Total Revolution is an all-enveloping process of change in the individual as well as in the
society. The primary emphasis is on moral values, decentralisation of economic and political power and insistence
on non-violent means to achieve good ends. Social change in the Gandhian paradigm is a very comprehensive and
inclusive term. According to Gandhi, a partial change in any one component of the social matrix is likely to
produce disequilibrium in society. Society, therefore, will tend to move towards a state of constant instability. In
order to ensure that the social organisation maintains a steady and dynamic homeostatic state, an all-round
change is needed.
Total revolution:
Total Revolution is a combination of seven revolutions, viz., political, social, economic, cultural, ideological or
intellectual, educational and spiritual.
The main motive was to bring in a change in the existing society that is in tune with the ideals of the Sarvodaya.
Cultural: It connotes individual and group behaviour. At a purely personal or group level, Cultural Revolution
invokes a change in the moral values held by the individual or the group.
Socio economic: Total Revolution goes hand in hand with economic revolution. JP only carried Gandhi’s thinking
further to embrace every detail of economic life. ‘Economic relationship’, “includes technological, industrial, and
agricultural revolutions, accompanied by a radical change in the pattern of ownership and management”. The
industrial-technological structure of the economy has two major facets, namely (i) the ownership pattern, and (ii)
the size of technology.
Political: In the sphere of political revolution JP follows Gandhi. Gandhi visualised power rising from the
grassroots and reaching the top which remained nothing more than a coordinating body. Such a view of polity
was different from those in practice either in democratic systems or the communist countries. In other words, if
power was shared among different echelons of the social structure starting from, say, the village upward, the
danger of centralisation could very well be avoided. Centralisation, either of political or of economic power, was
what Gandhi dreaded most. He, therefore, laid emphasis on decentralisation. It was this approach to
decentralisation of power that led him to support the panchayati raj system. He believed that it was perfectly
feasible to incorporate the different tiers below the State level into the constitutional framework by a bold stroke
of amendment, thereby making it a part of the structure of the entire polity. Like Gandhi, he also experimented
with his own beliefs, tested his notions and modified his ideas. The inherent contradictions within the
Parliamentary democracy made JP lose any faith he had in it. He opined that democracy gives no assurance for a
better life to the people in the future when they are socially and economically neglected. He opined that only a
peaceful revolution could bring about some change in the society. One of the main reasons for lack of
development in India, according to JP, was the widespread corruption in all walks of life. He believed that the
multiparty system and general elections every five years had reared corruption. Further, the failure of economic
planning and public investments is also due to this corruption. He was the first to suggest that in order to prevent
defections, which became the order of the day, effective legislative steps should be taken. JP also raised the issue
of the corrupting role of money in the entire electoral process. Reform of the electoral system has been one of
the very persistent demands which JP went on making on the political system. There are other aspects like the
use of administrative machinery, the ways and means of conducting a free and fair election, and a civil code of
conduct among political parties about which JP has provided wide-ranging guidelines. JP has drawn our attention
to the control of the legislators. He suggested that there should be a clause in our Constitution for the recall of

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 to the control of the legislators. He suggested that there should be a clause in our Constitution for the recall of
the legislators, that is, the constituents must be vested with the power to recall a member if he does not carry
out his duties.
JP strongly believed that for democracy to be a lively and effective instrument there is an urgent need for a
strong opposition, powerful public opinion, free and fearless press, ideological and moral pressure from the
academicians, and trade unions. He, in fact, advised the people to revise their thinking and attitude towards
democratic functioning in India.

Post-independence, Land reforms had a profound impact on agriculture as well as had social implications but there
were also certain limitations. Evaluate.
Land Reforms usually refers to redistribution of Land from rich to poor and includes Regulation of Ownership,
Operation, Leasing, sale and Inheritance of Land. The Indian Government was committed to land reforms and to
ensure distributive justice as was promised during the freedom struggle. Consequently, laws were passed by all the
State Governments during the 1950’s with the avowed aim of abolishing landlordism, distributing land through
imposition of ceilings, protection of tenants and consolidation of land- holdings
Impact of Land reforms:
On Agriculture
• Earlier large tracts of wasteland belonging to zamindars/ big farmers remained uncultivated. These lands
were given to landless labourers as a result of which there is increase in area under cultivation leading to food
security.
• Equal distribution of land will encourage intensive cultivation resulting in increased agricultural production
leading to higher production levels.
• Some farm management studies conducted in India testified that small farms yielded more production per
hectare. It is so because family members themselves cultivate small farms.
• Even one hectare of land is also an economic holding these days on account of improvement in agricultural
technique. Hence, small size of holding due to ceiling will not have any adverse effect on agricultural
production.
• At least some of the Land owners shifted to direct ‘efficient’ farming in order to get ‘exemption’ from land
ceiling.
• Consolidation of landholdings ensures that small bits of land belonging to the same small landowner but
situated at some distance from one another could be consolidated into a single holding to boost viability and
productivity.
Social
• In a land-scarce country with a significant section of the rural population below the poverty line, the case for
ensuring that everyone has access to some minimum amount of land seems compelling from the point of
• In a rural economy, whoever controls land, controls the power.
• The tenancy laws have given the tillers protection from exploitation by providing them security of tenure and
fixing maximum chargeable rents.
• Land ceiling reduced this power inequality among villagers.
• The intermediary rights have been abolished. India no longer presents a picture of feudalism at the top and
serfdom at the bottom.
• Promoted spirit of cooperation among villagers.
• It will help develop cooperative farming
Limitations of Land reforms:
Zamindari Abolition:
• The absence of adequate land records made implementation of these acts difficult.
• Zamindars resorted to large-scale eviction of tenants, mainly the less secure small tenants.
• Even after the laws were enacted the landlords used the judicial system to defer the implementation of the
laws.
• Zamindars refused to hand over the land records in their possession, forcing the government to go through
the lengthy procedure of reconstructing the records.
Tenancy Reforms:
• Even today 5% farmers hold 32% of land holdings.
• The right of resumption and the loose definition of ‘personal cultivation’ was used for eviction of tenants on a

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 • The right of resumption and the loose definition of ‘personal cultivation’ was used for eviction of tenants on a
massive scale.
• Most tenancies were oral and informal and were not recorded.
Ceiling reforms
• Exemption to land held by cooperatives was open to great misuse with landlords transferring their lands to
spurious cooperatives.
• In most states the ceilings were imposed on individual and not family holdings, enabling landowners to divide
up their holdings in the names of relatives or make benami transfers merely to avoid the ceiling.
• Further, in many states the ceiling could be raised if the size of the family of the landholder exceeded five.
Consolidation of holdings:
• The programme failed to achieve its desired objective because the farmers are reluctant to exchange their
lands for the new one.
• The arguments given by the farmers is that there existing land is much more fertile and productive than the
new land provided under land consolidation.
Bureaucratic Apathy:
Implementation of the law was made difficult with the collusion between the landlords and lower-level revenue
Officials.
Digitization of Land records:
• Although the government wants complete digitization of land records, due to the lack of clear and sufficient
data and mismanagement between the various agencies handling land records, the data registered at various
government levels is not identical.
• Statistics from the DILRMP show that in most states, the digital land record database has not been synced
with the digitized land registration database
Land reforms have upheld the socialistic directive principles of state policy which aims at equitable distribution of
wealth. The objective of social justice has, however, been achieved to a considerable degree. Thus, with an
aspirational goal of India becoming a $5-trillion economy by 2025 the imperative need today is to unleash the power
of land and reap fruits by bringing about the much needed Land Reforms which are waiting to see the light of the
day.
Land reforms included structural and institutional changes in the ownership pattern, land tenure system,
modernization of agricultural operations and changes in the supportive institutions at the level of the village
community. Comment
Nearly two-thirds of all pending cases in Indian courts are related to property disputes. NITI Aayog has said that
such property cases take an average of 20 years to settle. The result is that millions of Indians cannot use their
principal asset as collateral to borrow from the formal financial system. Hence the need for land reforms in India.
The government has now pushed the year of completion to 2021.
Objectives of land reforms
• To enhance the productivity of land by improving the economic conditions of farmers and tenants so that
they may have the interest to invest in and improve agriculture
• To ensure distributive justice and to create an egalitarian society by eliminating all forms of exploitation
• To create a system of peasant proprietorship with the motto of land to the tiller.
• To transfer the incomes of the few to many so that the demand for consumer goods would be created.
Land reforms in India The process of land reform after independence basically occurred in two broad phases.
The first phase also called the phase of institutional reforms started soon after independence and continued till
the early 1960s focussed on the following features:
• Abolition of intermediaries like zamindars, jagirdars, etc.
• Tenancy reforms involving providing security of tenure to the tenants, decrease in rents and conferment of
ownership rights to tenants
• Ceilings on size of landholdings
• Cooperativization and community development programmes.
The second phase beginning around the mid- or late 1960s saw the gradual ushering in of the so called Green
Revolution and has been seen as the phase of technological reforms.
• Digitisation of land records
• Making land records available to all, to contain/check property frauds, became one of the objectives of the
government of India in the late 1980s.

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 government of India in the late 1980s.
• To address the same, the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP) was launched by
the government of India in August 2008.
• The main aim of the programme, was to computerise all land records, including mutations, improve
transparency in the land record maintenance system, digitise maps and surveys, update all settlement
records and minimise the scope of land disputes.
• Digitisation would provide clear titles of land ownership that could be monitored easily by government
officials, to facilitate quicker transactions. This will also reduce construction timelines and the overall cost
for the developer, the benefits of which can be transferred to the consumer, making property prices more
attractive.
Failure of land reforms
Weaknesses with the zamindari abolition:
The absence of adequate land records made implementation of these acts difficult.
Personal cultivation: ‘Personal cultivation’ was very loosely defined which led to not only those who tilled the soil,
but also those who supervised the land personally or did so through a relative, or provided capital and credit to
the land, to call themselves a cultivator.
• Moreover, in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that
could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar
• Zamindars resorted to large-scale eviction of tenants, mainly the less secure small tenants.
• Even after the laws were enacted the landlords used the judicial system to defer the implementation of the
laws.
• Zamindars refused to hand over the land records in their possession, forcing the government to go through
the lengthy procedure of reconstructing the records.
• Implementation of the law was made difficult with the collusion between the landlords and lower-level
revenue officials.
Weaknesses of tenancy reforms:
• The provisions introduced to protect the small landowners were misused by the larger landlords with the
active connivance of the revenue officials.
• The inordinate delays in enacting and implementing the legislations
• Voluntary surrenders by tenants also took place as they were ‘persuaded’ under threat to give up their
tenancy rights ‘voluntarily’.
• No tenancy rights to sharecroppers.
• Most tenancies were oral and informal and were not recorded.
• Providing security of tenure to all tenants, met with only limited success.
• The Green Revolution which started in some parts of India in the late 1960s aggravated the problems, with
land values and rentals rising further.
• The acquisition of ownership rights by tenants was achieved only partially.
Weaknesses in Land Ceiling Legislation:
• Post-independence India had more than 70 per cent of landholdings in India under 5 acres so the ceiling
fixed on existing holdings by the states were very high.
• In most states the ceilings were imposed on individual and not family holdings, enabling landowners to
divide up their holdings in the names of relatives or make Benami transfers merely to avoid the ceiling.
• Further, in many states the ceiling could be raised if the size of the family of the landholder exceeded five.
• A large number of exemptions to the ceiling limits were permitted by most states following the Second Plan
recommendations that certain categories of land could be exempted from ceilings.
Digitization of land records failed:
Insufficient data:
• Lack of clear and sufficient data and mismanagement between the various agencies handling land records,
the data registered at various government levels is not identical.
• Progress over the past decade has been uneven, with some states, such as Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, doing better than the others. However,
there are challenges, even in advanced states such as Maharashtra.
• New digitized land records do a good job in reflecting ownership of land, but less so when it comes to
recording encumbrances and area of land parcels.

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 recording encumbrances and area of land parcels.
Weaknesses of consolidation of land holdings:
The programme failed to achieve its desired objective because the farmers are reluctant to exchange their lands
for the new one. The arguments given by the farmers is that their existing land is much more fertile and
productive than the new land provided under land consolidation.
The farmers also complained about nepotism and corruption in the process of consolidation. The farmers
complained that the rich and influential often bribes and manage to get fertile and wellsituated land, whereas the
poor farmers get unfertile land.
Failure of cooperative farming:
Attachment with Land: The farmers are not willing to surrender the rights of land in favour of the society because
they have too much attachment with it.
Lack of Cooperative Spirit: The spirit of cooperation and love is lacking among farmers. They are divided in various
sections on caste basis.
Illiteracy: some of them are using the old methods of cultivation.
Lack of Capital: The co-operative farming societies are also facing the capital shortage problem and these are
unable to meet the growing needs of agriculture. Credit facilities to these societies are also not sufficient.
Re-Payment of Debt: Sometimes debt is not re-paid in time which creates many problems for the financial
institutions. Some members do not realize their responsibility and it becomes the cause of failure.
The pace of implementation of land reform measures has been slow. The objective of social justice has, however,
been achieved to a considerable degree. Land reform has a great role in the rural agrarian economy that is
dominated by land and agriculture. New and innovative land reform measures should be adopted with new vigour
to eradicate rural poverty. Modern land reforms measures such as land record digitisation must be accomplished
at the earliest.
Discuss various land reforms in India before and after independence.

Land reforms refers to various reforms in regulations regarding land ownership and property rights
for the benefit of the community as a whole. The main objective of the land reforms is to do away
with the existing inequalities in the system of landholding and to increase the agricultural
productivity.
Land reforms before independence:
1. Rent Act of 1859: The Bengal Rent Act of 1859 was the first legislative attempt at defining the
rights of tenants and protecting them against frequent enhancement of rent and arbitrary ejectment.
The law applied to all provinces included in the Bengal presidency.
2. Tenancy and Rent Act, 1885: The Famine Commission (1880) noted that the Rent Acts failed to
bring noteworthy improvement in the economic condition of tenants. Bengal witnessed large-scale
agrarian conflicts and anti-Zamindar riots during the years 1872-76. Thus the Tenancy and Rent Acts
were passed in Bengal in 1885, with a view to conferring occupancy rights upon ryots who were in
continuous possession of land for 12 years.
3. Subsequent tenancy acts: Similar to 1885 Bengal’s tenancy act, the Bihar Tenancy Act of 1885 and
Orissa Tenancy Act of 1914 granted occupancy rights to tenants. The Agra Tenancy Act 1926
granted a statutory life tenancy to everyone formerly classified as tenant-at-will. The C.P. Act
abolished ‘Begar’ while the Bombay Act of 1938 specified the grounds on which tenants could be
ejected. It also allowed compensation for improvements made.
Land reforms after independence:
4. Abolition of Intermediaries: Intermediaries like Zamindars, Talukdars, Jagirs and Inams had
dominated the agricultural sector in India by the time the country attained independence. Soon after
independence, measures for the abolition of the Zamindari system were adopted in different states.
The first Act to abolish intermediaries was passed in Madras in 1948. By 1955, the progress for the
abolition of intermediaries had been completed in almost all the states.

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 abolition of intermediaries had been completed in almost all the states.
5. Tenancy Reforms: To protect tenants from ejectment and to grant them permanent rights on lands,
laws have been enacted in most of the states. The tenancy legislations in India are not uniform
throughout the country. Each state has its own legislation. For example, in Orissa, a limit has been
imposed on the landlords for resuming land for personal cultivation.
6. Ceiling on land holdings: The third important land reform was the imposition of ceiling on land
holdings. Ceiling on land holdings implies the fixing of the maximum amount of land that an
individual or family can possess. Ceiling legislation in India has been enacted and implemented in all
states.
7. Consolidation of Holdings: Consolidation of Holdings means bringing together the various small
plots of land of a farmer. Attempts have been made in India for consolidation of holdings in some
areas. It formed an integral part of our land reforms policy since the inception of on the Planning in
1951. 15 states have passed laws in respect of consolidation of holdings. In Orissa, the Consolidation
Act was passed in 1972. The work of consolidation has been completed fully in Punjab and Haryana.
So far 51.8 million hectares of land have been consolidated in the country.
8. Compilation and updating of land records: Compilation and updating of the land records are an
essential condition for the effective implementation of land reforms programme. In recent years the
states have taken all measures for updating land records with the utmost urgency by adopting a
time-bound programme. Efforts are also being made to maintain the land records through
computerisation.
9. Digitisation: It began around the mid or late 1960s and saw the gradual ushering in of the green
Making land records available to all, to contain/check property frauds in the late 1980s. The Digital
India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP) was launched by the government of India
in 2008 to computerise all land records.
The purpose of land reform is to help weaker sections of society and do justice in land distribution.
Government land policies are implemented to make more rational use of the scarce land resources
by affecting conditions of holdings, imposing ceilings and grounds on holdings so that cultivation
can be done in the most economical manner.
The local bodies in India must aspire to move towards smart and inclusive governance while promoting
transparency and efficiency. Discuss the steps that needed to be taken in this regard.
The 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution constituted a new chapter in the process of democratic
decentralisation in the country. It has been 25 years since the establishment of these lakhs of self-governing village
panchayats and gram sabhas to manage local development. The amendment paved way for mandatory creation of
rural and urban local bodies (ULBs): Article 243 B envisages a three-tier system of Panchayats in all the States/UTs,
except those with populations not exceeding 20 lakhs which can have 2-tier. Similarly, 243Q provides for the
creation of municipalities in urban areas. However, the working of these institutions has not been as envisaged and
there is a need for rethinking and reviving them to ensure good governance.
Local bodies reinvigoration towards smart and inclusive governance
Urban Local bodies:
• Metropolitan governance systems are needed in million-plus cities. There is a strong case for having a two-
tier governance structure where all local functions are transferred to the ward committees and citywide
services, such as transportation, water supply, sewerage, etc., are vested with the city council or regional
authorities.
• Each city needs to be recognized as a distinct unit of the economy. In larger cities, City Economic Councils can
serve as a clearinghouse.
Central Government has started the Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyaan. The campaign is undertaken under the name
of “Sabka Sath, Sabka Gaon, Sabka Vikas”.
• It aims to draw up Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDPs) in the country and place them on a website
where anyone can see the status of the various government’s flagship schemes.
• Gram Panchayats have been mandated for the preparation of GPDP for economic development and social

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 • Gram Panchayats have been mandated for the preparation of GPDP for economic development and social
justice utilizing the resources available to them.
• Government of India formulated E-Panchayat Mission Mode Project for eenablement of all the Panchayats, to
make their functioning more efficient and transparent.
Social Audit: The power of social audit was proven by Jan Sunwai in Rajasthan. Transparent, third-party Social Audit
can enable people to hold the representatives accountable.
Citizen Participation
• Ward committees and area sabhas should be activated with a technology- enabled ‘Open Cities Framework’
and the use of digital tools for feedback and reporting.
• In case of Gram Sabhas, their functions and roles must be clearly defined as in the PESA Act, to enable to
function effectively.
Role of IT: Citizen services, grievance redressal and local taxes such as property tax etc must be made available
online. This can help in ease of doing governance.
Encouraging public-private partnership: Successful PPP programs should be formulated at both state and city levels
to fund city development. Role of the state should be to create an enabling environment with an aim to expand and
deepen private sector investments in infrastructure
The objective of local bodies, be it in rural or urban areas is to ensure that suitable levels of infrastructure and
services are available to the citizens. In many parts of India, the quality of life is miserable and the citizens lead a
difficult life. To overcome this problem, a series of reforms need to be initiated by the Indian government to
strengthen local-level governance.
The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments provided for the rural and urban local bodies respectively.
• Local government is a state subject in List II of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India.
• They are vested with a long list of functions delegated to them by the state governments.
• These functions broadly relate to public health, welfare, regulatory functions, public safety, public
infrastructure works, and development activities.
• There are several types of Urban Local Bodies in India such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Notified
Area Committee, Town Area Committee, Special Purpose Agency, Township, Port Trust, Cantonment Board,
etc.
Why did India choose to go in for the production of nuclear weapons? Trace the evolution of India’s nuclear policy.
India built its first research reactor in 1956 and its first plutonium reprocessing plant by 1964. India's nuclear
programme can trace its origins to March 1944 and its three-stage efforts in technology were established by Homi
Jehangir Bhabha when he founded the nuclear research centre, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. By 1964
India was in a position to develop nuclear weapons. India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "Smiling
Buddha"), under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, which it called a "peaceful nuclear explosion."
Reasons for India to go for nuclear weapons:
• There were a few reasons which served as a catalyst in India’s journey of becoming a nuclear armed nation.
• India occupies a strategic position in South-Asian region with China as its northern neighbour and Pakistan as
its western neighbour.
• Since 1947, India shared a strained relationship with both its neighbours i.e. Pakistan and China.
• Both Pakistan and China had been involved in number of conventional wars with India.
• India's loss to China in a brief Himalayan border war in October 1962, provided the New Delhi government
impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression.
• The decades of the 80's and 90's meanwhile witnessed the gradual deterioration of our security environment
as a result of nuclear and missile proliferation.
• Further, Pakistan has always indulged in use of sub-conventional warfare techniques like sponsoring
insurgency, terrorism etc against India. Also china became a nuclear power in 1964 and it further threatened
India.
• This strained neighbourhood relations including fear of nuclear attack from China ultimately threatened
India’s sovereignty and integrity.
• In this backdrop India went ahead with its nuclear weapons test in order to strengthen its weapons
mechanism.
• The countries we turned to for support and understanding felt unable to extend to us the assurances that we
then sought.
India’s nuclear policy is influenced by following factors:

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India’s nuclear policy is influenced by following factors:
Geopolitical Factors: India has strained relationships with both China and Pakistan. Pakistan has always taken
advantage of India’s NFU and has threatening of nuclear escalations if India attacks them. India’s nuclear policy is of
nuclear deterrence and to deal with repeated misadventures of Pakistan’s threat from China, India has been
strengthening its deterrence policy by adopting following methods.
Improving its 2nd Strike Capability: 2nd strike is vital for the success of deterrence as this will ensure massive
retaliation if its first attack is launched. To make its deterrence policy holistic, India has completed its nuclear triad
by use of SSBN and SLBMs.
• India has developed Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Agni-V so that it can hit targets as far as eastern most
regions of China. This also successfully promotes the idea that India can strike down important regions of
Pakistan and China if they were to launch a nuclear attack on India.
• Early warning systems are essential to plan a successful retaliation and India’s PAD, AAD have accounted for
this.
• Further Pakistan’s plan to use tactical nuclear weapon against India was rendered fruitless as India in its policy
has stated that a nuclear attack on its soldiers anywhere will also be considered as 1st strike and would call
for massive retaliation.
NSG Membership: In 2008, India got a waiver from NSG even though it was not a part of NPT signatory due to some
reasons.
• In 2008, India took a written pledge never to conduct a nuclear weapon test physically.
• USA backed India and pointed out that though India was a non-signatory yet it had followed NPT guidelines
strictly. Further India had proved to be a responsible nuclear power by displaying absolute restraint in using
nuclear power even after repeated provocations.
Evolution of India’s nuclear policy: India’s first successful nuclear weapon test was in 1974. Due to this test
conducted by India, the nuclear suppliers group (NSG) was formed in 1974 to prevent nuclear proliferation and to
curb export of materials and technology that could be used to build nuclear weapons. In 1998, India further
conducted a series of 5 nuclear tests and after its successful completion it declared itself a defacto nuclear weapon
state. Eventually, in the year 1999, India adopted a draft nuclear doctrine based on “NO FIRST USE” (NFU) policy.
Certain key aspects of the draft were:
• India would not initiate nuclear attack on any country.
• India would not use nuclear weapons on non-nuclear states.
• India’s nuclear arsenal was for the sole purpose of defence and would serve as a deterrent against external
nuclear attacks.
• India would adopt nuclear triad model. As per this model a nuclear weapon state should have capability of
launching nuclear attacks on 3 fronts i.e. land, air, and water. In this model the Submarine Launched Ballistic
Missiles (SLBM) would act as the ace in the hole if the other two were to fail However, this draft did not
receive official recognition.
In 2003, India officially accepted a Nuclear Doctrine based on NFU policy. Certain key features of this are:
• Nuclear weapons will only be kept as a credible minimum deterrent against nuclear attacks.
• NFU policy would be followed and India would use nuclear attack only as retaliation against a nuclear attack
on India or on Indian forces anywhere.
• India would not launch nuclear weapon attack against any non-nuclear state. However, in the event of major
attack on India or on Indian forces anywhere by chemical or biological weapon, India will have the option of
retaliating with nuclear weapons.
• The retaliatory 2nd strike to a first nuclear attack would be massive and would inflict unacceptable damage
on opponent Presently India follows the 2003 Nuclear Doctrine. India’s policy is based on nuclear deterrence
and 2nd strike ability plays a vital role in deterrent policy.
At present, India’s nuclear policy is well equipped with all tools which are needed to meet India’s aim of using
nuclear weapons as a deterrent. Though the present guidelines do not need a change but the same cannot be said
for future. Nuclear policy is dynamic in nature and it needs thorough review and revision regularly in order to adapt
to changing circumstances. However, in case of India even if changes may be needed in future the basic features of
NFU and deterrent must not be messed with as changes to these 2 basic features will have significant consequences
for south Asian strategic stability.
India’s journey towards the status of a responsible nuclear power was full of challenges and roadblocks. Do you
agree? Substantiate your views.

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 agree? Substantiate your views.
India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme.The Indian government is committed to growing its
nuclear power capacity as part of its massive infrastructure development programme. Because India is outside the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons programme, it was for 34 years largely excluded from trade
in nuclear plant and materials, which hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.
Challenges and roadblocks for India towards its status of responsible nuclear power: The NSG was created in
response to India’s first nuclear test ‘Smiling Buddha’ (Pokharan-I) in 1974. The NSG first met in November 1975 in
London, thus popularly referred to as the “London Club”.
• India was left outside the international nuclear order, which forced India to develop its own resources for
each stage of the nuclear fuel cycle and power generation, including next generation reactors such as fast
breeder reactors and thorium breeder reactors.
• As India is not a signatory of NPT and NSG, nuclear supply is severely contained by sanctioned against
India. This situation has changed after 2009 waiver and bilateral civil nuclear energy agreements with many
countries. To address the issue of nuclear liability, India has ratified the Convention on Supplementary
Compensation for Nuclear Damage and set up an insurance pool of Rs.1,500 crore ($225 million) for liability
risks that may arise from the construction and operation of nuclear power plants in the country.
• It is uncertain, however, if this amount will effectively assuage supplier concerns. Just as an example, after
the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984, the Indian government claimed $3.3 billion in damages. The proposed
insurance pool is measly in comparison. Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear Power Plant
(NPP) is also major problem in the country. NPP’s like kudankulam in Tamil Nadu and Kovvada in Andhra
Pradesh have met with several delays due to the land acquisition related challenges.
• Genuine problems of Nuclear technology includes safety and waste management. Incidents like Chernobyl,
Three Mile Island, Fukushima are serious case of concern. The idea of no-first-use (NFU) of nuclear
weapons has been rejected by some nuclear weapons states and accepted only at the declaratory level by
most, if not by all of the others. Nuclear weapons are often seen as an antidote to conventional inferiority
as the inferior party will seek to deter conventional attack by threatening a nuclear response.
• India has low reserves of uranium. But this changed a bit recently with the discovery of the Tummalapalle
uranium mine in Andhra Pradesh, which has the potential to be among the largest uranium mines in the
world. India has also entered into uranium supply agreements with various countries such as Russia, France
and Kazakhstan to import the majority of its uranium needs.
• Regulatory challenges with respect to AERB as noted by the parliamentary Public Affairs Committee (PAC)
report on the AERB, regulatory oversight too faces a huge manpower shortage. In Human resource India
currently faces a shortfall in nuclear scientists and engineers.
• In 2006, Department of Atomic Energy stated that it would be necessary to train and recruit about 700
scientists and engineers every year in R&D units. It is the duty of the Governments to ensure the safety and
security of using nuclear power as a source to meet growing energy challenges. Nuclear technology suffers
from genuine problems of safety and waste management.
India is blessed with aplenty of sunshine and a nearly inexhaustible resource of Thorium. Our future depends on
how efficiently these two resources are utilised. With India’s entry into international nuclear cooperation, the
opportunity for a rapid growth in the installed capacity helps in accumulating fissile inventory at a faster pace. In
the meantime, several enabling indigenous technologies have been developed for thorium utilization. Focused
developments in solar and Thorium energy can lead to a stage when India do not have to look onwards for
meeting its energy demands for several centuries, in harmony with environment.

Environmental movements in India have initiated protest action against the forces and agencies responsible for
environmental degradation. Comment
Environmental movement refers to mass mobilization for environmental causes. Postindependence movement was
mainly for improvement of quality of life not for changing power sharing arrangement as was there before
independence. Similar was the case with environment movement.
Various environment movement of post-independence India and reasons for the same:
Chipko Movement
• No forest exploitation contracts to be given to outsider.
• Local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land water and forest.
Narmada Bachao Abhiyan

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Narmada Bachao Abhiyan
• A proper cost benefits analysis of the major developmental projects completed in the country so far.
• Social cost should be calculated too with respect to such projects. Social cost meant forced settlement of
project affected people, serious loss of means of livelihood and culture, depletion of ecological resources
Appiko movement
• Against the felling and commercialization of natural forest and the ruin of ancient livelihood.
Jungle Bachao Andolan:
• The tribal community of Singhbhum district of Jharkhand (Previously, it was a district of India during the
British Raj, part of the Chota Nagpur Division of the Bengal Presidency) agitated against the forest policy of
the Government in 1982.
• The Government wanted to replace the natural soil, forests with the high-priced teak. Many
environmentalists refer to this movement as “Greed Game Political Populism”.
Tehri Dam Conflict
• This movement was started by the local people around 1980s and 1990s because the dam project would have
constructed in the seismic sensitive region and people think that it causes submergence of forest areas along
with Tehri town.
• Despite of protest, the construction of the dam is being carried out with police protection as Sunderlal
Bahuguna is sitting on fast unto death.
• After assurance from the government to review the project, Bahuguna ended his fast but construction goes
on, though at a slower pace.
Silent valley movement:
• Against dam construction on Kuntipuzha river.
• The central issues of the Silent Valley protests included the protection of tropical rainforest, maintenance of
the ecological balance and an opposition to destructive development.
Saving the Western Ghats, 1988
• Home to sanctuaries like Bandipur and Nagarhole, Western Ghats, a biological treasure trove, was struck by
an epidemic— deforestation in the 1980s.
• “The Union Government’s Forest Department estimates that within the last three decades, 4.5 million
hectares of forests or an area the size of Tamil Nadu has vanished,” said India Today in March 1982.
• The Kailash Malhotra led Save the Western Ghats march, a 100-day padayatra across the hills, succeeded in
imparting the message of environmental degradation and human rights.
All these movements started from local issues and mostly local people only took part in them. These movements can
be seen as competition between environmentalism and industrialization
Presently environment movement is gaining Global prominence. NGOs like Greenpeace and organizations like
United Nations are taking steps to save environment at Global scale and mitigate climate change. Different nations
are also making their effort to save the environment and develop sustainable example International solar Alliance by
India and France.
In 1975 our democracy was challenged. Lessons were learnt, various checks and balances were put in place to
prevent another such ‘emergency’ from happening. Comment.
The emergency was declared by the Indira Gandhi government in 1975 and was in place for 21 months. Threat to
national security and bad economic conditions were cited as reasons for the declaration. Considering it as a black
chapter, a famous historian Coomi Kapoor noted “The number of those in Indira Gandhi’s prisons during the
Emergency far exceeded the total number jailed during the 1942 Quit India”
Reasons for emergency declaration:
Economic issues:
• India support to Bangladesh’s liberation caused serious repercussion on India’s foreign exchange reserves
• Consecutive monsoon failure in 1972 & 73 affected India food grains availability and fuelled prices.
• Large scale unemployment and economic recession led to industrial unrest and wave of strikes in different
parts of country which culminated in All India railway strike in May 1974.
Executive tussle with Judiciary:
• Union government under the leadership of Indira Gandhi amended the constitution in the Parliament that it
can abridge Fundamental rights while giving effect to DPSPs. But, Later, In Kesavananda Bharti Case, the Apex
Court ruled that there are some basic features of the constitution, which can’t be amended.
• Furious with SC judgment, Union Government changed the long-term precedence of appointing senior most

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 • Furious with SC judgment, Union Government changed the long-term precedence of appointing senior most
judges in SC as Chief Justice.
• Allahabad HC, while hearing the plea of socialist leader Raj Narain on the validity of victory of Indira to Lok
Sabha ruled in the his favour and set aside her victory and ruled her election invalid on the grounds of abuse
of power.
JP Movement:
• The students of Gujarat protested immensely in 1974 against the rise in prices of foodgrain, cooking oil &
other essential commodities, later joined by the political parties too
• Inspired by the efforts and success by Gujarat student’s movement, similar agitation was initiated in Bihar by
students in March 1974.
• JP Narayan gave a call for “Sampooran Kranti” (Total Revolution) against the immense corruption, to defend
democracy from authorization personality of Indira Gandhi.
Black Chapter in India’s democratic history: The union government misused its emergency powers and curbed
democratic rights of the citizens, opposition parties and of the press.
• Electricity of the newspaper houses got disconnected, leaders of opposition parties were arrested.
• Government curtailed the freedom of press via “Press censorship” and made it mandatory to get its approval
before publishing it.
• Protests, strikes and public agitations were not allowed.
• Fundamental right of constitutional remedies to move the court for restoring their FRs got suspended.
• Religious and cultural organization like RSS, Jamait-E-Islami was banned on the apprehension of disturbance
to social and communal harmony.
• Government misused the provision of preventive detention, arrested the political workers of opposition
parties.
Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor people, imposition of
compulsory sterilization to control population. The power misused came as a wakeup call for the entire nation and
consequent steps were taken to amend the constitution (44th constitutional amendment) to take safeguards against
misuse of powers:
Ground for Emergency declaration:
• the word ‘internal disturbance’ was replaced by ‘armed rebellion’ in respect of national emergency.
• Made the president to declare a national emergency only on the written recommendation of the cabinet.
• Empowered the president to send back once, the advice of the cabinet for reconsideration.
• Provided that the fundamental rights guaranteed by article 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during
emergency. Gave constitutional protection to publication in newspaper of true reports of the proceedings of
parliament and state legislatures. Further, it was the Supreme Court decision which upheld that government
can arrest any person or even take extreme steps under emergency, it is legal and no relief is available.
However, the judiciary leant it lessons and consequently passed several judgements to uphold democracy.
• The Supreme Court has thereafter enlarged the concept and the application of Article 21 well beyond what
was ever contemplated by the framers of the constitution
• The Supreme Court expressed its view on ADM Jabalpur judgement to be violative of fundamental rights in
Ram deo Chauhan case.
• The Supreme Court strengthened the concept of Basic structure which was reiterated in cases like Minerva
mills.
• The judiciary in later judgements evolved the collegium system for appointments of the judges to uphold the
independence of the judiciary.
• To uphold the democratic rights of the citizens, it also invented tools like Public interest litigation in 1980.
The 1975 emergency is viewed as the darkest phase in the democratic history of India. But it also reminded the
absolute powers vested in the government in emergency situation. The consequent defeat of congress illustrated
that it is the citizens who are the ultimate deciders of democratic fate in India. It also helped in perfecting the Indian
democratic setup to restore the people’s faith in democracy.
Post- Independence, integration and unification of India demonstrated to be a long process plagued with
challenges. In this context, examine the early challenges that India faced as a newly independent country
15th August 1947 marked the end of colonial rule in India and the country found itself standing on the threshold of a
new era wherein the task was to build a strong nation. While India found itself independent from the British, it was
still to find independence from social, economic and political problems that hindered India’s growth story.

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still to find independence from social, economic and political problems that hindered India’s growth story.
Challenges faced by India post-independence:
Internal challenges:
• Partition and its consequences: Partition was marked with large scale communal violence. Partition not only
led to the division of assets but also created huge refugee crisis followed by the origin of Kashmir problem.
• Mass poverty: At the time of Independence, the incidence of poverty in India was about 80% or about 250
million. Famines and hunger pushed India to take external help for its food security.
• Illiteracy: When India gained Independence, its population numbered about 340 million. The literacy level
then was just 12% or about 41 million.
• Low economic capacity: Stagnant agriculture and poor industrial base. In 1947, agriculture accounted for 54%
of India’s GDP. At the time of independence, 60% of India’s population depended on agriculture for a living.
During the centrally planned economy phase, the annual growth rate stagnated around 3.5% (Hindu rate of
growth) from the 1950s to 1980s, while per capita income growth averaged 1.3%.
• Linguistic reorganization: Boundaries of the British Indian provinces had been drawn and redrawn in a
haphazard manner without any thought to cultural and linguistic cohesion. Continued demand for
linguistically homogeneous provinces led to emergence of secessionist trends.
• Secessionist movements: Punjab’s Khalistan movement of the 1980s, Insurgency in the NorthEast, and the
Naxal Movement in central-eastern India (1960s) were the biggest internal security challenges to India.
• Emergency: National Emergency of 1975 as the government’s response to the JP Movement is considered as
dark phases of Indian democracy. It curtailed the fundamental rights of the citizens and shook the
foundations of Indian democratic credentials. From 1973 there was a sharp decline in the economic situation,
a combination of growing unemployment, rampant inflation, and scarcity of basic food and essential
commodities created a serious crisis.
External challenges:
• Global world order marked with cold war tensions: Most of the developing countries were band-wagoning
either of the two superpowers USA or the Soviet Union. India followed a policy of Non-Alignment to stay
away from cold-war politics and focus on its internal development.
• Hostile neighbours: India had to face consequent wars with Pakistan (1965, 1971) and China (1962) during the
early phases of its independence. This not only hindered India’s growth and created regional instability.
• Influence of domestic politics on foreign policy: Tamil minority rights in Sri Lanka without incurring any costs
with the Sinhala majority. Indian Prime Minister did not attend the Colombo Commonwealth Summit in 2013
because of the Tamil minority issue. The Teesta Waters agreement was not concluded due to political
reasons.
It is to be noted that, Indian constitutional principles of secularism and federalism are the foundational keystone of
Indian democracy. Indian democracy is a heterogeneous model with a vast socio-religious and cultural diversity. It
was predicted by western political analysts that the Indian model of democracy would not last long. However, it was
due to India’s strong commitment to its constitutional principles that led India to not only survive as a nation but
also to emerge as the leader of the newly independent countries.
What is the Radcliffe Line? Discuss the main motive with which it was drawn and explain its final outcome.
Radcliffe line is a British-government approved (17th August 1947) borderline that separated India from newly
created Pakistan. It divided India into East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), West Pakistan, and India. Entire Sindh, parts
of Punjab and Bengal were given to Pakistan with Radcliffe Line marking the division. It spread through the Rann of
Kutch in Gujarat till international border in Jammu in Jammu & Kashmir, dividing India and Pakistan into two
different countries. The task of demarcating the boundary between India and Pakistan was given to a British lawyer,
Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who had in fact never been to India, or anywhere else in Asia, and was not familiar with the
demographics of India. At the time, this was seen as a positive, because the assumption was that Radcliffe would be
an impartial figure.
The basic principle underlying the border, and the decision to partition India itself, was the two nation theory, the
main proponent of which was the All-India Muslim League, a movement that represented the Muslims of British
India.
Main motive:
• The main motive of giving Radcliffe a target to work on the borderline was that both the parties were keen in
getting a finalised boundary line by 15th August 1947 but due to political reasons.
• The Radcliffe line was officially revealed on 17th August 1947, two days after the Independence.

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 • The Radcliffe line was officially revealed on 17th August 1947, two days after the Independence.
• Apart from the Radcliffe line, there are a few other boundaries that divide India from Pakistan.
• Dividing the two countries was a very tough job because the division was done on the basis of religious
majority and a fair decision had to made while drawing a boundary between the two countries.
Final outcomes:
• Not a cartographical expert, Radcliffe’s final map was declared on 17 August 1947 with devastating results.
• Millions of people were rendered refugees within their own country and a million died while fleeing from
either side to the country of their choice.
• Hapless citizens suffered huge losses of life and property.
• The partition of the country saw more than a million deaths and about 12 million people were displaced.
• He had zero ideas about cartography and division of land, diaspora etc., ended up drawing the Radcliffe Line –
the borderline between India & Pakistan. He cut through these provinces of Bengal and Punjab to give
portions to both countries.
• Pakistan arbitrarily grabbed Balochistan (90% Muslims), against the wishes of the Baloch people and their
leaders. However, the provinces of Punjab and Bengal only had a marginal majority of Muslims.
• Punjab had 55.7% of Muslims and Bengal had 54.4% Muslims and Jinnah wanted these provinces to go to
Pakistan in their entirety.
• The Congress fought back citing that the Hindu and Sikh populations in these regions should get a section of
their own in the state’s bifurcation.
• Today, there are few ethno-religious conflicts among the population living on both sides of the Radcliffe Line
(the Kashmir dispute being of an alternative origin).
Ultimately, there was no easy way to partition India. Any line would have been somewhat arbitrary and caused
difficulties for the people living in Bengal and Punjab. If anything, a delay could have made things much worse, due
to escalating violence. Despite the great violence of the partition, it could have been much worse. A clear and simple
line was what was needed in August 1947 should have been more well thought out and should have done in an
amicable manner.
Contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to pre-and post independent India.

Maulana Azad was a Indian Scholar and Muslim Leader of Indian National Congress during Indian
Independence Movement. Post Indian Independence, he became the First Minister of Education in
Indian Government. He played an important role in Hindu-Muslim unity and never supported India’s
partition.
Contributions of Maulana Azad:
Before independence:
1. Hindu-Muslim unity: During his young age, he rose to prominence through his work as journalist,
publishing works critical of British Raj and espousing causes of Indian nationalism. He worked for
Hindu-Muslim unity through the Al-Hilal newspaper.
2. Khilafat movement: Maulana Azad was a prominent Leader in Khilafat Movement in which he came
in close contact with National Leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Vallabh Bhai Patel and Jawahar Lal
Nehru.
3. Non-cooperation movement: Maulana Was disheartened by the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and worked to
organise the Non-Cooperation Movement and Protests in opposition of the Act. He Organised
several agitations and worked in the able guidance of Gandhi Ji and his principles.
4. Dharasana Satyagraha: He was one of main organisers of the Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931 and
emerged as one of the most important national leaders of the time, prominently leading causes of
Hindu-Muslim unity as well as espousing secularism and socialism.
5. Protest against Two Nation Theory: Maulana criticised Jinnah over Two Nation Theory and
believed that Hindu and Muslims can co-exist in Independent India.
6. Quit India Movement: He played a significant role in the Quit India Movement by meeting a large
number of People in rallies and led agitations and protests against Colonial Government. He served

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 number of People in rallies and led agitations and protests against Colonial Government. He served
as the Congress president from 1940 to 1945, during which the Quit India movement was launched.
7. India’s independence: He negotiated with the British Cabinet mission for India’s independence.
Further, he was strictly against India’s partition even after acceptance of partition by Gandhiji.
Post-Independence:
8. Member of Constitution assembly: He was a member of constituent assembly and helped in
shaping the Constitution of India.
9. Education: He was the first Union Minister of education. He played a pivotal role in foundation of IIT,
UGC, AICTE, Sahitya Academy, Lalit Kala Academy, Sangeet Natak Academy and many other
educational initiations in India.
10. Research: He held portfolios of Natural resources and scientific research. He played a pivotal role in
foundation of CSIR and scientific research laboratories in India.

Maulana’s contributions in Indian Independence are very significant and vital. He considered Gandhiji
as his Ideal and worked on his principles and political lines. His contributions will be remembered and
acknowledged by generations to come. For his service to the nation, he was posthumously awarded the
country’s highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.
Various types of revolutions in Agriculture after Independence in India. Significance of these revolutions in
poverty alleviation and food security.

India is primarily an agricultural economy and majority of people are still dependent on agriculture for
their livelihood. As per 2018, agriculture employed 50% of the Indian work force and contributed 17–18%
to country’s GDP. After independence, development of agriculture has been assured by various
revolutions supported by government.
Various types of revolutions in Agriculture after Independence in India:

Green ● This revolution led to tremendous rise in production of food grains, especially wheat, by
Revolution the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilisers and pesticides.
● In the agriculture sector in the decade of 1960 India started green revolution, and high
yielding variety seeds were used in wheat, rice, maize. This experiment gave success and
extended to most parts of the country.
White ● Operation Flood (1970), an initiative of the National Dairy Development Board has led
Revolution to revolution in milk production in India.
● The world’s largest dairy development programme transformed India from a milk
deficient nation to world’s largest milk producer.

● This has introduced in the new breeding technologies, high quality fodder, vaccination,
veterinary facilities improved.
Blue ● This revolution focused on the management of fisheries sector.
Revolution
● It has led to phenomenal increase in both fish production and productivity from
aquaculture and fisheries resources of the inland and marine fisheries.
Other Other revolutions are also significant includes:
revolutions
● Yellow revolution (oil seed production).

● Golden fibre revolution (jute).

● Golden revolution (horticulture).

● Silver fibre revolution (Cotton).

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 ● Silver fibre revolution (Cotton).

● Red revolution (meat production).

Significance of these revolutions in poverty alleviation and food security:

1. Poverty: These innovations in agriculture have lifted millions of people out of poverty by generating
rural income opportunities for farmers, farm labourers, and also reduced prices for consumers.
2. Food security: India has become self sufficient in food grain production with the help of green
revolution. Green revolution increased the amount food grains enormously, with this India came out of
PL-480 agreements, through which India imports food grains from USA.
3. Nutritional security: The exponential rise in milk production has led to nutritional security among the
masses. Milk production in India has increased from 22 million tonne in 1970 to 156 million tonne in
2015-16. As a result, the per capita availability of milk in India is 337 gram/day as compared to
average world per capita availability of 229 gram/day. Blue revolution increased the sea food
production. With this fishermen community get benefited and also provide food and nutritional
security.
4. Women empowerment: Also these revolutions provided income and employment to women leading
to women empowerment helping millions to come out of poverty.
To further carry on the momentum of these programmes and assure food security in the long run in the
face of ever increasing population, there is an urgent need for an ‘evergreen revolution’ that should focus
on all round development of the agriculture sector. Recently govt started ever green revolution which
focuses all aspects of agriculture pertaining to various products, it is also called as rainbow revolution. It
also extends the results of green revolution eastern part of the country, it is a technology driven scheme.
How did India manage to tackle the food crisis after independence? What were the key long term reforms
undertaken by the government then? Discuss.
Independent India was born in hunger, hunger lay at the roots of much of its public policy in its early years, and over
70 years later, we are still a hungry nation. The nature may have shifted a bit malnourishment rather than stark
famine is the real problem today, but at a basic level, this is still a country that struggles to feed its people
adequately.
• Food security after independence. Food security concerns can be traced back to the experience of the Bengal
Famine in 1943 during British colonial rule, during which about 2 million to 3 million people perished due to
starvation.
• Since attaining independence, an initial rush to industrialize while ignoring agriculture, two successive
droughts in the mid-1960s, and dependence on food aid from the United States exposed India’s vulnerability
to several shocks on the food security front.
• The country went through a Green Revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s, enabling it to overcome
productivity stagnation and to significantly improve food grain production.
• Despite its success, the Green Revolution is often criticized for being focused on only two cereals, wheat and
rice; being confined to a few resource abundant regions in the north western and southern parts of the
country that benefited mostly rich farmers; and putting too much stress on the ecology of these regions,
especially soil and water.
• The Green Revolution was followed by the White Revolution, which was initiated by Operation Flood during
the 1970s and 1980s. This national initiative has revolutionized liquid milk production and marketing in India,
making it the largest producer of milk.
• Of late, especially during the post-2000 period, hybrid maize for poultry and industrial use and Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) cotton have shown great strides in production, leading to sizeable exports of cotton, which
made India the second largest exporter of cotton in 2007–2008.
Some major steps taken by government.
• Green revolution with high yielding crops and efficient irrigation system in northern parts of India especially
in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. proved to be effective in providing necessary staple diet for growing
population in the short period of time.

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 population in the short period of time.
• This was an important event accompanied with land reforms made India an example of success story
overcoming hunger.
• In the mid-1970s, the Government of India launched three important food intervention programmes for food
security. They include Public Distribution System (PDS) for food grains; Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) (introduced on an experimental basis) and Food-for-Work (FFW).
• Over the years, several new programmes have been launched and some have been restructured with the
growing experience of administering the programmes.
• The food procured by the Food Corporation of India (FCI) is distributed through government regulated ration
shops among the poorer section of the society. This is called the Public Distribution System (PDS). This is the
most important step taken by the Government of India towards ensuring food security.
• The Government of India introduced Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) in 1,700 blocks in the
country in 1992. The target was to provide the benefits of PDS to remote and backward areas.
• From June 1997, in a renewed attempt, Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) was introduced to adopt
the principle of targeting the poor in all areas. With a five-fold increase in food grain production from 50
million tonnes in 1950-51 to about 250 million tonnes in 2014-15, India has moved away from dependence on
food aid to become a net food exporter.
• Since 1980’s there was an increasing acknowledgement that physical and financial access to food had a
determining role in achieving food security in the country.
• Further, Amartya Sen’s Nobile Prize winning theory (Poverty and famine, 1998) highlighted that hunger and
starvation result from some people not having access to enough food – what he called entitlement. This
implied inspite enough food being available in the country people suffered from hunger and starvation
because they were physically or financially unable to reach to food. The approach shifted from food
production to access to food and from charity to a rights-based approach.
Food security of a nation is ensured if all of its citizens have enough nutritious food available, all persons have the
capacity to buy food of acceptable quality and there is no barrier on access to food. The right to food is a well
established principle of international human rights law. Though India crossed many barriers, road is just half
travelled. India is still home to largest number of malnourished children, our record on hunger index is poor. A
fulfilled diet for our population will drive us toward realising full potential of our dividend.
Examine the issues that affected the integrity of India’s social fabric pos-tindependence. What was the response of
the leadership to those challenges?
15th August 1947 marked the end of colonial rule in India and the country found itself standing on the threshold of a
new era wherein the task was to build a strong nation. While India found itself independent from the British, it was
still to find independence from social, economic and political problems that had started to become a rock in the way
of its growth.
THE ISSUES THAT AFFECTED THE INTEGRITY OF INDIA’S SOCIAL FABRIC POST- INDEPENDENCE
• Boundaries of the British Indian provinces had been drawn and redrawn in a haphazard manner without any
thought to cultural and linguistic cohesion.
• Most provinces were multilingual and multicultural and after independence, many former princely states
were absorbed into them.
• There was a demand for linguistically homogeneous provinces.
• When India gained Independence, its population numbered about 340 million. The literacy level then was just
12% or about 41 million.
• The partition of India gave way to the refugee problem. By mid-1948 about 5.5 million non-Muslims had
moved into India and a very large number of Muslims had left India for Pakistan.
• At the time of Independence, the incidence of poverty in India was about 80% or about 250 million. Famines
and hunger pushed India to take external help for its food security.
• The Naxalite Movement was a revolutionary movement that was started by the Naxalbari in Bengal another
group of Maoist themed activity in Andra Pradesh the Andra Naxalitess were mainly active in two regions
Telangana and Srikakulam bordering Odisha in both the regions the area of dispute was land and forest. The
main victims were the tribal and the peasants.
• The oil crisis of the mid 70’s had also contributed to the crisis and all of these developments together led to
riots and large-scale unrest and strikes and erosion of support for the Congress from the poor and the middle
class.

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 class.
• There was violence between Hindus and Muslims. The difference in ideologies paralyzed the government
both at the centre and the states.
• The terrorist movement led by Bhindranwale and Amrik Singh was started by the murder of the head of the
Nirankari sect.
THE RESPONSE OF THE LEADERSHIP TO THE SOCIAL CHALLENGES POST-INDEPENDENCE
• The Indian Constituent Assembly adopts Article 370 of the Constitution, ensuring special status and internal
autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir.
• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduces India’s first five-year plan, which defines the Nehruvian model of
centralized economic planning and development. The Sovietstyle five-year plan also creates a typically Indian
model of mixed economy and big government.
• States of India were reorganized in 1955 on the basis of the recommendations made by the States
Reorganization Commission. Since this was done on the basis of the language spoken by the people, each
state has some cultural cohesiveness.
• The government abolished such patrimonial feudalism, and subsequently also abolished the privy purses and
compensations granted to the rajas.
• Education has promoted migration of people from villages to towns and cities. There is an increased emphasis
on Hindi and other national languages. The policy of learning three languages at the school level has been
implemented in all the states of the Union of India.
• The Community Development Programmes (CDPs) were started on 2 October 1952 for the uplift of the rural
people. To overcome some of the impediments in the implementation of these schemes, the Panchayati Raj
scheme was introduced on 2 October 1959″, initially in the states of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh.
• The elected leaders of the rural people at three levels, viz., the village, the block and the district, were given
the responsibility of implementing the developmental schemes in view of the ‘felt needs’ of the rural classes.
Several schemes were executed for the welfare of the urban people and of those working in industries.
• The Government of India passed the Hindu Marriage Act in 1955 and the Hindu Succession Act in 1956.
Legislation also was enacted to discourage child labour.
It is to be noted that, Indian constitutional principles of secularism and federalism are the foundational keystone of
Indian democracy. Indian democracy is a heterogeneous model with a vast socio-religious and cultural diversity. It
was predicted by western political analysts that the Indian model of democracy would not last long. However, it was
due to India’s strong commitment to its constitutional principles that led India to not only survive as a nation but
also to emerge as the leader of the newly independent countries.
How did insurgency develop in the state of Punjab? How was the insurgency tackled? Discuss.
Post independent India stood up as a united nation in the face of extreme diversity and forces stretching her
indifferent directions. One of the strongest movements for “self-determination” was the Khalistan movement in the
late 20th century to carve out an independent state from the erstwhile India and some parts of Pakistan with
predominant Sikh population. Punjab insurgency was overtly and covertly supported by Pakistan, however the
ground was laid by certain other factors like Punjabi speaking feeling neglected, Sikh demanding a separate state
and other issues like Satluj Yamuna Link issue and chandigarh as a capital of Punjab only.
Factors which led to emergence of insurgency in Punjab1947 Partition of India –
• Independence of India was not a joyful event for Sikhs, partition left Sikhs in a lot of discontentment with
regard to their traditional lands being lost to Pakistan.
• The fight for a separate Sikh state owes its origins to the Punjabi Suba Movement.
• The Akali Dal – a Sikh-dominated political party – sought to create a separate Sikh Suba or Province. When the
States Reorganization Commission, constituted to assess the demand for separate states by linguistic groups,
made its recommendations, it rejected the Akali Dal’s demand.But after a series of violent protests, the Indira
Gandhi government relented in 1966. The state was trifurcated into Punjabi-majority Punjab, Hindi-majority
Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Some hilly regions of the state were merged into Himachal
Pradesh.
• However, the Anadpur Sahib resolution reignited the passion of Sikhs and sowed the seeds of Khalistan
movement. The resolution demanded autonomy for the state of Punjab, identified regions that would be part
of a separate state, and sought the right to frame its own internal constitution. This was the Anandpur Sahib
Resolution.
• the Anandpur Sahib resolution found an admirer in Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale – a religious scholar who’d

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 • the Anandpur Sahib resolution found an admirer in Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale – a religious scholar who’d
been travelling across Punjab advocating a return to the Khalsa or a more orthodox form of Sikhism. Initially,
the movement helmed by Akali leader Sant Harchand Singh Longowal and party chief Parkash Singh Badal
adhered to the principle of non-violence. But gradually, as the talks lingered without any breakthrough,
radicals led by Bhindranwale started dominating the agitation.
• Demands for separate nation-hood for Punjab was carried out through violent protests and killings of high
profile persons in Indian government. Finally, the spiral of violence led to Operation Blue Star that was
launched to flush out militants from the Golden Temple in June 1984.
• Bhindranwale was killed in the operation. Four months later, Indira Gandhi was shot dead by two of her Sikh
bodyguards to avenge the operation. How this violent insurgency was tackled
• The first phase of insurgency was treated as a law and order situation by both union and the state
government, until 1984 they refused to entertain the idea of a rising Sikh insurgency. This stage saw low
violence low base situation which calls for preemptive multi-pronged initiatives employing various elements
of national power failing which its progression is a possibility. The political leaders from both Akali and
Congress jostled for political supremacy, blaming each other for the woes of people and failed to address the
political, economic or social causes of the dissent.The dynamic created a political void which was filled by Sikh
religious extremists.
• In the second phase Strengthening of the counter insurgency measures took place at a larger scale police
apparatus in Punjab was strengthened and focus on border areas was increased to counter cross border
movement and supply of weapons, also diplomatic measures were initiated to counter any external support
to terrorists.
• But with the increasing violence and terrorists occupying the golden temple operation bluestar was initiated
to flush out the terrorists and curb the increasing violence. In 1984 Army was given a go ahead to enter the
temple which neutralized the terrorists inside but the collateral damage was huge with large number of
civillians were killed in the operation and the Akhal Takht was also damaged, this alienated the sikhs further
which resulted in massive demonstrations against the government which culminated in the assassination of
Prime minister Indhira Gandhi by her two sikh bodyguards and subsequently violence against sikhs took place
at a large scale in and around Delhi.
• Later Rajiv-Longowal accord was signed which set the base for peace but all the promises could not be
fulfilled due to the disagreements which led to the assassination of longowal by the sikh militant groups.
Violence continued till 1995 when chief minister Beant singh was killed in a suicide bombing, with increasing
public support security forces effectively eliminated anti-state combatants through intelligence based
operations thus paved the way for peaceful Punjab.
India continues to fight a lone, painfully slow, but successful battle against terrorism that is funded and supported
by Pakistan. The Indian Security Forces, with their vast experience, have developed new counter insurgency
techniques. Nowhere are the results of these techniques more visible than in the spectacular peace dividend in the
State of Punjab. The Punjab campaign stands out among the most recent, successful and victorious counter
insurgency campaigns in the world. This was largely made possible by a coherent grand strategy and tactical
innovations on the ground. Sikh masses played an important role in helping to curb the violence in the state and in
later times Punjab emerged as one of the most prosperous states in India.
What were the key provisions of the Shimla agreement after the 1971 IndoPak war? Was it a lost opportunity for
India? Critically comment.
The Shimla Agreement was signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan on
2nd July 1972 in the aftermath of the 1971 IndoPak War. It was much more than a peace treaty and intended to
establish peaceful Indo-Pak and regional relationship in the long run.
The Shimla Agreement contains following guiding provisions, mutually agreed to by India and Pakistan, which both
sides would adhere to while managing relations with each other:
• A mutual commitment to the peaceful resolution of all issues through direct bilateral approaches.
• To build the foundations of a cooperative relationship with special focus on people to people contacts
• To uphold the inviolability of the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir, which is the most important
confidence building measure (CBM) between India and Pakistan, and a key to durable peace.
• To always respect each other’s national unity, territorial integrity, political independence and sovereign
equality;
• To take all steps within their power to prevent hostile propaganda directed against each other and to

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 • To take all steps within their power to prevent hostile propaganda directed against each other and to
encourage the dissemination of such information as would promote the development of friendly relations
between them. Progressively restore and normalize relations between the two countries by resuming
communications, promote economic and trade relations.
However, Shimla agreement is claimed to be a lost opportunity for India due to following reasons:
• Recently, Pakistan unilaterally made Gilgit-Baltistan its 5th province, which was a grave violation of Shimla
agreement.
• Wars and Terrorist attacks: Kargil War (1999), Mumbai 9/11, Pathankot, Uri, Pulwama, etc. Pakistani state
sponsored terrorist attacks continue to cause escalations and casualties.
• The Shimla Agreement, and the subsequent Delhi Agreement, gave Pakistan everything it wanted: the
territory it lost to India in the war (15000 sq. km.) and the safe return of all its soldiers (93000) without
anyone of them being held responsible for the genocidal campaign unleashed in what is now Bangladesh.
• India missed a golden opportunity to resolve the Kashmir issue: Captured territory and soldiers could have
been used to resolve Kashmir dispute.
• Nothing in the Agreement pinned Pakistan down to future good behaviour, which led to continued violations
of agreement.
• Ceasefire violations: According to security officials, there were 5,100 instances of ceasefire violation by
Pakistan along the Line of Control (LoC) in 2020 in Jammu and Kashmir, the highest in nearly 18 years that
claimed 36 lives and left more than 130 people injured.
• Pakistan-China nexus: India today faces a possibility of two front war on its western and eastern borders.
• Radicalization and Propaganda: It is misguiding Indian youth especially Kashmiri youth and causing violence,
radicalism and disharmony in the Kashmir valley.
• Internationalization of Kashmir issue: Pakistan continues to raise Kashmir issue at various international
forums like UN General Assembly, SAARC, etc. which is against agreed provision of ‘resolution via direct
bilateral approaches’. Bangladeshi migrant issue was neglected and today the migrant issue continues to
disturb India’s social and security fabric. E.g.: Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, etc.
• Disturbed and Least Integrated region: South Asia hosts a 25% of world’s population but accounts only
around 4% of the global economy.
• Restricted Connectivity: Continuing tensions have restricted India’s as well as South Asia’s connectivity with
West and Central Asia.
Still, Shimla agreement is an important milestone in Indo-Pak relations as following opportunities were or can be
seized:
• Pakistan recognized Bangladesh, as a newly independent democratic country which today forms a vital
component in India’s ‘Act East Policy’.
• Isolating Pakistan at global forums: India reiterates provisions of Shimla Agreement to maintain bilateral
nature of the issue and highlights Pakistan’s non-adherence to mutually agreed treaty.
• Prevented internationalization of Kashmir issue by Pakistan to some extent. It continues to be comprehensive
blue print for good neighbourly relations between India and Pakistan, which can be adopted to revive
peaceful bilateral resolution of pending issues.
India has faithfully observed the Shimla Agreement in the conduct of its relations with Pakistan and expects same
form Pakistan. India is firm on its stand of ‘talks and terror cannot go together’, so Pakistan has to create an
enabling environment for talks and both countries need to work towards the establishment of durable peace,
friendship and cooperation.
What was the immediate policy focus in terms of economic priorities after independence? Did it succeed? Critically
examine.
India became an independent nation on August 15, 1947.Prior to that the Indian subcontinent was under the British
rule for nearly two centuries which is a very long period to sufficiently influence every aspect of the country such as
politics, culture, social system, economy etc. In the beginning, our country India was rich in economy, culture and
polity. It was due to advent of foreigners that it gradually got pushed into backwardness.
The Immediate Policy Focus in Terms of Economic Priorities After Independence
• On 14 August 1947, Nehru had said: “The immediate tasks ahead included the ending of poverty and
ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity.”
• At the time of independence, Indian economy was generally rural and agricultural.
• At the beginning years of the First Five-year Plan, contribution of the primary sector in GDP at factor cost was

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 • At the beginning years of the First Five-year Plan, contribution of the primary sector in GDP at factor cost was
largest followed by tertiary sector and secondary sector respectively.
• The objective of India’s development strategy has been to establish a socialistic pattern of society through
economic growth with self-reliance, social justice and alleviation of poverty as given in the constitution.
• These objectives were to be achieved within a democratic political framework by using the mechanism of a
mixed economy. Hence Post-independence, India was declared to be a planned and a mixed economy.
• India was not only facing regional disparities at the level of resources, but inter-regional disparities were also
prevalent, since centuries.
• Deeply entrenched mass poverty could only be remedied once the government started the process of
economic planning.
• The abject poverty of the masses made the government go for planning so that it could play an active role in
the allocation of resources and mobilise them for equitable growth and development.
• Although, constitutionally India was declared a federation of states, but in the process of planning, the
authority of regulation, directing and undertaking economic activities got more and more centralised in the
Union government.
The Result of These Immediate Policy Focus in Terms of Economic Priorities After Independence:
• India’s First Five-Year plan was a brave effort. The success achieved in many fields was remarkable and, in
many cases, the plan targets were exceeded.
• The first plan period did not cause any significant inflationary pressure on the economy. This was due to
increased production, particularly in the agricultural sector.
• Although the target for national income growth was only an 11% increase, the actual increase was 18%. Per
capita income went up by 11%.
• Food production rose from 52.2 million tonnes in 1951-52 to 65.8 million tonnes in 1955-56.
• In cotton, jute, sugarcane and oilseeds, the achievements were close to the targets.
• The first five-year plan was a successful plan primarily because of good harvests in the last two years of the
plan.
• With an active role of the state in all economic sectors, targets and objectives of immediate policy more or
less achieved.
• Objectives of rehabilitation of refugees, food self-sufficiency & control of prices were more or less achieved.
• But at the same time, it can’t be ignored that when India was freed, it has deep marks of stagnation. During
the phase of fifty years of economic planning, its growth rate is zero or nearby.
• The policy miserably failed to make a dent on poverty as 40 per cent of population is in tight grip of poverty
While some have a high opinion of India’s growth story since its independence, some others think the country’s
performance in the seven decades has been abysmal. It’s arguably true that the Five-Year Plans did target specific
sectors in order to quicken the pace of development, yet the outcome hasn’t been on expected lines.

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