BIOLOGY

LECTURE 3: THE CELL 1

1.Describe the structure and function of the components of the endomembrane system.  

.The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell:
Components of the endomembrane system:
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
=> These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
  . The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory ( There are two parts to the structure known as
the endoplasmic reticulum. Both have a membranous tubular structure and are located near the
nucleus of the cell)
-The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
-The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
-There are two distinct regions of ER:
+Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
+Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

.Functions of Smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates – Detoxifies poison
– Stores calcium
.Functions of Rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
 

.The Golgi Apparatus( an organelle made up of flattened discs of membrane.) : Shipping and
Receiving Center 
-The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
-Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
+ Modifies products of the ER
+ Manufactures certain macromolecules
+ Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

.Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments ( Lysosomes are part of the endomembrane system, and some
vesicles that leave the Golgi are bound for the lysosome.)
+ A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules
+ Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

.Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

+ A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles.
+ Plants cells are unique because they have a lysosome-like organelle called the vacuole. The
large central vacuole stores water and wastes, isolates hazardous materials, and has enzymes that
can break down macromolecules and cellular components, like those of a lysosome.Plant vacuoles
also function in water balance and may be used to store compounds such as toxins and pigments
(colored particles).

2.Briefly explain the role of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes.

-Mitochondria are responsible for generating most of the useful energy derived from the breakdown of
lipids and carbohydrates. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that
generates ATP.
-Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis ,use energy captured from sunlight to generate both
ATP and the reducing power needed to synthesize carbohydrates from CO2 and H2O.
-Peroxisome are contains enzymes involved in a variety of different metabolic pathways, including the
breakdown of fatty acids and the metabolism of a by-product of photosynthesis.
BIOLOGY
LECTURE 3: THE CELL 1

3. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton.

-As described above, the cytoskeleton has several functions. First, it gives the cell shape. This is
especially important in cells without cell walls, such as animal cells, that do not get their shape from a
thick outer layer. It can also give the cell movement. The microfilaments and microtubules can
disassemble, reassemble, and contract, allowing cells to crawl and migrate, and microtubules help
form structures like cilia and flagella that allow for cell movement.
The cytoskeleton organizes the cell and keeps the cell’s organelles in place, but it also aids in the
movement of organelles throughout the cell. For example, during endocytosis when a cell engulfs a
molecule, microfilaments pull the vesicle containing the engulfed particles into the cell. Similarly, the
cytoskeleton helps move chromosomes during cell division.

4.Compare the structure and functions of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

Microfilaments Microtubules Intermediate

filaments

Structure

Two intertwined Hollow tubes; Fibrous proteins

strands of actin wall consists supercoiled intro
of 13 columns
of tubulin thicker cables
molecules
Size

7 nm in diameter 20-25 nm in 10-12 nm in

diameter diameter

Composition

Predominantly Composed of Composed of smaller

composed of subunits of strands in the shape
contractile protein protein tubulin.
called actin. These of rods
subunits are
termed as
alpha and
beta.
Strength

Flexible and Stiff and resist

relatively strong. bending
Resist buckling due forces.
to compressive
forces and filament
fracture by tensile
forces.
Function

Micro-filaments are Microtubules Anchorage of

smaller and thinner are shaped nucleus and certain
and mostly help similarly but
cells move are larger, and other organelles
-involved in muscle help with cell
contraction; allow functions such -Formation of nuclear
for changes in cell as mitosis and
shape; facilitate various cell lamina
cytoplasmic division transport
in animal cells functions -support the plasma
-Allow
membrane
movement of
chromosomes
during cell
division
BIOLOGY
LECTURE 3: THE CELL 1

5.Describe four different intercellular junctions

There are four main types of cell-cell junctions:

Three are different types of connecting junctions, that bind the cells together.
1. occluding junctions (zonula occludens or tight junctions)
2. adhering junctions (zonula adherens).
3. desmosomes (macula adherens). There are also 'hemidesmosomes' that lie on the basal membrane, to
help stick the cells to the underlying basal lamina.
4. Gap junctions. These are communicating junctions. (also known as nexus, septate junction)

  Occluding junctions
-The borders of two cells are fused together, often around the whole perimeter of each cell, forming a
continuous belt like junction known as a tight junction or zonula occludens. These regions of the cells are very
tightly connected together, such that the adjacent plasma membranes are sealed together. Proteins in the
membrane of adjacent cells called occludin interact with each other to produce this tight seal. In the cytoplasm
of the cell, occludin interacts with the actin cytoskeleton via another proteins called ZO-1. Many pathogens act
on the proteins that form this tight junction, making it permeable.
This type of junction greatly restricts the passage of water, electrolytes and other small molecules across the
epithelium. Transmembrane proteins from each cell membrane interlock across the intercellular space, all
around the cell, in this belt 

Adhering Junctions
-Epithelial cells are held together by strong anchoring (zonula adherens) junctions.
The adherens junction lies below the tight junction (occluding junction). In the gap (about 15-20nm) between
the two cells, there is a protein called cadherin - a cell membrane glycoprotein. (The type of cadherin found
here is E-cadherin). The cadherins from adjacent cells interact to 'zipper' up the two cells together.
-Inside the cell, actin filaments (microfilaments, shown here in red) join up the the adhesion junctions. These
filaments tend to be arranged circumferentially around the cell, as a 'marginal' band.
-This marginal band can contract, and deform the shape of cells held together in this way - this is thought to be
key in the morphogenesis of epithelial cells, in forming ducts for example.

Desmosomes and Hemidesmosomes

-Desmosomes connect two cells together. A desmosome is also known as a spot desmosome or macula
adherens (macula = latin for spot), because it is circular or spot like in outline, and not belt- or band shaped like
adherens junctions.
-Desmosomes are particularly common in epithelia that need to withstand abrasion. Desmosomes are also found
in cardiac cells, but the intermediate filament in this case is desmin, not keratin (which is found in epithelial
cells).
-Desmosomes is made up of a dense cytoplasmic plaque, to which the intermediate filaments attach.
 Hemidesmosomes
These look similar to desmosomes, but are different functionally, and in their content. They connect the basal
surface of epithelial cells via intermediate filaments to the underlying basal lamina. The transmembrane
proteins of hemidesmosomes are not cadherins, but another type of protein called integrin

Gap Junctions

-A group of protein molecules called connexins form a structure called a connexon . When connexons from two
adjacent cells align, they form a continuous channel between them.
This channel is big enough to allow small molecules such as inorganic ions, and other small water soluble
molecules (smaller than 1000kDa) to pass between the cells. However the channel is too small for
proteins,nucleic acids or sugars to pass through.