Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the student:

• Give examples by classifying the specializations related to
lateral region and cell-cell adhesion.
• Defines light and electron microscopic properties of lateral
region modifications.
• Classifies basal surface attachment complexes and explains
their structural and functional properties.
• Classifies basal region differentiations in cell-extracellular
matrix adhesion.
• Counts the parts of the basement membrane.
• Defines the structural and functional properties of the
basement membrane.
• Describes the morphological (inward folds on the basal cell
surface) modifications of the basal cell surface.

Asst Prof Ender Deniz Asmaz

Dept.of Histology&Embryology
SURFACE MODIFICATION OF
EPITHELIAL CELLS

Apical surface Lateral surface Basal surface

microvilli Zonula occludens

cilia Zonula adherens

hemidesmosome
flagella Desmosome

stereocila Gap junction

 1. APICAL MODIFICATION
MICROVILLI
- very small finger-like projections extending from the
apical surface of the cell

Striated border/ brush border

(stomach)
Microvilli
 In epithelia specialized for absorption the apical cell surfaces
are often filled with an array of projecting microvilli, usually of
uniform length.

 In cells such as those lining the small intestine, densely

packed microvilli are visible as a brush or striated border
projecting into the lumen

 The average microvillus is about 1 μm long and 0.1 μm wide,

 Functions of microvilli:

 The microvilli effectively increase the surface area of the cell and are
useful for absorption and secretion functions.
 The microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the
breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compounds that are more
easily absorbed.
 They play a role in egg cells as they help in anchoring the sperm to the
egg, thus allowing for easier fertilization.
 It helps in nutrient absorption, digestion, secretion and cellular adhesion.
1. APICAL MODIFICATION
CILIA (KINOCILIA)
-Elongated, highly motile,
longer and two times wider
that microvillus

-Exhibit rapid back and forth

movements coordinated to
propel a current of fluid and
suspended matter in one
direction
Cilia
 Cilia are long, highly motile apical structures, larger than
microvilli, and containing internal arrays of microtubules
not microfilament.

 Motile cilia are abundant on cuboidal or columnar cells

of many epithelia.

 Typical cilia are 5-10 μm long and 0.2 μm in diameter, which is

much longer and two times wider than a typical microvillus.
By light microscopy cilia (C) on the columnar cells appear as a wave of long
projections, interrupted by nonciliated, mucussecreting goblet cells (G)
SEM of the apical surfaces of this epithelium shows the density of the cilia (C) and
the scattered goblet cells (G)
 In addition to cilia on epithelial cells, most (if not all) other cell types
have at least one short projection called a primary cilium, which is
NOT motile but is enriched with receptors and signal transduction
complexes for detection of light, odours, motion, and flow of liquid
past the cells.
 Primary cilia are microscopic
sensory antennae cells that gather
information about their
environment. In the kidney,
primary cilia sense urine flow
and are essential for the
maintenance of epithelial
structure
1. APICAL MODIFICATION
FLAGELLA
- Long cilia
- Functions to propel
the cell
-Spermatozoon (called
tail)
1. APICAL MODIFICATION
stereocila
- resemble microvilli that are as
long as cilia
- non-motile and core consists of
actin filaments

Location: vas deferens, testes, hair

cells of the inner ear
Stereocilia
 Stereocilia are a much less common type of apical process,
best seen on the absorptive epithelial cells lining the male
reproductive system.
 Stereocilia increase the cells’ surface area, facilitating
absorption.
 Stereocilia resemble microvilli in containing arrays of
microfilaments and actin-binding proteins, with similar
diameters, and with similar connections to the cell’s terminal
web.
 Stereocilia are typically much longer and less motile
than microvilli, and may show branching distally
Cilia are hair-like structures present on cell
surfaces. (Motile)
Stereocilia are bundles of actin filaments that are
sometimes branched. (Non-motile)
Microvilli are brush-like and found on cell
surfaces. (Non-motile)
 2.LATERAL
SURFACE
MODIFICATION
INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS

Zonula occludens
Juxtaluminal junction
complex/
Zonula adherens terminal bar

Desmosomes

Gap junctions
2. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS
INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS Principal function:
Zonula Occludens (Tight junction/ Closing Belt) Seals to prevent the
flow of materials
between the cells
- Most apically situated
(paracellular pathway)
Zonula – indicates that junctions form bands
completely encircling each cell
Occludens – refers to membrane fusions that
close off the space between the cells
ZONULAE OCCLUDENS (Tight Junctions)
 Tight junctions, also called zonulae occludens, are the
most apical of the junctions.

 The term “zonula” indicates that the junction forms a

band completely encircling each cell.

 The seal between the two cell membranes is due to tight

interactions between the transmembrane proteins: claudin
and occludin.
Tight Junction proteins: Occludin & Claudin
• Occludins and claudins are transmembrane proteins
that interact across the intercellular space to form TJs
• ZO (zonula occludens) proteins 1-3 link occludin and
claudin to each other, to JAMs (Junctional adhesion
molecules), and to actin filaments
2. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS
INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS
Zonula Adherens (Adhering belt/ Belt
desmosome/ Band desmosome)

-Also encircles the cell usually immediately

below the zonula occludens
-cell membrane of adjoining cells neither
adhere nor fuse; they are separated by
intercellular space filled with cadherins
that provide firm adhesion of one cell to
its neighbours
ZONULAE ADHERNS (Adherent Junctions)

 Adherens junctions, also called zonulae adherns, which

encircles the epithelial cell, usually immediately below the
tight junction.

 Cadherins
 Cadherins
 Cadherins are a class of type-1
transmembrane proteins. They are
dependent on calcium (Ca2+) ions to
function.

 At their cytoplasmic ends, cadherins bind

catenins that link to actin filaments with
actin-binding proteins. Together, the tight
and adherent junctions encircling the
apical ends of epithelial cells function
like the plastic bands that hold a six-pack
of canned drinks together.
Catenins join cadherins to actin filaments in adherence
junctions

This junction keeps epithelial cells from slipping/sliding out

of
2. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS
INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS
Desmosomes(Macula adherens/ Spot
Desmosome)

-form button-like adhesions arranged in a

line around the cell
- appear as thickening of the cell Principal function:
Location: epidermis Provides firm adhesion
among cells
 Desmosomes
 Also called “Macula adherens”

 Desmosomes: a structure by which two

adjacent cells are attached, formed from
protein plaques in the cell membranes
linked by filaments

 This junction resembles a single “spot-

weld” and does not form a belt around the
cell
Spot-weld
 Desmosomes are disc-shaped structures at the surface
of one cell that are matched with identical structures at
an adjacent cell surface

 The cytoplasmic ends of these clustered transmembrane

proteins bind plakoglobins, plakophillin, catenin-like
proteins which link to larger proteins called
desmoplakins in an electron-dense plaque
Desmosomes
• Anchoring junctions
• Provides firm adhesion between cells
• Function as "spot welds" to join cells
• Located along lateral plasma membranes
of columnar epithelial cells or on
processes of squamous cells
• Intermediate filaments associate with
plaque proteins in cytoplasm
Desmosomes
• Desmoglein and desmocollin are non-classical cadherins
• Adaptor proteins such as γ-catenin (plakoglobin) and desmoplakin link cadherins
to
intermediate filaments
MV: microvilli

TJ: tight junction

AJ: adherent junction

IF: intermediate
filaments

D: desmosomes
2. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS

INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS Principal function:

Gap Junctions (Nexus/ Communicating Junction) permit the rapid

exchange between cells
of molecules with small
Gap junctions

 Gap junction: Mediate intercellular communication rather than

adhesion or occlusion between cells

 Gap junctions are functionally important in nearly all mammalian

tissues because they directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells,
which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to
directly pass through a regulated gate between cells.
 Cryofracture preparations show that gap junctions consist of
aggregated transmembrane protein complexes that form
circular patches in the plasma membrane
Gap Junction
 The transmembrane gap junction
proteins, connexins, form
hexameric complexes called
connexons, each of which has a
central hydrophilic pore about
1.5 nm in diameter.

 When two cells attach,

connexins in the adjacent cell
membranes move laterally and
align to produce connexons
between the two cells,
  With each junction having
dozens or hundreds of
aligned connexon pairs.

 Gap junctions permit

intercellular exchange of
molecules with small (<1.5
nm) diameters.

The gap junction is seen as an area of close

plasma membrane apposition
(b) A cryofracture preparation of a
gap junction, showing the patch of
aggregated transmembrane
proteincomplexes, the
(X150,000) connexons.

(c) A section perpendicular to a gap

junction between two cells shows that
their cell membranes are very closely
apposed, separated only by a 2-nm-
wide electron dense space.
 +
Plakoglobin
Plakophillin
=
desmoplakin
3. BASAL SURFACE
MODIFICATIONS
- For better attachment or for more efficient functioning
Hemidesmosomes
- Identical to half a desmosome
- Exists in the stratum basale of the skin

Basal infoldings of the plasmalemma

- Present in cells lining segments of the renal tubule
- increase the absorptive capacity of the cell
Hemidesmosomes
 On the basal epithelial surface, cells attach to the basal lamina
by anchoring junctions called hemidesmosomes (HDs), which
can be seen by TEM
 These adhesive structures resemble a half-desmosome ultrastructurally but
unlike desmosomes, the clustered transmembrane proteins that indirectly link
to cytokeratin intermediate filaments are integrins rather than cadherins
 The integrins of hemidesmosomes bind primarily to laminin molecules in
the basal lamina
 HDs are highly specialized integrin-mediated epithelial attachment
structures that make cells firmly adhere to the extracellular matrix by
establishing a link between the underlying basement membrane (lamina
lucida) and the internal mechanical stress-resilient keratin intermediate
filament network
*Integrins - membrane protein that "integrates" cell into matrix
Hemidesmosomes
 Functions of HDs:
• They serve mainly as sites of attachment for the actin-based
contractile system of the cytoplasm.

• In addition to playing an important structural function in tissue

integrity, Many hemidesmosomal components are phosphoproteins and
in certain cases the function of specific phosphorylation sites in
regulating protein-protein interactions is being uncovered.
Junctions types & their
functions
 Connective tissue
.
 Connective tissue is one of the four tissues found
in the human body.

 Connective tissue provides a matrix that supports

and physically connects other tissues and cells
together to form the organs of the body.

 Connective tissue is found in between other

tissues everywhere in the body, including
the nervous system.
Organ Components:
 Most organs can be divided into:

The parenchyma, which is composed of the

cells responsible for the organ’s specialized
functions.

The stroma, the cells of which have a

supporting role in the organ. Except in the
brain and spinal cord, the stroma is
always connective tissue.
Most Organs Parenchyma Stroma
 Connective tissue originates from the germinal
layers

mesenchyme.

 A tissue developing mainly from the

middle layer of the embryo, the
mesoderm.
.
 Embryonic mesenchyme producing all types of
connective tissue proper and the specialized
connective tissues bone and cartilage, they
also include stem cells for other tissues such as
blood, the vascular endothelium, and muscle.
Origin of connective tissue cells
Origin of connective tissue cells
 Components

Cells Matrix

Ground
Substance

Fibers
 Connective tissue is composed of
cells and an extracellular matrix
that binds the cells and organs,
integrating all parts of the body.

 Connective tissue is the most

widespread tissue of the body and
can be found in every organ.

 A variety of cell types are found

in connective tissues.
Connective tissue vs Epithelium:

 Unlike the other tissue types (epithelium,

muscle, and nerve), which consist mainly of
cells, the main component of connective tissue
is the extracellular matrix (ECM).
 Connective tissue that
connects, supports, binds, or
separates other tissues or
organs, typically having
relatively few cells embedded
in an amorphous matrix, often
with collagen or other fibres,
and including cartilaginous,
fatty, and elastic tissues.
 The variety of connective
tissue types in the body
reflects differences in
composition and amount of
the cells, fibers, and
ground substance which
together are responsible for
the remarkable structural,
functional, and pathologic
diversity of connective
tissue.
Classes of Connective Tissue
 Connective tissue proper
 Dense connective tissue
 Loose connective tissue

 Cartilage

 Bone

 Blood
 Protect

 Structural support

 Bind

 Trsansport
Connective tissue binds skin to
 Immunity muscles
 Fibroblasts
 Adipocytes
 Macrophages & the Mononuclear Phagocyte System
 Mast Cells
Fixed 1.
2.
Fibroblasts
Adipose (fat) cells
 Plasma Cells (permanent 3. Tissue Macrophages**
residents) 4. Mast cells**
 Leukocytes

Free 5. Lymphocytes & Plasma Cells

(transient (differentiated B-cells) **
residents) 6. “Leukocytes”**
** ( derived from hematopoietic stem cells and involved in immune function and
inflammation. Specifically, neutrophils, eosinophils, & basophils)