CHAPTER 1

EARLY METHODS OF LIE DETECTION

Since the dawn of civilization, mankind has sought ways to distinguish

truthfulness from lying in those individuals suspected of criminal wrongdoing. Various
techniques were used for the verification of truth and the detection of deception over the
centuries, many of these being ridiculous and cruel.

1. Trial by combat (Wager of Battle, Trial by Battle or Judicial Duel)

It was a method to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a

confession, in which two parties in dispute fought in single combat. The winner of
the fight was proclaimed to be innocent. It remained in use throughout the
European middle ages and gradually disappeared in the course of the 16th
century.

2. Trial by Ordeal

A judicial practiced by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is

determined by subjecting them to an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience. In
some cases, the accused was considered innocent if they survived the test, or if
their injuries healed; in others, only death was considered proof of innocence.

a. Ordeal of Fire – In this test the suspect walked a certain

distance, usually nine feet, over red-hot plowshares. Innocence was
sometimes established by a complete lack of injury, but it was more
common for the wound to be bandaged and reexamined three days later by
a priest, who would pronounce that God had intervened to heal it, or that it
was merely festering - in which case the suspect would be exiled or
executed.

b. Ordeal of Hot Water – This test requires that the water had to be
boiled, and the depth from which the stone had to be retrieved was up to
the wrist for one accusation, and up to the elbow for three. The ordeal
would take place in the church, with several in attendance, purified and
praying God to reveal the truth. Afterwards, the hand was bound and
examined after three days to see whether it was healing or festering. If it is
healing, the accused would be considered innocent, and if festering, the
accused is said to be guilty. It was practiced by the Catholic churches until
12th Century.

1
 c. Ordeal of Cold Water – This ordeal has a precedent in the Code
of Ur-Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi under which a man accused of
sorcery was to be submerged in a stream and acquitted if he survived.

In 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with the
witch-hunts. An accused sank and usually drowned was considered
innocent, while floating indicated witchcraft. Demonologists developed
inventive new theories about how it worked. Some argued that witches
floated because they had renounced baptism when entering the Devil's
service.

d. Ordeal of the Cross – The ordeal of the cross was introduced in

the Early Middle Ages by the church in an attempt to discourage judicial
duels among the Germanic peoples. As with judicial duels, and unlike
most other ordeals, the accuser had to undergo the ordeal together with the
accused. They stood on either side of a cross and stretched out their hands
horizontally. The one to first lower his arms lost. This ordeal was
prescribed by Charlemagne in 779 and again in 806. On the other hand, a
decree of Lothar I, recorded in 876, abolished the ordeal so as to avoid the
mockery of Christ.

e. Ordeal of Boiling Oil – This ordeal was practiced in villages of

India and certain parts of West Africa. There are two versions of this
ordeal. In one version, the accused parties are ordered to retrieve an item
from a container of boiling oil, with those who refuse the task being found
guilty. In the other version of the trial, both the accused and the accuser
have to retrieve an item from boiling oil, with the person or persons whose
hand remains unscathed being declared innocent.

f. Red-Hot Iron Ordeal – In this ordeal, the accused is being

instructed to prove his innocence by placing his tongue on the hot iron
nine times unless burned sooner. If burned, the accused will be considered
guilty. This ordeal can be done also by carrying hot iron using the
suspect’s hand. Accordingly, this ordeal was practiced by the hill tribes of
Rajhamal in the North of Bengal, India.

g.

2
 CHAPTER 2
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS
IN THE EVOLUTION OF POLYGRAPHY

The polygraph or much commonly known as lie detector has been in its existence
in police science over the years. Tracing back its beginning, one may found out that there
is no single person who invented the polygraph instrument as we know it today that
records the changes in Respiration, Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) or Electrodermal
Activity (EDA) and Cardiovascular Activity.

The word polygraph comes from two Greek word poly and graph. The word
graph refers to a writing chart while the word poly means many or several. Literally,
polygraph means many writings. Thomas Jefferson was the first person known who used
the word polygraph in 1790 to describe one of his inventions that could rewrite
repeatedly words.

Daniel Defoe

In 1730, a year before Daniel Defoe die, he wrote an essay

entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of the
Street Robberies and Suppressing All Other Disorders of the Night”
where he suggested the use of the pulse to detect deception. Defoe’s
essay called upon the attention of many scientists to employ medical
science in the fight against crime.
Figure 1
Daniel Defoe
Angelo Mosso
(1659-1731)
In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of an
Italian psychologist Angelo Mosso. He made used of an instrument called
plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear and its influence on the heart and
respiration. Mosso also studied the variation in blood pressure and the circulation of
blood in the brain during fear are far greater than those resulting from the effect of mere
noises and sounds.
He devised a scientific cradle which was designed to
measure the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a
prone position, as it became concentrated first in one part of the
body and then in another. Cradle was consists of large, heavy
table at the center of which was a delicate knife-edge fulcrum.
A heavy wooden plank rested securely and evenly on the
fulcrum. A heavy metal counterpoise, which could be adjusted
up or down was fastened vertically in the middle of the plank
and secured with two metal bars at each end of the plank in
order to prevent from swaying. When the subject experienced
emotion, the blood would rush to the head and throw the cradle
out of balance which in turn would be recorded on a revolving
smoked drum. A rubber cuff was also wrapped around the Figure 2
subject’s foot and connected by a tube to a3tambour recording Angelo Mosso
pulse fluctuations. (1846–1910)
Cesare Lombroso

In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Criminologist

and tutor of Angelo Mosso, published the second edition of
his book entitled L’Homme Criminel which he relates the
used of plethysmograph and sphygmograph during
interrogation of suspects. He made a modification of the
plethysmograph resulting in the hydrosphygmograph.
Lombroso applied the blood pressure pulse test in actual
criminal suspects. The suspect’s fist would be immersed in a
water-filled tank then sealed across the top of the tank by a
rubber membrane. The pulsations of blood in the fist were
transferred to the water and the changes in water level were
carried over an air-filled tube which will be recorded on the
revolving smoked drum. Figure 3
Cesare Lombroso
(1835-1909)

Francis Galton

A word association test was introduced by Francis

Galton in 1879 whereby a group of words were presented to a
patient which were separated in time sufficient to allow the
patient to utter his first thought generated by each word. A
several irrelevant questions were inserted in every question
relevant to the crime committed. Guilty examinee when
confronted with a relevant word will suffer from an inner
conflict which may be manifested in by delay in reaction in
time, more rapid reaction time, repetition of relevant word,
blocking of response or uncoordinated physical movements.
Figure 4
Francis Galton
1822-1911

4
B. Sticker

He believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the
influence of the exciting mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon it.
Sticker made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.

Sir James Mackenzie

Sir James Mackenzie, and English clinician and

cardiologist, constructed the clinical polygraph in 1892, an
instrument to be used for medical examinations with the
capability to simultaneously record undulated line tracings of
the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a
stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked paper.

In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical

polygraph of 1892 when he devised the clinical ink polygraph
with the help of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian Shaw. This
instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling
Figure 5
and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of Sir James Mackenzie
physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to
(1853-1925)
interpret.

Figure 6
Sir James Mackenzie’s Clinical Ink Polygraph

S. Veraguth

He is said to be the first person to use the term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth
was the first scientist to use the word association test with galvanometer. In 1907, he
described his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions that there was an

5
ascending galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant stimuli versus the rest
curve on non-crucial stimuli.

Vittorio Benussi

In March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian
Society for Psychology in Rome where he described how he record the subject’s
breathing patter using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted the changes in inspiration-
expiration ratio during deception. In addition to respiration, he also included the
recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception and probably
the first person to record more than one physiological response.

Figure 7
Marey Pneumograph

Dr. William M. Marston

In 1915, Marston was credited as the creator of the systolic blood-pressure test
used in an attempt to detect deception during questioning, and using a standard blood
pressure cuff and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to obtain
readings at intervals during examination, which became one component of the modern
polygraph. This was called discontinuous technique. According to their son, Marston's
wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston was also involved in the development of the systolic
blood-pressure test. According to Marston’s son, it was his mother Elizabeth who
suggested to him that when she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb.

Figure 8
Dr. William M. Marston in
Columbia University
1893-1947

6
Harold Burtt

In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of

deception. He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in
the detection of deception than the changes in blood pressure. The results obtained by
Benussi were partially confirmed by Burtt.

John A. Larson

He was interested by William Marston’s studies in detecting deception using the

discontinuous method, and encouraged by Berkeley Police Chief August Vollmer, John
Larson attempted to use a deception test in actual criminal investigations. He examined a
variety of instruments that were available at that time, as well as methodology. He
selected an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer modified to produce permanent recordings of
blood pressure using a smoked drum and kymograph. His first apparatus which he
referred to as a Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram, consisted of a modification of an Erlanger
Sphygmomanometer. The modification was done by Earl Bryant for Dr. Robert Gesell of
the Department of Physiology of the University of California. The first instrument Larson
used in his experiments was borrowed from Dr. Gesell.

In 1921, Earl Bryant made another instrument for John Larson, which was used at
the Berkeley Police Department. It is believed that this second instrument was a duplicate
of the first. This is the instrument that brought fame to Larson’s experiments and that
drew the young Leonarde Keeler into the field of detection of deception. He used a
breadboard as a base for the instrument, and from that it became known by the industry
as the Breadboard Polygraph. His instrument differed from Marston’s in that it provided
continuous readings, rather than discontinuous readings. He also replaced the blood
pressure technique used by Marston with an occlusion Sphygmomanometer
Plethysmograph that measured relative blood pressure and blood volume. The instrument
was therefore able to continually and simultaneously record respiration, and
cardiovascular changes.

It had many drawbacks and it took a half hour to set up. The paper had to be
smoked and was smudgy and messy. To preserve the graphs, they had to be shellacked
and stored in cans and even then they often became brittle and broke.

Figure 9
John Larson’s
Portable
Instrument

7
Leonarde Keeler

Leonarde Keeler, above all others involved in the history of modern polygraphy,
can be considered as one of its founders. While in high school, he worked at the Berkeley
Police Department under Chief August Vollmer. He assisted John Larson during his early
polygraph work. John Larson’s instrument
was Leonard Keeler’s first instrument. In 1926, he developed an
improvement of Larson’s instrument. Keeler’s instrument, like
Larson’s instrument, it records changes in blood pressure, pulse
rate and respiration patterns. However, he developed a metal
bellows (tambours) which was connected by a mechanical device.
The volume changes within the blood pressure arm cuff and
pneumograph tube circling the chest of the subject were
transmitted in heavy walled rubber going to the tambours. Keeler
also designed the kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a
constant speed under recording pens from a roll of chart located Figure 10
inside the instrument. Leonarde Keeler
1903-1949

In 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring

component of his instrument which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR)
invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791. The PGR measures person’s skin
resistance to electricity by transmitting a constant minute electrical current through the
skin of the selected fingertips.

Figure 11
Keeler’s Instrument

Keeler with his instrument consisting of three components such as pneumograph,

psychogalvanograph and cardiosphygmograph, developed the relevant-irrelevant
technique. This technique was consists of relevant or crime questions which were

8
interspersed with irrelevant questions of a neutral nature. Today, Leonarde Keeler is
considered as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.

Ruckmick

In 1936, the term psychogalvanic reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated by

Ruckmick and proposed the term electrodermal response. However, veraguth believed
that the electrodermal phenonema was attributable not to vascular changes in the skin but
to the activity of the sweat glands.

Dr. Hans Gross

During the middle of 19th century he defined search for truth as the basis and goal
of all criminal investigations. He said that a large part of criminal’s work is nothing more
than a battle against lies. With his contributions in the field of forensic science, he was
considered as the Father of Criminalistics.

John E. Reid

Reid was an attorney, polygraph examiner and former member of the Chicago
Police Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory and Director of John E. Reid and
Associates. In 1950, he developed the control question which consist of a known lie and
incorporated it into the relevant/irrelevant technique. In addition to the recording of
breathing, GSR and cardio, he developed a means of recording arm and leg movements.
Reid also developed the guilt-complex test to be administered to overly responsive
examinee. He also developed the guilt-complex test being administered to overly
responsive subjects.

Cleve Backster

Backster, a polygraph expert, born in 1924. In 1960, he developed the so called

Backster Zone Comparison Technique where he incorporate the relevant/irrelevant
questions, Reid’s control question and symptomatic question which he first introduced in
order to identify the outside issue that might interfere with the test. Backster developed
the psychological set theory and the anticlimax dampening concept. He also developed
and introduced the quantification system of chart analysis which permits the examiner to
score the charts numerically according to standard rules.

Richard O. Arther

In 1965, Richard O. Arther, Chief Associate of John E. Reid and Associates from
September 1951 to August 1953, introduced the Arther II polygraph instrument which
contains a stimulus marker capable of recording the beginning and ending of question
and the moment the examinee answered. Aside from the stimulus marker, he was the first
forensic psychophysiologist to record simultaneously the thoracic and abdominal
breathing pattern of the subject during examination.

9
American Polygraph Association

In 1966, the American Polygraph Association (APA) was established. At present

it consists of over 2500 members dedicated to providing a valid and reliable means to
verify the truth and establish the highest standards of moral, ethical, and professional
conduct in the polygraph field.

The American Polygraph Association continues to be the leading polygraph

professional association, establishing standards of ethical practices, techniques,
instrumentation, research, and advanced training and continuing educational programs.

Biometrics, Inc.

In 1966, the Biometric, Inc. developed the cardio activity monitor (CAM) under
research contract by U.S. Air Force. This CAM is designed to monitor the same reactions
being monitor with the use of cardio medical cuff being placed against the brachial
artery. The CAM is being placed over the radial artery at the wrist of the subject.

University of Utah Research

On August 30, 1976, a research project was launch under the direction of David
C. Raskin, Ph.D., a professor of psychology at the University of Utah, John A. Podlesny,
Ph.D., an adjunct professor at the University of Utah, and Gordon H. Barland, Ph.D., a
polygraphist in private practice. This project was funded by a grant from the University
of Utah Research Committee, the Biochemical Sciences and Research Support Branch of
the National Institute of Health, National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal
Justice and U.S. Department of Justice. The result of the project showed the polygraph to
be highly accurate with accuracy rate of ninety (90) percent on examination utilizing
control question or guilty knowledge tests with only ten (10) percent inconclusive. This
research also concluded that numerical scoring of charts produces higher rates of
accuracy and reliability of chart interpretation.

Computer Assisted Polygraph System

During the 1980s, research was conducted on computerized polygraph at the

University of Utah by Drs. John C. Kircher and David C. Raskin. In 1988, they
developed the Computer Assisted Polygraph System (CAPS), which incorporated the
first algorithm to be used for evaluating physiological data collected for diagnostic
purposes.

Computerized Polygraph Instrument

In 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age. Different
polygraph manufacturers have started producing computerized instruments which has the
same physiological data being recorded with that of the analogue instruments.

10
 Figure 12
Computerized Polygraph
Instrument
Model LX4000
Lafayette Instrument
Company

PolyScore and Objective Scoring System

In 1993, statisticians Dr. Dale E. Olsen and John C. Harris at Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory in Maryland, completed a software program
called PolyScore, which used a sophisticated mathematical algorithm to analyze the
polygraph data and to estimate a probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in a
subject. Another scoring program was introduced in 1999 called Objective Scoring
System which uses also computer mathematical algorithm. These scoring programs were
incorporated with computerized instruments that make it possible for these instruments to
provide computer interpretation of physiological data right after the examination.

Department of Energy

In 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy commissioned a review committee of

The National Academy of Sciences to study the scientific evidence of polygraphy. In this
endeavour, the committee sifted through existing evidence in the polygraph research
literature and did not conduct any new laboratory or field research on polygraph testing
for, as they clearly reported, real-world conditions are difficult — if not impossible — to
replicate in a mock-crime setting or a laboratory environment for the purpose of assessing
polygraph effectiveness.

The review committee of The National Academy of Sciences concluded that,

although there may be alternative techniques to polygraph testing, none can outperform
the polygraph, nor do any of these yet show promise of supplanting the polygraph in the
near future.

Withstanding more than a century of research, development and widespread use,

the polygraph examination remains the most effective means of verifying the truth and
detecting deception.

11
 CHAPTER 5
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING

Lying is part of the daily life of mankind, some people lies in order to get reward
and some in order to avoid punishment. Whatever the reason may be, it is important to
note that when someone tells a lie there are considerable psychological and physiological
reactions that originate from our central nervous system.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. All other
nerve ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates into two:

1. Somatic Nervous System – is involve with voluntary comparative over

skeletal muscles

2. Autonomic Nervous System – involved those involuntary physiological

functions of the body and has considerable psychological impact as well.

Figure 13
Central Nervous System

Two Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) – the house keeping or braking

system. It is responsible for conserving energy and making sure necessary
bodily functions. It restrains sympathetic arousal and attempt to maintain
homeostatic (homeostasis) normal.

2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – is our emergency, or action

system. It is a system which causes the sudden and dramatic change.

12
 Figure 14
Autonomic Nervous System
Homeostasis – is complex interactive regulatory system by which the body
strives to maintain a state of internal equilibrium.

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it immediately prepares the

body for fight or flight by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as
epinephrine and norepinephrine and the blood will be distributed to those areas of the
body where it is most needed to meet the emergency.

Fight, flight, freeze – are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat,
sometimes simply called F3. The physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors
are the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of energy, and
narrowing attention and focus to the features of the threat.

Epinephrine – is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It

acts to constrict peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity,
promote metabolic activity through the release of glucose, and inhibit digestive
processes. It is considered a psychogenic hormone because it alters psychological
processes when released in large quantities, such as under stress. It is produced in the
adrenal medulla, located immediately above each kidney. In British, it is called
adrenaline.

Norepinephrine – is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, it works alongside

with epinephrine/adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as
the "fight or flight" response. It is called noradrenaline in British.

The chemical norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the body to
constrict, thereby preventing blood from entering those areas where it is less needed.
Constriction of arterioles in other parts of the body also takes place when the sympathetic

13
nervous system activates the secretion of norepinephrine which affects the skin
capillaries producing pallor in the face so often found in people experiencing severe
fright, as well as coldness or clamminess of the hands and fingers due to the reduction in
the volume of blood in those extremities. The heart pumps harder and faster, increasing
blood pressure, blood volume and pulse rate, thus, furnishing more oxygen to those areas
of the body where it is vitally needed such as the brain when increased mental activity is
demanded. The salivary glands in the mouth secrete different, thicker saliva that has less
volume, thereby causing dryness of the mouth. Another is the dilation of the iris of the
eyes which increases our vision and awareness of the surroundings.

The activation of the SNS also affect covert symptoms such as tensing of the
involuntary muscles that in addition to causing a constriction of the cardiovascular
system, causes a tightening of the involuntary muscles in the stomach thereby
inhibiting the diaphragm-intercostal muscular complex, which cause a less than
enlargement of the chest. At those few seconds, there is less than average air intake at a
time when the brain which consumes more than seventy-five percent of the total oxygen
intake of the body, needs more than an average amount of oxygen because of the
increased mental activity. Therefore, stimulation of the lungs by the brain will also cause
some breathing changes.

The PNS, on the other hand, maintains the homeostasis of the body necessary for
the normal functioning, therefore, it follows that whenever the SNS activates, the PNS
follows to reestablish the chemical balance of the body.

During the test, the receptor is the ear of the subject which receives the stimulus
from the examiner. The stimulus is transmitted from the ear via sensory neurons into the
brain where the hypothalamus analyzes, evaluates, and resolves that particular question.
It makes a decision for the subject whether it is a threatening or not threatening situation.

Hypothalamus – is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the
entire endocrine-hormonal system.

If threatening, the hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic nervous

system that causes physiological changes and has psychological impact as well. These
physiological reactions such as changes in breathing pattern, skin response and
cardiovascular activity are recorded by the instrument for interpretation. Polygaraph
testing uses questions like relevant and comparison questions for numerical comparison
and interpretation.

Under the psychological set theory postulates by Cleve Backster, examinees are
expected to attend more to the category of question that presents the greater threat to their
interests, either the relevant or comparison questions. Subjects who are lying to the
relevant issues consider these questions more threatening than the others, which, in turn,
draw more attention to the relevant questions, and more physiological arousal. Similarly,
innocent subjects find the comparison questions more disconcerting, and the greater
attention paid to them generates the larger arousals.

14
 This shows that every reaction that the subject inhibits while undergoing the
polygraph examination, is being controlled by the central nervous system.

Tripod of Polygraphy

1. Psychological Leg Premise – This involves the participation of the central

nervous system particularly the autonomic nervous system which is responsible with
those involuntary physiological processes that cannot be controlled by an individual.

2. Physiological Leg Premise – This involves the participation of the changes in

the bodily reactions of an individual that can be recorded by the instrument brought about
by the activation of the autonomic nervous system.

3. Mechanical Leg Premise – It involves the capability of the instrument to make

graphical recordings of the changes in the physiological reactions of the subject.

15
 CHAPTER 3
TRUTH AND LIE

Truth defined

The deliberate, complete and objective communication whether verbal, written or

gesture of the recollection of a person, place, thing and/or event which the
communication believes to exist have existed or occurred.

Lie defined

The deliberate communication to another, either verbally, written or by gesture, of

something that the communicator know or suspect in not true.

It is the omission of information, with deliberate intent to deceive and mislead

someone who requests the truth.

Variations of Lie
1. Derail – change the subject of discussion in order to avoid the truth. (For
example, one might feign being offended in order to stop a conversation
about ones questionable actions.)

2. Confuse – quibble or confuse the issue, or deliberately use ambiguity in order

to deceive or mislead.

3. Misinform – invent or perpetrate a false story with the intent to

deceive or mislead.

Types of Lie

1. Big Lie – a lie which attempts to trick the victim into believing something major
which will likely be construed by some information that victim already
possessed or by their common sense.

2. Bluffed Lie – a lie that pretends to have a capability or intention one does not
actually possessed. Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral
when it takes in the context of a game where this kind of deception consented to
in advance by the players.

3. Emergency Lie – a strategic lie told when the truth may not be told because harm
to a third party would result.

4. Lie of Exaggeration – a lie often use to exaggerate things in order to obtain get
some advantage. Exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspect of
statement are true but only to a certain degree. It is also described as “stretching

16
 the truth” or making something to appear more powerful, meaningful or real than
it actually is.

5. Lie of Fabrication – is something made up or a misrepresentation of a truth. It is

often used by the subject in an interview.

6. Lie of Omission – a lie used by omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving

another person with a misconception.

7. Misleading / Dissembling Lie – it is one where there is no outright lie but still
retains the purpose of getting someone to believe in an untruth. Dissembling
likewise describes the presentation of facts in a way that is literally true but
intentionally misleading.

8. Noble Lie – is one that would normally discord if uncovered but offers some
benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society therefore potentially beneficial
to others.

9. Puffery Lie – is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity

announcements. For example, “the highest quality at the lowest price”. Such
statement is unlikely to be true but cannot be proven false and so do not violate
trade laws.

10. Lie of Compliment or False Reassurance – a lie intended to please others. For
example, “that looks good to you” or “everything is going to be alright”.

11. White Lie – a lie that would cause only relatively minor discord if it were
uncovered and typically offers some benefit to the hearer. It is often used to
maintain harmony of friendship, home or office.

12. Red Lie – a lie used to destroy the ideologies by means of propaganda which is
common in communist countries.

13. Malicious Lie – a lie usually used to mislead or a dishonesty intended to obstruct
justice.

Verbal Signs of Deception

The determination of deception through the words uttered by the subject is

somehow difficult because people can easily manipulate or control as their verbal
expressions. Accordingly, the least dependable signs of lying are the ones which a person
has the most control, such as words, because a person can rehearse their lies.

1. Speech Patterns

When a person is lying one might notice a higher pitch in tone, stuttering,
clearing the throat and frequent pauses. The person might use filler words such as
17
 "uh, er, oh" and "um" during moments of hesitation as lies are put together. Liars also
will cut out contractions, using "was not" instead of "wasn't" or "did not" rather than
"didn't". It's also typical for a person to get tongue-tied and lose his thoughts in mid-
sentence.

2. Repeating Questions

As lies are formulated, the person needs time to think. Instead of giving a
straight answer, they usually repeat the question, or there may have a slight pause
between answers. The person might also ask to repeat the question just asked, even
though he heard it the first time. These are tactics that liars used to buy time before
responding.

3. Strong Denial

Defensive behavior, denial and trying to make the other person feel guilty
might also be used as the liar tries to create empathy. One might hear things like, "I
would never lie" as the person tries to convince the interviewer that he's innocent.
Most people caught in the act of lying will flat out deny it and even become angry.
Everyone tells lies sometimes, so anyone who say they "never lie" is probably lying.

4. Changing the Subject or Story

A swift subject change is another of the verbal signs of lying. The person
might also tell a story that lacks detail. If the story starts to change or becomes
different at different times, this is a strong indication of lying. Liars will also
contradict themselves, making statements that don't completely make sense. If
suspicion occurs, press on asking questions and looking for details that don't fit
together.

5. Unwillingness to Cooperate

Liars do not want to be found out and will be significantly more

uncooperative than someone who is telling the truth. As they are push to tell, there are
more opportunities to slip up, which might result to frustration or anger. However, in
some accusation anger is just a common response. There are some subjects who are
overly polite in order to mislead the interviewer that they are telling the truth.

Non-verbal Signs of Deception

The non-verbal signs encompassed body movements or gestures of persons while

being asked of series of questions. Body gestures or signals are difficult to control and
considered a the most reliable clues to lying are the gestures a person makes
automatically, because they have little or no control over them.

18
 Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist, pioneered the original study of nonverbal
communication. In face to face conversation, verbal component is less than 35% and non-
verbal component is more than 65%. Aside from that, a person can make and recognize
around 250,000 facial expressions but not all of these are effective signs of deception.
There are only eight of the most common lying body gestures that are commonly
obserred.

1. Mouth Cover

A lying person tends to cove his mouth with several fingers when lying.
The human brain causes this and the person does this subconsciously to hide the
words just being said.

2. Nose Touch

If the person speaking is not suffering from cold or fever and keeps
touching his nose while talking, is lying. It has a scientific explanation that once a
person tells a lie, due to his mental pressure a chemical named, catecholamine is
released and causes the tissues inside the nose to swell. The secretion of chemical
is not visible but the swelling makes an itching urge to within that person and he
goes for touching nose. The same feeling also happens during anxiety or
annoyance. Generally, it takes in the form of quick one or few times.

3. Itchy Nose

Some people while telling a lie get busy with scratching nose. Usually,
they do it to disguise their mouth cover or nose touch gesture.

4. Eye Rub

This is another lying gesture. It is the brain’s attempt to help a liar to avoid
the face to face look during the utterance of lying words. Men do this gesture
more and women show this gesture comparatively less.

5. Ear Grab

People show this gesture (touching the ear lobe) once they suffer from
anxiety. A good number of liars show this gesture to avoid anxiety.

6. Neck Scratch

Some people start scratching their neck by their index finger of writing
hand while lying. Especially once the verbal language contradicts with fact.

19
 7. Collar Pull

Lies cause a tingling sensation in neck tissues and a liar feels to rub that
place. This is why some people pull their collar while lying. At the same time,
many liars start sweating at their neck region.

8. Fingers in the Mouth

This is an unconscious gesture of liars when lying. By showing this

gesture, a liar wants to send a reassuring signal of guarantee about his false
statement.

Different Lie Detection Techniques

1. Brain Waves

Brain waves have been used in neurophysiology for decades to uncover

processes in the brain. One type of brain waves called Event-Related Potentials
(ERPs) is of potential interest in lie detection. ERPs are recorded by sensors placed
on the scalp and can reveal the timing and general location of electrical activity in the
brain elicited by the presentation of sounds, words, text and pictures. It has been
shown that the ERPs can reveal whether an individual has guilty knowledge of crime
related information when it is placed in a list of other information that is unrelated to
the crime.

2. Brain Imagery

A leading candidate for technology for lei detection is Functional Magnetic

Resonance Imaging (fMRI). An fMRI device is a powerful magnet and sophisticated
software that can track the brain’s use of blood over time. It is assumed that more
blood is used in particular regions of the brain when they are active over when they
are inactive. The hypothesis for lie detection is that the sequence of the brain
activations will be different between lying and truth telling. Preliminary research
supports this hypothesis while laboratory evidence offers optimism for the use of
fMRI in lie detection.

3. Eye Tracking

The pattern of a person's eye movements over an image can reveal whether
the person has seen the image before. This is especially true for photos of faces, but
has also been shown for pictures of scenes. Movement of the eyes can be monitored
by illuminating them with an eye-safe infrared light which creates a reflection that
can be detected by a special camera. Software triangulates the reflection to calculate
where the eyes are focused on an image, and tracks the focal point as the eyes move.
Specially designed algorithms use the eye movement information to determine
whether the image is familiar or unfamiliar. Research has found accuracy above 85%

20
for recognition of familiar faces, with lower accuracy for other types of stimuli.
While the technology is non-contact, the rigorous testing profocol limits its
usefulness in a covert capacity. This technology is approaching maturity and may be
available to law enforcement agencies in the near term.

4. Facial Analysis

Research over the last two decades has suggested that short duration facial
expressions can reveal concealed emotions, and have implications for the detection of
lies. Called micro-expressions, they correspond with emotions that the individual is
attempting to mask. A series of small studies point to an accuracy above 80% for
detection of deception. Interpretation of facial expressions has typically relied on a
painstaking frame-by-frame analysis of video recordings by a specially trained
expert, however there are laboratories working on automation of the analysis. Once
automated, it may become effective means of detecting deception during free-flowing
conversation.

5. Narco-Interrogation

Interrogation drugs have a mixed history in law enforcement, and they have
been out of favor for over 50 years. Most of the success of so-called "truth serums"
has been in fictional spy novels, and they have been generally dismissed by
government and law enforcement as ineffective. Public discussion of
psychopharmaceuticals appears primarily when no other methods are available, such
as when trying to extract critical information from terrorists. Over the years research
has been conducted on a variety of substances, including cocaine, mescaline,
cannabis, sodium pentothal, and ether in an endeavor found a magic drug that loosens
the tongue without deactivating the conscious brain. To date nothing has been found
to be reliable.

6. Statement Content Analysis

An approach to lie detection that does not use a device or technology. This
method relies upon the analysis of written text for pattern of word choices, use of
pronouns and verb tenses, sequence of the narration, and amount of time covered in
the individual passages. Statement content analysis is often used by police in the
initial stages of an investigation to eliminate suspects, or to direct the course of an
ongoing investigation. Much like gesture analysis, statement content analysis must
pay particular attention to clusters to derive meaningful inferences. Research on
statement content analysis has been limited, but it indicates that it may be of value in
certain cases. An accuracy estimate has not been established.

21
7. Voice Stress Analysis

There are several companies now making voice-based lie detectors. Because
voice stress analysis is a non-contact technology, and can be used on both live and
recorded voice samples, many have considered it a boon to law enforcement.
Hundreds of police departments have purchased the devices since they were
introduced in the 1970s, making them second only to the polygraph in popularity
among police agencies. The devices themselves are relatively inexpensive, easy to
operate, and require as little as a week of formal training. Despite their apparent
usefulness, none of the dozens of published scientific studies have found this
approach to a lie detection to have any validity. The US National Academy of
Sciences recently debunked the device, reporting that the consensus of 30 years of
research shows that they cannot detect truthfulness or deception at rates greater than
chance. Many police departments still use the device, however, because they have
proven to be powerful interrogation tools. Confessions are easier to extract with the
device, and most users are either uninformed or not concerned about the deficiency in
accuracy.

8. Thermal Imaging

Recent advances in camera and computer technology have led to the

development of a method that uses body heat to detect deception. Special thermal
cameras can now capture subtle changes in temperature of the person's face, usually
around the eyes, that are associated with physiological arousal. When these areas
become warmer, they signal that the person has reacted to the picture, word, or
question that was presented to him or her. These changes may also be triggered
during deception, making thermal imaging an exciting new avenue for lie detection.
One of the main advantages of thermal imaging is that it is non-contact, so it does not
entail the placing of sensors on the body as with the polygraph. This opens the
potential for rapid screening applications, such as at airports. The chief disadvantage
of thermal imaging is that the cameras and associated instrumentation is very
expensive. Also, the changes that occur during deception are very fast and very small,
so that algorithms are necessary to detect the patterns that appear during lying. These
algorithms have not yet been validated. These issues will be resolved in time, and
thermal imaging will likely be used in many settings in the future for assessing
individuals for deception

9. Gesture Analysis

The movement of the hands, arms, legs, and head can communicate
underlying emotions and attitudes, such as excitement, fear, trust, rejection and
acceptance. For example, folded arms are often an indication of rejection, while open
gestures generally signal acceptance. Even an individual's use of interpersonal space
can indicate aggression, suspicion, or familiarity. Gestures are culture, context and
personality dependent, and consequently there are no universal indicators that are
reliable across all settings. Moreover, no single gesture should be considered strong
evidence of an emotion. Experts assess gestures by clusters, weighing their collective

22
 meaning according to the context in which they appear. Research on gesture analysis
shows a weak but positive effect in detecting deception, suggesting that gestures may
help augment other information for deception detection but should not be used by
themselves for this purpose.

10. Eye Pattern

Every time a person looks in a particular direction is not just a

coincidence, however, it is the subconscious mind of an individual responsible for
that eye movements. This can be used in determining whether a person is lying or not.
Before determining whether an individual is lying or not by means of his eye patterns,
it is important that the examiner knows the natural eye patterns of his subject because
there are some people whose eye patterns are reversed. There are left-handed persons
wherein their eye patterns are reversed. The following are the six different eye
patterns:

a. To the Right – when a person’s eyes look to the right, they are constructing an
auditory thought. (Left of the Examiner)
Example: Tell someone to think of the noise of thunder and watch their eyes, his
eyes will move to the right as he attempt to listen to the noise of thunder in their
mind.
b. To the Left – looking to the left is an indication of the participation of the
auditory memory. (Right of the Examiner)
Example: Ask someone to listen to his favorite song in his mind, and he will look
in this direction.
Remember the sound of your mother’s voice.
c. Up and to the Left – this indicates a visually remembered image.
Example: Ask someone what did you wear yesterday? Watch their eyes as they
move quickly up and to the left.
d. Down and to the Left – a person’s eye will move to this direction while he talks
to himself.
e. Up and to the Right – This eye movement indicates visually constructed image.
Example: Ask someone to picture a sailboat sailing on the ocean. His eyes quickly
move to this direction.
f. Down and to the Right – this is an indication that someone is creating a feeling
or sensory impression.
Example: What does it feel when you walk barefoot on mud?

Typically, when an individual is being asked with a question and when

responding he glance to the right, he is creating something or lying. When he glances to
the left, he is recalling something and therefore telling the truth. These eye patterns in
determining lies can be used only if the subject gives an extended response to a question.
It is not applicable if he answers with a yes or no. If the subject replies with yes or no,
watch his eyes as carefully. A person replying with yes or no that is lying will usually
close his eyes very briefly or may be half a second then respond.

23
11. Polygraphy

The polygraph test or much commonly known as lie detector test is just one of
the lie detection techniques available today. Technically, lie detector test is a generic
term to describe all kinds of tests intended to detect deception. A polygraph test uses
polygraph instrument either the traditional conventional instrument or the
computerized instrument which will be discussed in the preceding chapters.

24
 CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO POLYGRAPHY

Polygraph defined

It is an instrument that simultaneously records the changes of physiological

reactions in the human body as indicative of deception.

Polygraphy defined

It is the scientific detection of deception through the aid or use of a polygraph

instrument.

Polygraph Examiner defined

A polygraph examiner is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying

the truthfulness of statement through the use of a polygraph instrument. He is someone
who has successfully completed formal education and training in conducting polygraph
examination and is certified by his agency to conduct such examination.

Qualifications of a Polygraph Examiner

1. Must be a licensed Criminologist or Psychologist.

2. Must have successfully completed a formal education and training in a recognized
polygraph training school.
3. Must have a certification from his agency where he is committed to conduct such
examination.
4. Must have high sense of integrity and honesty.

Subject defined

Subject or examinee is any person who undergoes polygraph examinati

Rights of a Polygraph Subject

1. Right to be examined by a qualified examiner.

2. Right to be informed of his constitutional rights.
3. Right to be determined fit for examination.
4. Right to be informed of the reason for conducting the test.
5. Right to have an explanation of the polygraph instrument and what it does.
6. Right to consent to the polygraph test.
7. Right to refuse to submit to the polygraph test.
8. He should not be exposed to oral vilification or abuse.
9. He must not be exposed to physical abuse.
10. He must not be exposed to mental or psychological abuse.

25
Two Types of Polygraph Instrument

1. Conventional Polygraph Instrument

The conventional instrument is the old and traditional type of instrument

being used in polygraphy today. It records different systems of the human body such
as respiration, galvanic skin response or known today as electrodermal response,
cardiovascular activity.

2. Computerized Polygraph Instrument

The computerized instrument is a sophisticated state of the art computer aided

polygraph instrument. It allows the examiner to collect and store physiological data
from the subject in the easiest way with no hassle. It records the same systems of the
human body with that of the conventional instrument. However, it has some
additional features which are not available in conventional instruments.

Uses of Polygraphy

1. Pre-Employment Screening – a test used to screen applicants for employment.

Some private companies in the Philippines require their applicants to undergo
polygraph screening test.

In the United States, pre-employment is applicable only to government

agencies like FBI, CIA, Secret Service, Depatment of Energy and the like.
Polygraph pre-employment test is prohibited due to the changes made by the
Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) which prohibits private
companies to subject applicants to polygraph test as part of the screening process.

2. Periodic Audit – a test used to determine the honesty and integrity of the present
employee with the company.
In the US, periodic polygraph testing is also prohibited in private
companies under the EPPA. However in other countries including the Philippines,
it is applicable. According to some private companies, both pre-employment and
periodic polygraph testing provides an effective preventive measure.

3. Case Investigation – a test commonly conducted in the field today when there is
an incident or issue under question.

4. Paired Testing – a polygraph test conducted when there are two persons who
assert contradictory statement. In this test, both simultaneously undergo
polygraph test in a separate room with different examiners.

26
5. Post-Conviction Sex Offender Testing – a test conducted to those convicted of sex
crimes to monitor their behavior while under parole or probation. Presently, this
provides and effective monitoring procedures in the field today.

27
 CHAPTER 6
POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENTS

In the interest of detecting deception and verifying the truth, one has thought of
developing an instrument that could record changes in the human body as an indication of
truthful or deceptive responses. The conventional or analog polygraph instruments have
been used in the psychophysiological detection of deception for over the years.

Components of Conventional Instrument

Figure 15
UltraScribe Polygraph Instrument
From Stoelting Company

1. Pen Lifter – raises or lowers pens to three positions.

2. Chart Drive Module – propels chart paper. Also known as kymograph.

3. Program Pacer (Optional) – a programmable cueing device for question and answer
spacing.

28
4. Paper Tear Bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of chart.

5. Foam Pen Hold-Down – keeps pens in place when instrument is being transported.

6. Attache Compartment – storage for all forms and supplies.

7. Accessory Storage and Optional Calibration Checking Fixture – storage for accessories
and calibration fixture.

8. Subject Connections – stylish grouping of connections to provide neat and professional

appearance.

9. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of mechanical pneumo channel.

10. Galvanic Skin Response Module – recording part of galvanic skin response channel.

11. Multi-Function Module – selectable recording module which can be used as

electronic pneumo channel, electronic cardio channel, cardio activity monitor or other
accessories.

12. Mechanical Cardio Module – recording part of mechanical cardio channel.

13. Paper Storage Compartment – holds two spare rolls of paper or other supplies.

14. AC Power Receptacle – power cord connection.

15. Power Switch and Circuit Breaker – applies power to instrument. Built-in resettable
circuit breaker protects instrument and eliminates need for fuses.

16. Chart Drive Roller Lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper changes and chart
removal.

17. Power Analyzer – automatically indicates whether wall outlet is properly wired and
grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.

18. Stimulus Marker – marks significant events on the chart.

19. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.

20. Pneumo 1 – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph.

21. Pneumo 2 – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal) pneumograph.

22. Cuff – pneumatic connection for cardio channel, subject cuff tubing.

23. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand pump used to inflate the subject cuff.

29
24. Mechanical Cardio Switch – disengages mechanical cardio module from pneumatic
system for low pressure electronic cardio.

Operating Controls

Figure 16
UltraScribe Polygraph Instrument
From Stoelting Company

1. Centrac Control (Optional) – engages computer aided pen re-centering.

2. Centering Control – positions pen on chart. Rotating clockwise increases raises the pen
while counterclockwise rotation lowers it.

3. Sensitivity Control – determines the tracing size. Rotating clockwise increases size
while counterclockwise rotation decreases size.
4. Test Pushbutton – checks the electronics on multi-function channel.

5. Multi-Function Mode Switch – select the operating mode on multi-function channels:

pneumo, cardio, cam or accessory.

30
6. Input Connector – present on multi-function channels only. It accepts CAM transducer
or other accessories such as Cardio or GSR.

7. GSR Mode Switch – selects operation mode for GSR Channel: Manula or Automatic.

8. 1K Pushbutton – introduces 1000 ohm decrease in resistance for calibration of the

GSR channel.

9. GSR Meter Connector – provides output to drive a remote (optional) GSR Meter.

10. GSR Input Connector – accepts plug from GSR subject attachment cord.

11. Cardio Lock Lever – immobilizes mechanical cardio mechanism when not in use.

12. Vent – performs venting function on pneumatic systems by rotating the vent in the
open position. Rotating the top until it snaps in the raised (closed) position seals the
system.

Three Major Components of Polygraph Instrument

1. Pneumograph

The pneumorgaph is precisely designed to transmit breathing patterns to the

pneumo module of the instrument. It is composed of the rubber convoluted tube, beaded
chain and a pneumo module (recording unit). The tube is approximately 10 inches long,
one end of which is sealed and the other end is connected to the pneumo module of the
instrument via rubber tubing. The beaded chain is being used to lock the corrugated
rubber tube on the body of the subject. The pneumo module consists of the metal bellows
and the two pens which are approximately 5 inches long. These pens are responsible in
providing graphical recordings of pneomo tracings on the chart.

Two Common Placements

1. Upper Chest (Thoracic)

2. Lower Chest, just Above the Stomach (Abdominal)

Two placements are considered because the subjects can be either chest (shallow)
or stomach (deep) breathers and even switch under stress. Generally, men are stomach
breathers and women are chest breathers. Due to this, most instruments are made with
two pneumo channels to insure all respiration changes are being recorded. If only one
pneumo is use, the pnuemograph tube should be placed in the location of the greatest
respiration movement.

31
 Figure 17
Pneumograph Rubber Tube

Respiration Recording

Respiration patterns are recorded by attaching the corrugated tube (tubular

bellows) across the subject’s chest and/or abdomen. The corrugated tube is connected by
tubing to a pneumo module of the instrument and the system is sealed at atmospheric
pressure. The subject’s breathing movement cause the convoluted tube to stretch and
contract, resulting in decrease and increase of system pressure.

Two Kinds of Pneumo Modules

1. Electronic Pneumo
2. Mechanical Pneumo

In an electronic pneumo module, the pressure changes are converted into

electrical signal and are used to drive a pen motor. The pen motor moves the pen which
traces the patterns on the chart.

In a mechanical pneumo module, the pressure changes are converted to a

mechanical motion, moving the pen which traces the patterns on the chart.

In either type of pneumo module, the pen moves upward when the subject inhales
and downward when the subject exhales.

32
 Figure 18
Mechanical Pneumo Module
The upper pneumograph should be connected to the Pneumo 1 connector on the
instrument while the lower pneumograph should be connected on the pneumo 2
connector for stoelting instruments. Connections may change depending on the
manufacturer of the instrument.

Pneumo Controls

1. Sensitivity Control (Electronic Pneumo Only)

The sensitivity control adjusts the tracing size on the electronic pneumo. The
control must be set fully counterclockwise when attaching or removing a pneumograph.
Rotating the control clockwise increases tracing size while counterclockwise decreases
tracing size. A starting pattern size of 10 chart division is suggested. The tracing size of
the electronic pneumo is approximately the same as a mechanical pneumo when
sensitivity control is set at 25.

2. Centering Control

Centering control is use to place the pen in a proper position on the chart.
Rotating the centering control clockwise moves the pen upward while counterclockwise
moves the pen downward.

3. Vent

It is used to release excess pressure on the pneumograph before and after the
operation. In stoelting instruments, rotating the top until snapped in the raised (closed)
position seals the system. To momentarily vent the system, press down and release. To
open the system press down and rotate the top in either direction, one-quarter turn. The
vent will remain in the lower (open) position. In other instrument manufacturer like
Lafayette, rotating the vent control clockwise will open the system while
counterclockwise will close the system.

Pneumo Operation

A. To Initiate Operation
1. Connect the pneumograph tubing to the appropriate connector.
2. Switch on the instrument.
3. Rotate vent to open position.
4. Set the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise for electronic module.
5. Have the subject assume correct testing position.
6. Place the pneumograph on the subject.
a. Select either the upper or lower placement or both.
b. Pass the chain around the subject’s back.

33
 c. Stretch the pneumograph 1 to 2 inches and slip the chain into the hook
on the end of the pneumograph.
7. Seal the system by rotating the vent to close position.
8. Set the sensitivity control to 25 (electronic pneumo). Examiner may change the
sensitivity as desired.
9. Position properly the pen on the chart using the centering control.
10. Press the chart witch “on”.
11. Adjust the sensitivity (electronic module only) and centering controls to
obtain desired size and position of tracing.

B. To Terminate Operation
1.Rotate the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise for electronic pneumo.
2. Press the chart switch “off”.
3. Rotate the vent to open position.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Remove the pneumograph from the subject, if no more test will be conducted.

2. Galvanograph

It is composed of finger electrodes made up of metal plates or disposable plates,

connecting plug and GSR module (recording unit). These metal electrodes are being
placed on the subject’s finger tips, usually on the subject’s index and ring finger but it
can be attached on any of the fingertips for as long as it will not join together to avoid
short circuit which may cause erratic recordings. The disposable electrodes are attached
on the palm of the subject. The electrodes are then connected on the Galvanic Skin
Response (GSR) Module of the instrument.

The recording unit transmits 5 microamp electrical sensing current on the

fingertips of the subject which is far below the feelings of touch of human beings. This
recording unit is consists of the amplifier unit and one pen which is approximately 7
inches long. The pen of the galvanograph is longer than any other pens considering that
the reactions exhibited on the fingertips of the subject are delayed compared to others and
so the recording are also delayed. The amplifier unit is designed to support the
galvanometer in converting electrical to mechanical current.

34
 Figure 19 Figure 20
Metal Electrodes Disposable Electrodes

GSR Recording

Galvanic skin response is the changes in the body’s resistance to the passage of a
minute electrical sensing current.

The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the instrument. These provide a
5 microamp sensing current to the subject, far below the threshold of feeling. By turning
the centering control, any subject’s resistance, from zero to one million ohms can be
balanced out, so that only changes in the galvanic skin resistance is displayed on the
chart.

The signal produced by the subject’s resistance to the sensing current is used to
drive a pen motor. The pen motor moves the pen which traces the GSR patterns on the
chart. The pen moves upward in response to decrease in resistance that normally occurs
when the subject is under stress.

GSR Subject Connections

1. For metal plates, center the plates on the tip of the index and ring fingers of the
subject not having the cardio cuff. Alternate fingers are recommended to prevent
the metal plates from contacting each other causing erratic recording.
2. Secure the contacts by wrapping the straps tight around the finger. Too tight a
wrap will result in subject discomfort. Too loose a wrap can cause large shifts in
the tracing if the subject moves.
3. If using disposable electrodes, simply attached the two electrodes on the palm of
the hand of the subject not having the cardio cuff. Disposable electrodes are
designed for single use only.
4. Normally, the GSR contacts are used dry. If trouble centering is experienced,
have the subject wash his hands with soap and water.

35
GSR Controls

1. Mode Switch

Two Types of Mode Switch

a. Manual Mode – is the most useful when a stable baseline is experienced. The pen
must be kept on the chart by manually operating the centering control. Using as
low a sensitivity setting as possible will minimize adjustment.
b. Automatic Mode – is preferred to be used when the baseline is unstable. The pen
will automatically return to the reference line following a subject response.
Slightly more sensitivity should be used than in the manual mode.

In either mode, the pen position can be adjusted to permit the most
effective use of chart space. When changing modes, the sensitivity control should
be fully counterclockwise, and the pen must be re-centered when resuming
operation.

2. Sensitivity Control – is used to adjust the tracing size of the GSR. Rotating the control
clockwise increases tracing size while rotating counterclockwise decreases it. It should be
fully counterclockwise when connecting or disconnecting the subject from the
instrument.

3. Centering Control – it is used to position the GSR pen on its proper location on the
chart. Rotating the control clockwise moves the pen upward while downward when
rotating it counterclockwise.

GSR operation

A. Manual Operation
1. Connect the electrodes cable on the instrument,
2. Set the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise.
3. Set the mode switch to “Man”.
4. Attach properly the metal plates or disposable electrodes on the subject’s
fingertips.
5. Rotate the sensitivity control to 10.
6. Position properly the pen on the chart using the centering control.
7. Press the chart switch “on”.
8. Adjust the desired sensitivity and centering controls to obtain the desired size
and position of tracing.

B. Automatic Operation
1. Connect the electrodes cable on the instrument,
2. Set the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise.
3. Set the mode switch to “Man”.

36
 4. Attach properly the metal plates or disposable electrodes on the subject’s
fingertips.
5. Rotate the sensitivity control to 25 and follow steps 6 to 8 above.

C. Terminating Operation
1. Rotate the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise.
2. Press the chart switch “off”.
3. Rotate the vent to open position.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Remove the electrodes from the subject, if no more test will be conducted.

3. Cardiograph

The cardiograph is composed of the blood pressure cuff, pump bulb,

sphygmomanometer and cardio module. It is designed to monitor and record the changes
in cardiovascular activity of the subject.

a. Blood Pressure Cuff – it is designed to monitor and transmit cardiovascular

activity from the arm of the subject.
b. Pump Bulb – it is used to inflate the arm cuff
c. Sphygmomanometer – is designed to indicate the air pressure present on the
cuff in millimeters of mercury.
d. Cardio Module – receives the subject’s cardiovascular activity being
transmitted by the cuff and records tracings on the chart

Figure 21 Figure 22
Arm Cuff Pump Bulb

Cardio Recording

Cardio patterns are recorded by wrapping a cuff around one of the

subject’s arms. The cuff is connected by tubing to the cardio module. The system

37
 is inflated with air to the desired operating pressure. Cuff pressures ranged from
25 to 150 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg.).

The subject’s blood pulsation causes the pressure within the cuff to rise
with increasing, and fall with decreasing, blood volume/pressure. Increasing
pressure causes the pen to rise and decreasing pressure causes it to drop.

The cardiograph provides a record of the following:

1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure – is the changes in the average value of

the cardio tracing (waveform) with respect to a baseline.
2. Pulse Amplitude – is the changes in pulse amplitude (tracing height)
independent of baseline.
3. Pulse Rate – changes in heart rate or time between pulses.
4. Dicrotic Notch – refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing
located at the middle of the diastolic stem.

The diastolic blood pressure is the downward blood pressure

representing the low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed
while the systolic blood pressure is the upward blood pressure as the apex
of the curve caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and
blood is rushing into the arteries.

Two Types of Cardio Module

1. Mechanical Cardio – the pressure changes are converted to a mechanical

motion which moves the pen and traces blood pressure pattern on the
chart. It operates over a pressure range of approximately 60 to 150 mm
Hg., and is normally used between 60 to 120 mm Hg.
2. Electronic Cardio – the cuff pressure changes are converted to an
electronic signal and used to drive a motor pen. The pen motor moves the
pen which traces the blood pressure patterns on the chart. Since power to
drive the pen is supplied by electronics, it can operate over an extended
pressure ranges from 25 to 150 mm Hg.

Cardio Controls

1. Hand Pump (Pump Bulb) – it is used to pressurize the cuff pneumatic system.
Squeezing the rubber bulb inflates the system when the pump bulb
thumbwheel valve is fully clockwise. The pinch clamp is used after inflation
to insure the system is sealed.

2. Sphygmomanometer – it measures the cardio system operating pressure in

millimeters of mercury. Each small division on the dial is 2mm Hg. about the
amount of needle movement caused by the subject’s pulse with an upper arm
cuff pressurized to 90 mm Hg.

38
 3. Vent – is used to release excess or unnecessary pressure on the cuff before and
after inflating it.

4. Lock Lever – it immobilizes the mechanical cardio mechanism. It should

remain in the lock position until the system has been inflated and should be in
free position when operated, locked again before deflating.

5. Sensitivity Control – it adjusts the tracing size of the electronic pneumo. The
control must be set fully counterclockwise when attaching or removing a
subject cuff. Rotating the control clockwise increases tracing size while
rotating counterclockwise decreases it. A starting cardio patter size of 6 chart
division is suggested.

6. Centering Control – it positions the properly the cardio pen on the chart.
Rotating the centering control clockwise moves the pen upwards while
counterclockwise moves the pen downward.

Cardio Operation

A. To Initiate Operation

1. Connect the pump bulb and cuff properly. Open the pinch clam and rotate
the thumb wheel fully clockwise (closed).
2. Rotate the vent in open position
3. If using electronic cardio, rotate the sensitivity control fully
counterclockwise. If using mechanical cardio, check the lock lever if in
upper position (locked).
4. Place the cuff on the subject and wrap.
5. Have the subject assume the correct testing position.
6. Seal the system by rotating the vent in close position.
7. Inflate the system slightly above the desired operating pressure. Massage
the cuff and re-inflate until no decrease.

B. To Terminate Operation

1. Rotate the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise for electronic cardio.

2. Move the lock lever to close position thereby locking the recording
mechanism for mechanical cardio.
3. Press the power switch chart off.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Rotate the vent to open position thereby releasing the cuff pressure.
6. Release the pinch clamp on the hand pump.
7. Remove the cuff from the subjects arm.

39
Kymograph

The kymograph is not included as one of the major components of polygraph

instrument but can be considered as very important part of it. This serves as the paper
feed mechanism of the instrument. It drives the chart paper out of the instrument under
the recording pen at a uniform speed of 12 inches per minute or five seconds per vertical
chart division. This is composed of the following:

a. Cutter bar – used to cut the paper at the end of the test
b. Rubber roller – the one responsible for pulling the paper
c. Pen table – flat portion where the pen write on the chart
d. Paper rail guide – serves as the security for the unnecessary movement
of the chart paper or to ensure the paper’s forward movement without
shaking.
e. Synchronous motor – runs the chart paper at the uniform rate speed
regardless of the voltage change

Pen and Inking System

This is another important aspect of the polygraph instrument that provides the
permanent records of the physiological reactions of the subject on the chart paper.

The one complete roll of the chart paper is about 100 feet long which is imprinted
with horizontal and vertical divisions. The vertical division has a standard measurement
of approximately one-half (½) inch interval equivalent to 5 seconds in time when being
pulled by the kymograph. The measurement of the horizontal division, on the other hand
depends on the manufacturer of the chart paper. However, there are chart paper with
horizontal measurement of one-fourth (¼) inch interval and there are some which are
smaller than that.

General Operation of Conventional Polygraph Instrument

I. Initiating a Period of Operation

A. Initial Control Settings – make sure that:

1. All sensitivity controls are full counterclockwise.
2. All vents are in “open” position.
3. The chart roller lever is down.
4. The pen lifter is fully down.
5. The chart switch is in the “off” position
6. Instrument having a mechanical cardio, the lock lever is in the “lock”
position.

B. Apply Power – connect the instrument to a wall outlet. Make sure that the
voltage of the outlet matches the voltage of the instrument. Switch on the
instrument.

40
 C. Attach the Sensors - placed the sensors on the subject’ body properly in
the following order:

1. Lower pneumo
2. Upper pneumo
3. Cardio Cuff
4. Finger Electrodes

D. Start the Chart – push the chart button to start collecting chart.

E. Activate the Pneumo (see pneumo operation)

F. Activate the GSR (see GSR operation)

G. Activate the Cardio (see cardio operation)

H. Start Asking Questions

II. Terminating a Period of Operation

A. De-activate the Cardio (see cardio operation)

B. De-activate the GSR (see GSR operation)

C. De-activate the Pneumo (see pneumo operation)

D. De-activate the Pens – raise the pen lifter thereby lifting the pens from the
chart. It should remain in the raise position when instrument is not in used
to avoid blotting of ink on the chart.

E. Turn Off Chart

F. Remove the Subject’s Attachments/Sensors – removing the sensors should

be done in the following order:

1. Finger Electrodes
2. Cardio Cuff
3. Upper pneumo
4. Lower pneumo

G. Turn Off the Instrument – switch off the instrument. Always remove the
plug from the outlet power if no succeeding examination will be
conducted.

41
COMPUTERIZED POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENTS

The fast changing technology of today where almost everything is converted into
the form of a computer greatly influenced in the world of polygraphy. In 1992,
polygraphy made its official entrance into the digital world. Today, there are already
several companies engage in the invention of computerized polygraph instruments.

Computerized Polygraph Instrument Manufacturers

1. Lafayette Instrument Company, Inc.

In 1968, Lafayette began to dabble in the sports editing market while sales of
physiological recording instrumentation and related psychology testing apparatus
continued to be major contributors to the company's growth. In 1972, Lafayette built and
marketed "The Examiner Series" polygraph directly to polygraph examiners.

In 1993, Lafayette sold its first computerized polygraph. By 1997, it had fully
embraced computerization, and begun to market its new line of computerized
physiological recording instrumentation as well as its behavioral control and monitoring
system.

The LX4000 computer polygraph system

records, stores and analyzes physiological changes
during a polygraph examination. The LX4000 system
combines conventional polygraph procedure with a
sophisticated state of the art computer that can record
up to seven channels. It has the same attachments as
that of the conventional instrument such as
pneumogaph, finger electrodes and blood pressure
cuff which are being connected on the Data
Acquisition System (DAS). The DAS is then
connected on the computer or laptop via USB
connection cable. This makes it possible for the
instrument to monitor and record the three systems of Figure 23
the human body such as respiration, cardiovascular Lafayette LX400 Data
activity and skin resistance. Aside from the three Acquisition System
attachments, the DAS has an additional slot for
activity sensors and plethysmograph. This
instrument requires software installation on the
computer
computer where it will be connected. It has a built-in computer mathematical algorithm
making possible for the computer to evaluate the presence of physiological reactions on
the chart and makes a decision of whether truthful or deceptive. This will serve as guide
of the examiner in decision making, however, in case of conflict, the examiner’s decision
shall prevail.

42
Computerized Polygraph Additional Features

1. Acivity Sensors – are devices attached to or built into polygraph testing chairs to
detect an examinee’s concealed movements. It is composed of the following:

a. Seat Pad – is designed to detect movements of

an examinee during a polygraph examination.
By providing a graphic record of subject
movement, the activity sensor allows the
polygraph examiner to concentrate on
administering the exam instead of trying to
observe the subject’s movement. The sensor
pouch is located under the seat of the
examinee. As the examinee moves, pressure Figure 24
changes are detected from the pouch. Seat Pad

b. Arm Pads – are utilized to detect movements

of shoulders, forearms and hands of the
subject during a polygraph test. The sensors,
in pouch form, are placed on the chair arms
and the subject’s arms rest upon them.

c. Foot Pads – are utilized to detect movements Figure 25

in the feet and legs of the subject during a Arm Pads
polygraph test. The sensors are placed on the
floor in front of a chair, and the subject’s feet
rest upon them.

Figure 26
Foot Pads

43
2. Plethysmograph – is a device that measures
changes in blood volume in a part of the body. This is
another feature of a computerized polygraph
instrument. It is sometimes called PLE.

Figure 27
Photoelectric Plethysmograph

3. Signature and Fingerprint Scanner is another

accessory of computerized polygraph instrument. It
allows the computer to scan and record the signature
and fingerprint of the subject that will undergo the
polygraph examination. This is being connected
directly on the laptop or computer via USB
connection.

Figure 28
Signature and Fingerprint
Scanner

4. Logitech Webcam with focus and microphone is a

compatible camera for Lafayette instruments. It is
used in order to record the entire polygraph
examination with audio and video. Usually, if a result
will be presented in court, a record of examination is a
necessary requirement for court presentation in order
for the trial judge to see how the examination was
conducted.

Figure 29
Webcam with Focus
and Microphone

5. Thermal Printer for computerized instruments is

used to print the charts continuously while doing the
examination or after the examination. A desktop
printer may be used but charts will be discontinuously
printed which is not advisable for court presentation.

Figure 30
Thermal Printer
44
 The LX5000 records the same reactions as that
of LX4000, except that it can record up to nine
channels. It can be used either wired via USB cable
connection or wireless via Bluetooth device.
Figure 31
LX5000 DAS
2. Stoelting Company, Inc.

Stoelting is a diversified company, the major product lines are all related to
physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological measurement. Stoelting's
Polygraph Division has been a pioneer in the field.

Stoelting created their first Cardio-Pneumo Polygraph in 1935, and has since been
on the cutting edge of polygraph technology. The middle part of the twentieth century
brought about many advancement for the Stoelting polygraph. Many prominent
polygraph examiners/schools have chosen to have their own line of polygraphs made by
Stoelting.

In 1951 the Reid polygraph was introduced. This 5 channel model was capable of
recording signals from arm movements, respiration, GSR, blood pressure, and thigh
movements. In 1958 the Stoelting Deceptograph was standardized by the US military. In
1966 Stoelting created the polygraph with a non-battery powered galvanometer. Stoelting
released the world’s first all electronic polygraph in 1974, the Stoelting Polyscribe. In
1978 the Stoelting Ultrascribe was released. This instrument took the polygraph world by
storm with its modular design, allowing for three to five user-selected channels. This
gave the examiner more freedom than ever, and he could choose how many channels he
wanted, and upgrades were inexpensive and painless. Then in 1982 the Executive
Ultrascribe hit the market. This smaller, lighter polygraph was a significant improvement
in the form factor of polygraph, and became the official polygraph of the US army. The
final incarnation of the Ultrascribe was released in 1983, Ultrascribe II. This instrument
provides another revolution to the polygraph world. The Ultrascribe II featured
microprocessor-controlled re-centering.

Stoelting continued the evolution of polygraph. With the arrival of the Computer
Aided Polygraph System in 1988 and the Computerized Polygraph System in 1992 the
polygraph entered the digital age. This brought about unprecedented accuracy, as well as,
flexibility.

45
 The Computerized Polygraph System Pro
(CPSpro) from stoelting company can record up to
12 channels and is connected on the laptop or
computer via USB 2.0 connection which does not
require driver installation. Like other computerized
instruments, it has a built-in computer
mathematical algorithm. It also records and stores
data as that of computerized instruments.
Figure 32
CPSpro
Stoelting Company
3. Limestone Technologies, Inc.

Limestone Technologies Inc. was inspired during the 1980s by a rich research
environment. Their original business niche was to be the premiere maker of forensic sex
offender assessment tools. More recently, this has blossomed into wider applications,
especially for the Company’s Polygraph Professional Suite software and instrumentation.

Limestone innovative and enriched polygraph instrument took into account an

increasingly pressing research need of the polygraph industry: the demand to base
truth/deception pronouncements on more factors than conventional polygraph
instruments.

Polygraph Professional Suite of

Limestone Technologies can record up to 8
channels. It has almost the features like other
computerized instruments. What differs only is
the manner of operation.
4. Axciton Systems, Inc.
Figure 33
Axciton is another private company Polygraph Professional Suite
engaged in manufacturing computerized
instruments. At present, axciton is producing 5
and 8 channel instruments. Computerized
instruments from axciton are also the same with
others, they records the same physiological
reactions of the human body and have the same
attachments like pneumograph tube, finger
electrodes, cardio cuff, plethysmograph, activity
sensors, audio/video recording systems. It is also
equipped with a built-in scoring algorithm.
Operations are only the difference among Figure 34
computerized instruments of different brands. Axciton Computerized Instrument

46
 CHAPTER 7
POLYGRAPH TEST QUESTIONS

The formulation of proper test questions that will be asked on the subject is one of
the crucial parts of any polygraph examinations. Errors in making decision of truthful or
deception may occur due to poorly constructed questions. Thus, the examiner should be
able to properly formulate the questions to be asked on the subject.

Types of Polygraph Test Questions

1. Irrelevant Question – a question that has no connection with the matter under
investigation and deals with known facts that the subject cannot be denied. It is
designed to be emotionally neutral to examinees and usually answerable by “yes’.
Also called neutral question.

Characteristics of Irrelevant Question

1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.

2. No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect’s background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a ‘norm’
for examinee, or throughout the examination as needed to reestablish norm
pattern.

Purposes of Irrelevant Question

1. Establish the professional authority in the room that means, the examiner
asks questions and the suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal behavior for this
heightened emotional situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the
subject, to establish rapport.
4. It minimizes resistance.

Examples of Irrelevant Questions

• During Interview
- What is your name?
- How old are you?
- Where were you born?
• During Polygraph test
- Is your first name _______?
- Were you born in the Philippines?
- Is today _____?

47
2. Symptomatic Question – is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un-
reviewed questions or that the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask
un-reviewed questions. Also known as outside issue question.

Examples:

1. Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I

have not gone over word for word?
2. Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in
this test I have not gone over word for word?
3. Do you understand that I will only ask questions I reviewed?
4. Do you believe i will not ask you questions we have not reviewed?

3. Sacrifice Relevant Question – it introduces the relevant question to the subject.

This is designed to absorb the response generated by the introduction of relevant
question in the series. Generally, subject will react upon hearing the question
pertaining to matter under investigation, thus, this will be eliminated by
introducing first the relevant questions.

Example:

 Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the
questions truthfully?

4. Relevant Question – a question deals with the matter under investigation. Color
coded red in computerized instruments. Code letter ‘R”.

Guidelines in Constructing Relevant Question

 It must solve a vital problem.

 The issue covered must be of vital importance to the examinee.
 It must pose a dichotomy, answerable by “yes” or “no”.
 It must be fully understood and mean the same thing to the examiner and
examinee.
 When possible, should not use legal or technical terms.
 It should not contain obscene, profane, racial, derogatory, degrading or
insulting words and phrases.
 Qualifiers, such as “other than…” are placed at the beginning of the
question.
 There should be enough facts in the question to avoid outside issues.
 There should be no more facts in the question than necessary.
 The facts in the question should not only be correct, but would be
recognized as correct by the perpetrator.
 It should not imply or assume guilt.
 It must not imply disbelief by the examiner.
 The sentence must be a question.
48
  It is preferable to use action verb rather than the result.
 It must not ask for an opinion.
 Should avoid questions on the issue of intent.
 Be wary of using specific amount of money stolen in the question.
 Avoid words that are emotional and likely to cause a response.
 Use “that” instead of “the”.

Types of Relevant Questions

1. Primary Relevant – addresses the primary issue or direct involvement of

the subject on the matter under question. It is use primarily with the
single-issue examination.
Ex. Did you take that missing money?

2. Secondary Relevant – deals with the physical acts that support the primary
issue. This is usually use in multi-issue examination.
Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?

3. Guilty Knowledge Question – designed to probe whether the subject

possesses information regarding the identity of the offender or the facts of
the case under question.
Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?

4. Evidence Connecting Question – test question in which the examinee is

asked about a particular piece of physical evidence that would incriminate
the guilty person. It could be items left at the crime scene by the
perpetrator or stolen property.
Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?

The secondary, guilty knowledge and evidence connecting

questions are being used with the multiple-facet diagnostic examination.

5. Control Question – a question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant
question but broad in scope. Color coded green in computerized instruments. It is used
for comparative purposes with the relevant question. Code letter “C”.

Types of Comparison Questions

1. Directed Lie Control Question (DLC) - a control question in which the examinee is
instructed by the examiner to answer the questions untruthfully. Some examiners
actually get admission to comparison questions and then instruct the examinee to lie
to that question when it is asked.

49
 DLC question may offer some relief to potential problems identified in
PLC. Examiners may experience difficulty in standardizing comparison questions
in the PLC version. Each test subject brings with them his or her own life
experiences that may hamper maintaining a rapport while attempting to lay
foundation for and set the PLC questions.

2. Probable Lie Control Question (PLC) – a question to which it is likely that the
examinee is untruthful with his answer. PLC questions are presented to the test
subject as being necessary for further evaluating the test subject’s character and the
issue under investigation. PLC questions are based on transgressions whose subject
matter is generally or conceptually related to the allegations of the examination and
which virtually all persons may have committed, but which are likely to be denied
in the context of the examination. PLC questions are broad in scope and usually
based on actions categorically similar to that of the issue under investigation.

There are far fewer field and laboratory studies that address the validity of
the DLC than the PLC. However, the result of the existing studies (Barland, 1981;
Bell et al., 1989; DoDPI Research Division Staff, 1997 and 1998; Honts and
Raskin, 1988; Horowitz, Kircher, Honts and Raskin, 1997; kircher, Packard, Bell
and Bernhardt, 2001; Reed, 1994; Raskin and Kircher, 1990) suggests that the DLC
questions perform as well as or better than the PLC questions.

Types of Probable Lie

1. Inclusive – a probable lie control question which include the relevant time period
under investigation. It was originally designed by Reid. This type of question
usually starts with the phrase: “In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as inclusionary.
Reid believed that the comparison question should be as broad and general as
possible and would ensure that the subject experienced the maximum threat,
forcing him to lie to a question which he felt might lead the investigator to believe
he was guilty of the relevant act.

2. Exclusive – a probable lie control question separated in time, place and category
from the relevant question. It was introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that
this prevents the guilty suspect from perceiving the comparison question as an
ambiguous relevant question. Also called exclusionary.

Example:
• During the first __ years of your life, did you ever ____?
• Prior to 2009, did you ever _____ ?
• While in college ______?
• Between the ages of __ & __, did you ever _____?

Control questions that are commonly used today are “exclusive control questions”
in that they are separated from the relevant issue by time, place or category. Comparison
questions not separated from the relevant issue are sometimes referred to as non-

50
exclusionary type. Three studies (Horvath, 1988; Amsel, 1999; Palmatier, 1991) failed to
establish any clear and consistent advantage of exclusionary comparison questions over
non-exclusionary questions (Krapohl, Stern & Ryan, 2003). Podlesny & Raskin, (1978)
showed some superiority for exclusionary questions, in that Skin Conductance Response
(SCR) half-recovery half time width and Skin Potential Response (SPR) amplitude were
significantly more effective with exclusive comparison questions. If the test subject
makes an admission to a PLC question, the examiner notes that admission and modifies
the comparison question.

51
 CHAPTER 8
POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES

At present time there are numbers of polygraph techniques available in the field
of polygraphy. The accuracy of polygraphy rests primarily with the proper application of
polygraph technique in a particular examination.

Two Principal Approaches to Polygraph Examination

1. Deception Tests – are the most commonly used, and they include Comparison
Question Technique and Relevant/Irrelevant
2. Recognition Tests – include the Peak of Tension, Concealed Information and
Acquaintance Tests.

Two Types of Polygraph Examination

1. Mixed Issue Exam – multiple-issue polygraph testing like screening of applicants

or audit of employees or persons with security clearances.
2. Diagnostic Exam – a test which involves specific case investigation.

Types of Diagnostic Examination

1. Single Issue Diagnostic Exam – a test which inquires direct involvement of

subject into a specific case under question.
2. Multi-facet Diagnostic Exam – test format in which the relevant questions are
targeted toward different elements of the same crime.

Types of Polygraph Techniques

1. Relevant/Irrelevant (R/I)
2. Peak of Tension Test (POT)
3. Concealed Information Test (CIT) or Guilty-Knowledge Test (GKT)
4. Comparison Question Test (CQT)

RELEVANT/IRRELEVANT

The R/I is consists primarily of the irrelevant and relevant questions presented in
a structured sequence.

Brief History

R/I have been used in the 1920’s and 1930’s by polygraph pioneer, John Larson.
However, it was fully developed into a recognized testing format by Leonard Keeler.
With the addition of probable lie questions, it forms the basis of the valid testing format.
In the 1980’s, Paul K. Minor added questions that were connected to the relevant issue
and designed to relieve normal feelings of guilt, anger, frustration, or concern felt by the

52
innocent examinee. These questions referred to as situational controls which formed the
basis of Modified R/I testing technique.

Forms of R/I
1. Relevant/Irrelevant Screening Test
2. Relevant/Irrelevant Diagnostic Test
3. Modified Relevant/ Irrelevant Diagnostic Test

Test Questions Constituting R/I Screening

1. Relevant Question – see chapter 6. Labeled as ‘R”.
2. Irrelevant or Nuetral – see chapter 6. Labeled as “N”.
3. Overall Truth Questions – similar in function to a traditional sacrifice relevant
question. Labeled as “T”.
Ex. T1 – (Do you plan to lie) (Have you lied) to any question on this test?
T2 – (Do you intend to be completely truthful) (have you been completely
truthful) to all questions on this test?
T3 – (Will you answer) (Did you answer) every question this test truthfully?

Table 1
R/I Screening Test Format
P 3 RQs 4 RQs 5 RQs
C1 C2 C3* C1 C2 C3* C1 C2 C3
1 N1 N3 N1 N3 N1 N2 N1
2 T1 T1 T1 N2 T1 N1 T1
3 R1 R3 R1 R4 R1 R5 R2
4 R2 R2 R2 R3 R2 R4 N2
5 R3 N3 R3 N1 R3 N3 R5
6 N2 R1 N2 R1 N2 R2 R4
7 R2 () R4 R2 R4 R1 R2
8 R3 () N1 R4 R5 R3 N2
9 R1 () R3 N2 N1 N3 R1
10 N3 () R2 R1 R3 ( ) ( )
11 () () ()

Codes:
N = Norm or Irrelevant Question
R = Relevant Question
T = Overall Truth Questions
C1, C2, C3 = number of charts
* = Optional
( ) = Denotes location for repeating relevant questions that may have been
artifacted or showed reactivity on previous presentations.

53
Interpretation of Physiological Reactions

The prevailing method of interpretation is global analysis. With this method,

examiners look for significant reactions that occur to the same questions repeatedly.
“Conspecnificance” is the name given to the principle: consistency of reaction to a
specific question with significant magnitude. Random or insignificant reactions are
disregarded. Some examiners use a checkmarks to a particular questions, it receives a
checkmark on the scoresheet. If there are two or more checkmarks to a particular
question, the examiner explores the topic further with the examinee and conduct a re-test
regarding that question using a single issue diagnostic exam.

R/I Diagnostic Test

Test Questions Constituting R/I Diagnostic Test

1. Relevant Question – (see chapter 7. Identified by an Arabic Numeric 1, 2, 3, etc.)

2. Irrelevant Question – (see chapter 7. Identified by Capital letters as A, B, C, etc.)
3. Overall Truth Question – (Identified by the capital letter “T”.)
4. Stimulus Question – it is used to determine if the examinee has the ability to
physiologically respond. It should be the last question of the last chart of a series.
(Identified by the capital letter “S”.)
Ex. a. Do you feel your integrity has been questioned because you were asked to
take this polygraph examination?
b. Are you afraid you might fail the polygraph examination even though you are
telling the truth?
c. Do you feel angry because you were asked to take this examination?

Formatting Rules

1. Each chart must begin with two relevant or one irrelevant and one overall truth
question.
2. The total test must produce three presentations of relevant questions.
3. No relevant question can be repeated during a single chart.
4. No more than three relevant questions can be presented in a row without the
insertion of an irrelevant question.
5. The overall truth question must be asked either before the first relevant question
or after the last relevant question.
6. Normally it should not contain more than 12 questions.
7. If used, the stimulus question should be the last question on the last chart.
8. Questions should be rotated on each chart for a fresh look.
9. The most responsive relevant question should not be asked as the first relevant
question of the next chart.
10. No sensitivity or cardio pressure changes should be made after the first relevant
question is asked on a chart.

54
Sample Set of Test Question of R/I Diagnostic Test

A. Do you live in the Philippines? (Irrelevant)

B. Is today Sunday? (Irrelevant)
T-1. Do you plan to lie on any question of this test? (Overall Truth)
1. Did you help anyone take that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
2. Did you take any of that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
C. Is this the month of October? (Irrelevant)
3. Do you know who take that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
4. Did you conspire with anyone in taking that missing money? (Relevant)
T-2. Did you answer all questions on this test truthfully? (Overall Truth – Optional)
S-1. Are you afraid you might fail the test even though you are telling the truth?
(Stimulus Question – Used as the last question of the last chart if the examinee has
been generally unresponsive.

Modified Irrelevant/Relevant (MR/I)

The modification of I/R calls for the addition of situational control question.

Test Questions Constituting Modified R/I Diagnostic Test

1. Relevant Question – (see chapter 7. Identified by an Arabic Numeric 1, 2, 3, etc.)

2. Irrelevant Question – (see chapter 7. Identified by Capital letters as A, B, C, etc.)
3. Overall Truth Question – (Identified by the capital letter “T”.)
4. Situational Control – a question connected to the relevant issue and designed to
relieve normal feelings of guilt, anger, frustration, or concern felt by the innocent
examinee. It is answerable by “yes”.
5. Stimulus Question – it is used to determine if the examinee has the ability to
physiologically respond. It should be the last question of the last chart of a series.
(Identified by the capital letter “S”.)

Sample Set of Test Question Modified R/I Diagnostic Test

A. Do you live in the Philippines? (Irrelevant)

B. Is today Sunday? (Irrelevant)
T. (Overall Truth)
1. Have friends seen you and your wife argue in public in the past six months?
(Situational Control)
2. Where you in the process of getting divorce from your wife? (Situational Control)
C. Is this the month of October? (Irrelevant)
3. Did you tell the police that you found your wife stabbed to death at your home on
June 28? (Situational Control)
4. Did you stab your wife? (Relevant)
5. Did you stab your wife at your home on June 28? (Relevant)
D. Is your name Gabriel?

55
 S. Are you afraid you might fail the test even though you are telling the truth?
(Stimulus – Used as the last question of the last chart if the examinee has been
generally unresponsive)

PEAK OF TENSION TEST (POT)

The POT test has been used since the beginning of polygraphy and continued to
be helpful in some polygraph cases. Most polygraph examiners conduct POT after a CQT
has indicated deception in order to confirm the findings or to help investigators search for
evidence.

Two Types of POT

1. Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) – is used to determine whether

the examinee is aware of details of a crime that have been kept from the general
public and would presumably only be known to the perpetrator of the crime or
those with incriminating knowledge.
2. Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) – is used to determine details of a crime
that are not known to officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but
would be known to a participant in the crime.

Terms to Consider in POT

1. False Key – a question placed in the KSPOT to distract the innocent examinee.
2. Key – item in the POT that focuses to a detail of a crime that would only be
recognized by the guilty deceptive person not the truthful examinee.
3. Padding – items in the SPOT that would be recognized by the guilty person as
unrelated to the crime and also would be seen by the examinee as equally
probable as the key.
4. Possible Keys – items in the SPOT that encompass crime details known to the
deceptive subject but not to investigators. Used to reveal the location of evidence,
name of accomplices or other details of interest to the investigators.
5. Cover-All Question – a question used in the SPOT to determine whether the
concealed information was not captured in the other possible keys.

Guidelines in the Construction of KSPOT

1. The KSPOT always contains 6 to 9 items.

2. There must be at least two padding questions before and after the key. If more
than one KSPOT test is conducted, the key to each test is placed in a different
position than the other tests.
3. The key must be a verified act, and one that the guilty would recognize.
4. Each key must be full exclusive of the other keys.

56
Guidelines in the Construction of SPOT

1. It has about 9 to 10 items.

2. It is constructed with 4 or 5 possible keys.
3. There must be at least 2 padding questions before and after the possible keys.
Padding questions must be impossible options so that they cannot become
possible keys.
4. The possible keys must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive, that is, all
possibilities must be covered but there must be no overlap among the keys.
5. A cover-all question is recommended in case the true key is not among the
possible keys.
6. The examinee must recognize the true key.

Conducting a POT

1. Each test begins with a preparatory case that clearly states what the test covers,
and which is used only once at the beginning of the test.
Ex. Regarding the type of weapon used to threaten Gabriel Yu………?
2. Each item is preceded by a standard phrase such as was it, is that person, is it
located in, etc..
Ex.
 Was it a knife?
 Was it a pistol?
 Was it a rifle?
3. The questions are always reviewed with the examinee before the test.
4. The examinee answers “no” to all of the questions.
5. Visual aids (maps, photos, diagrams, question list) should be placed in front of the
examinee to augment the verbal presentation of the questions especially with
SPOT test.
6. Each POT test is conducted at least three times and questions are spaced 15 – 20
seconds apart. For the first two tests, the order of the questions is exactly the same
as they were reviewed with the examinee before the test. For the third test, the
order is reversed and the examinee is advised in advance. A fourth chart is
permitted with a mixed question order if the three do not result in a definite
opinion.

CONCEALED INFORMATION TEST (CIT)

The CIT is a test used to determine what an examinee knows about the details of a
particular crime. It is the most researched and validated method available to polygraph
examiners. It was introduced by David Lykken in 1959. Unlike with the CQT, it can be
conducted even the examinee has been interrogated extensively. Also known as Guilty
Knowledge Test (GKT).

57
 In CIT, the examiner’s knowledge regarding the modes and manner on how a
particular crime committed is very important, including also the items taken, in case of
theft or robbery.

Terms to Consider in CIT

1. Critical Item – sometimes called the “key”. It is the stimulus known to the
examiner as being directly related to the crime being investigated. The key item
must be something that the subject is most likely to have paid attention to and be
able to recall during the testing. For example, a key item can be a murder weapon
used in the killing.
2. Alternative – item in CIT that is not the critical item. Also termed as Control
Item.
3. Electrodermal Response (EDR) – change in the electrical properties of the skin
recorded in polygraphy as skin resistance.

Guidelines in the Construction of CIT

1. Each CIT should have one critical item and at least five alternative items. All
items should be equally plausible to an innocent examinee.
2. One alternative item will be in the first position of the question list. The order of
all others including the critical item is random.
3. It is recommended that there be at least four different critical items in order to
construct the four CITs. There is no maximum number of CITs that can be
conducted. Accuracy improves with the number of CITs.
4. The CIT uses only EDRs although examiners should continue to record other
channels as required by policy or law.
5. All questions are reviewed before the start of the test, omitting the items that are
known to the subject.
6. At the beginning of the CIT, the examiner should give a preparatory statement.
7. Have the examinee repeat the items rather than only answering “no”. The
examiner may use visual representation of the item.
8. It can be conducted using visual stimuli without anymore instructing the
examinee to repeat the items. The examiner can use the crime scene photos from
the crime of interest and select equivalent photos from other crime scenes where
the subject could not have been.

Sample CIT Question Set

A. If you are the person who broke into the house, you know where it was entered.
Repeat after me these areas of entry:
1. Basement window
2. Garage door
3. Bathroom window
4. Front door
5. Backdoor (key item)
6. Bedroom window

58
 B. If you are the person who broke into that house last night, you did something on
the property just before entering the house. Repeat after me these actions:
1. Broke a window
2. Cut the phone line (key item)
3. Tied up a dog
4. Climbed the fence
5. Damage a birdbath
6. Broke the porch light
C. If you are the person who broke into the house, you got in using a particular
method. Repeat after me these methods:
1. Screwdrivered the lock
2. Crashed brick through window
3. Hacksawed the padlock
4. Kicked in the door (key item)
5. Sledgehammered the hinges
6. Picked the lock
D. If you are the person who broke into that house last night, you stole something.
Repeat after me these items:
1. Shotgun
2. Credit cards
3. Television set (key item)
4. Bottle of vodka
5. Coin collection
6. Necklace
E. If you are the person who broke into that house last night, you escaped through
one of these exits. Repeat after me these exits:
1. Basement window
2. Garage door
3. Patio door
4. Front door
5. Bathroom window
6. Bedroom window
7.

Scoring Rules

Lykken scoring has been used in every CIT research study published to date that
analyzed physiological responses. It entails the ranking of the electrodermal response
amplitudes from 2 to 0. If the largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score for that
test is 2. If the second largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score is 1. All others
are zero. Reactions to the first item are ignored.

Decision Rules

Once scoring has been completed, the scores can be used to form an opinion.

59
 Three Outcomes in CIT

1. Recognition Indicated (RI) – this means that the subject knows the
details of the crime
2. No Recognition Indicated (NRI) – the subject does not know the
details of the crime.
3. No Opinion (NO) – no result

These decisions are based on the total score. After the completion of the CITs, the
scores are summed up for all tests. The range of total scores can run 0 to twice the
number of CITs. For example, if there were five CITs run, with a potential score of 2
point per CIT, the maximum attainable score is 10. The cutoff for a call of RI is equal to
the number or CITs conducted. Using the five-CIT scenario, a total score of 5 or greater
would justify a call of RI. A total score of 4 or less called for an NRI decision. NO can
arise if there are no reactions to any of the CITs, or if the number of useable CITs is
severely reduced by movements, artifacts or Countermeasures.

Table 2
Probability of Examinee Having
Knowledge of Crime

Rather than decisions, the examiner may choose to report probabilities. Table 2
shows the probabilities for up to eight CITs and scoring the EDRs. The number of CITs
is on the left and the scores are listed across the top of the table. If an examinee had a
score of 9 for a six-CIT examination, the likelihood of being naïve to the key items would
be 1.0%. A score of 3 in this case would suggest that the examinee does not know the
details of the crime, as there is a nearly 69% chance of a truly naïve examinee achieving
this score.

60
COMPARISON QUESTION TECHNIQUE (CQT)

An umbrella term for standard testing formats that use probable-lie or directed-lie
comparison questions. In comparison question technique, the relevant questions are
compared with the comparison questions via numerical scoring.

One of the major contributions to polygraphy in the last fifty years has been the
John E. Reid’s control questions. He indicated that his motivation for developing this
procedure was to reduce the number of inconclusive charts and apply to some form of
measuring system that he felt not available in relevant/irrelevant technique.

Variations of CQT

1. Backster Zone Comparison Question Technique (Backster ZCT)

2. Federal Zone Comparison Technique (Federal ZCT)
3. United States Air Force Modified General Question Technique (USAF MGQT)
4. Test for Espionage and Sabotage (TES)
5. Utah Zone Comparison Technique (Utah ZCT)

BACKSTER ZCT

In 1963, Cleve Backster refined the control question and he further explained the
technique in terms of Psychological Set Theory in which the involuntary focusing of the
examinee’s psychological attention towards the particular test questions. With this, the
Backster Zone Comparison Technique was developed.

Test Questions Constituting the Backster ZCT

1. Irrelevant/Neutral Question
2. Symptomatic
3. Comparison Question
4. Relevant Question

Table 3
Backster ZC Test Question Sequence
Position Questions
1 Irrelevant
2 Symptomatic
3 Sacrifice Relevant
4 Control
5 Relevant
6 Control
7 Relevant
8 Control
9 Relevant
10 Symptomatic

61
FEDERAL ZCT

A polygraph technique developed by Department of Defense Polygraph Institute

(DoDPI) now Defense Academy for Credibility Assessment (DACA). It can be used with
two to three relevant questions for single or multi-facet diagnostic exams.

Brief History

Department of Defense Polygraph Institute was a federal polygraph training

institution and research center, located at Ft. Jackson, South Carolina. It has three core
missions: polygraph training, quality assurance, and research. DoDPI was established and
dedicated on 15 April 1986 by General Stillwell, then Undersecretary for the Army. It
was formerly part of the U.S. Army Military Police School (USAMPS) from 1951 to
1986. The DoDPI developed its own polygraph technique called Federal ZCT which still
being used by polygraph examiners in Federal Government and some other countries.

Test Questions Constituting Federal ZCT

1. Neutral
2. Sacrifice Relevant Question
3. Symptomatic Question
4. Control Question
5. Relevant Question

Table 4
Federal ZCT Question Sequence

Position 2-RQ 3-RQ

1 Irrelevant Irrelevant
2 Sacrifice Relevant Sacrifice Relevant
3 Symptomatic-1 Symptomatic-1
4 Control-1 Control-1
5 Relevant-1 Relevant-1
6 Control-2 Control-2
7 Relevant-2 Relevant-2
8 Control-3 Symptomatic-2
9 Symptomatic-2 Control-3
10 Relevant-3

The Federal ZCT always uses three comparison questions, two symptomatic and
one irrelevant question. A two or three relevant question may be used depending on the
need. These relevant questions may be primary relevant for single-issue test or a
combination of any of the types of relevant questions for multi-facet exam. In any of
these, a comparison question should come first before the relevant question.

62
Sample Set of Test Question (Single Issue)

1. Is your name _____? (N)

2. Regarding the missing money from the vault on Dec. 13, 2008, are you willing to
answer the questions truthfully? (SR)
3. Do you believe I will only ask the questions we have reviewed? (B)
4. Between the ages of __and__, did you ever steal anything of value? (C)
5. Did you take that missing money? (R)
6. Prior to _________, did you ever steal from someone who trusted you? (C)
7. Did you take that missing money from the vault? (R)
8. Are you afraid I will ask you a question we have not reviewed? (B)
9. While in _______, did you ever steal anything of value from a friend? (C)
10. Did you take that missing money on December 13, 2008? (R)

Codes:

N = Neutral
SR = Sacrifice Relevant
B = Symptomatic
C = Comparison
R = Relevant

Sample Set of Test Question (Multi-Facet)

1. Neutral
2. Sacrifice Relevant
3. Symptomatic
4. Comparison
5. Did you take that missing money from the vault? (R)
6. Comparison
7. Did you participate in the taking of that missing money? (R)
8. Symptomatic
9. Comparison
10. Do you know who stole that missing money? (R)

In the single issue sample, three primary relevant were used which directly
inquire direct involvement of the subject. In multi-facet sample, primary, secondary and
guilty knowledge relevant questions were used.

It is permissible to rotate the comparison and relevant questions after the first
chart in order to avoid habituation. No other questions may be rotate from the sequence.

The examiner conducting the examination should collect at least three charts. A
fourth to five charts may be run if one of the three charts was contaminated by
movements or countermeasures.

63
 It is important to note that all these questions should be reviewed with the subject
prior to the administration of the test. Review of questions should be done in the
following order:

1. Sacrifice relevant question

2. Relevant questions
3. Comparison questions
4. Irrelevant question
5. Symptomatic Questions

Questions which are unclear or not understandable with the subject should be
modified. If the subject made an admission on the comparison question, a phrase “Other
than” should be placed at the beginning of question where the subject made an admission.

AIR FORCE MODIFIED GENERAL QUESTION TECHNIQUE (AFMGQT)

The AFMGQT is a modified version of a polygraph technique originally

developed by John Reid which is called General Question Technique (GQT). In 1968, the
U.S. Army Military Police Polygraph School modified Reid’s technique and called it the
Army MGQT. In the mid 1970s, the Air Force modified the Army MGQT by adding a
sacrifice relevant, adding more comparison questions and allowing for a two, three or
four relevant question test. The Air Force called its modified version the AFMGQT.

There are two versions of the AFMGQT. It is the examiner’s discretion as to

which version is to be utilized in specific issue testing

Version 1 is the original AFMGQT format that was modified from the Army
MGQT in the mid 1970s. Version 1 of the AFMGQT has a two, three and four relevant
question test. In this version, chart 2 is always a mixed chart. At the examiner’s
discretion, chart 3 may also be a mixed chart or it may be in straight sequence

Version 2 is a modified version of the original AFMGQT created by the Air Force
in the mid 1970s. Initially, it was devised as an authorized testing format for
counterintelligence security polygraph examinations. It was subsequently approved as an
authorized testing format for specific issue examinations. As in Version 1, version 2 of
the AFMGQT also has a two, three and four relevant question test.

The primary difference between versions 1 and 2 of the AFMGQT is that each
relevant question in version 2 is always bracketed by a comparison question. In the
analysis process, each relevant is always evaluated against the most responsive
bracketing comparison question.

Test Questions Constituting AFMGQT Version

1. Irrelevant or Neutral Question

64
 2. Comparison Question
3. Relevant Question

Table 5
Questions Sequence of AFMGQT Version 1

Position 2-RQs 3-RQs 4-RQs

1 Neutral Neutral Neutral
2 Sacrifice Sacrifice Sacrifice
3 Control-1 Control-1 Control-1
4 Relevant-1 Relevant-1 Relevant-1
5 Control-2 Control-2 Control-2
6 Relevant-2 Relevant-2 Relevant-2
7 Control-3 Control-3 Control-3
8 Relevant-3 Relevant-3
9 Control-4
10 Relevant-4

Table 6
Question Sequence AFMGQT Version 2

Position 2-RQs 3-RQs 4-RQs

1 Neutral Neutral Neutral
2 Sacrifice Sacrifice Sacrifice
3 Control-1 Control-1 Control-1
4 Relevant-1 Relevant-1 Relevant-1
5 Control-2 Relevant-2 Relevant-2
6 Relevant-2 Control-2 Control-2
7 Control-3 Relevant-3 Relevant-3
8 Control-3 Relevant-4
9 Control-3

Version 2 Sample Set of Test Question (Screening Test – 3RQs)

1. Is your name Gabriel? (N)

2. Do you plan to answer truthfully each question I ask you about ________? (SR)
3. (Comparison Question)
4. Did you steal a valuable thing from your previous employer?
5. Did you bet in any form of gambling?
6. (Comparison Question)
7. Did you use any prohibited drugs?
8. (Comparison Question)

65
Version 2 Sample Set of Test Question (Multi-Facet Test – 3RQs)

1. Is your name Gabriel? (N)

2. Do you intend to answer truthfully each question I will ask you about ________?
(SR)
3. (Comparison Question)
4. Did steal that missing money? (R)
5. Did you participate in the taking of that missing money? (R)
6. (Comparison Question)
7. Do you know who stole that missing money? (R)
8. (Comparison Question)

Version 2 Question Rotation

It is advisable to rotate the questions after the first chart so that the subject will
not become familiar with the sequence of question. However, it is a mandatory
requirement to inform the subject ahead of time that the questions will be rotated.
Question rotation should be done by moving the comparison questions up and the
relevant questions down with each subsequent chart using the question sequence table.

Review of Question

All questions should be reviewed with the subject and should be done in the
following order:

1. Sacrifice relevant question

2. Relevant questions
3. Comparison questions
4. Neutral questions

Scoring

Each relevant question should be scored to the stronger bracketing comparison

question. If necessary, examiner may skip over the neighboring relevant question.

TEST FOR ESPIONAGE AND SABOTAGE

The test for sabotage and espionage is a polygraph technique used by government
agencies to examine employees who are suspected of committing sabotage and espionage
against the government. It was developed by Department of Defense Polygraph Institute,
there are three sets of two relevant question pairings or six relevant question analysis
spots comprising each of two sub-tests

Test Questions Constituting TES

1. Neutral Question

66
 2. Comparison Question
3. Relevant Question

Table 7
TES Question Sequence

Charts Questions
Neutral-1
Neutral-2
Sacrifice
1 Comparison-1
Relevant-1
Relevant-2
Comparison-2
Relevant-1
2 Relevant-2
Comparison-1
Relevant-1
3 Relevant-2
Comparison-3

The TES utilizes two relevant questions, three comparisons, two neutral and one
sacrifice relevant questions. It is conducted using a single set of examination which
covers three charts as shown in the table of question sequence. Each relevant question
presentation is compared against the most responsive comparison question positioned
immediately preceding or following it.

Sample Set of Test Question

1. Were you born in the Philippines? (neutral)

2. Is today Sunday? (neutral)
3. Do you intend to answer truthfully regarding the questions about criminal
activities? (Sacrifice)
4. Did you ever do anything that was a violation of a rule, regulation law?
(Comparison-1)
5. Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1)
6. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
7. Have you ever done anything that you later decided to lie about or keep secret?
(comparison-2)
8. Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1)
9. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
10. Did you ever do anything that was a violation of a rule, regulation or the law?
(comparison-2)
11. Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1

67
 12. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
13. Have you ever done anything that you later decided to lie about or keep secret?
(cmparison-3)

UTAH ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE

In 1970, David Raskin, a psychologist and researcher at the University of Utah,

began a study of the Comparison Question Technique. Raskin and his colleagues
systematically refined the elements of polygraphy by determining what aspects of the
technique could be scientifically proven to increase validity and reliability. Their efforts
resulted to the creation of Utah Zone Comparison Technique. It is originally designed for
single issue testing of a single known incident. However, it is amenable to other multi-
facet testing of single crime issue as a Modified General Question Technique (Utah
MGQT) format, or as a multiple-issue (mixed issue) General Question Technique (GQT).
The Utah techniques including the Utah Numerical Scoring System resulted to over 30
years of scientific research and peer-review. Presently, the Utah ZCT was the most
accurate technique available in polygraphy.

Test Questions Constituting the Utah ZCT

1. Symptomatic
2. Sacrifice Relevant
3. Comparison
4. Relevant

Table 8
Utah ZCT Question Sequence

Position Questions (first chart sequence)

1 Symptomatic
2 Sacrifice
3 Neutral-1
4 Comparison-1
5 Relevant-1
6 Neutral-2
7 Comparison-2
8 Relevant-2
9 Neutral-3
10 Comparison-3
11 Relevant-3

Sample Set of Test Question (Single Issue)

1. Do you understand I will only ask you the questions we reviewed?

68
 2. Regarding the missing money from the valut, do you intend to answer the
questions truthfully?
3. Is your name Gabriel?
4. Before _____, did you ever steal from someone who trusted you?
5. Did you take that missing money?
6. Is today Sunday?
7. Between the ages of __and __, did you ever steal anything of value?
8. Did you take that missing money on December 13, 2008?
9. Were you born in the Philippines?
10. While in ____, did you ever steal from a friend?
11. Did you take that missing money from the vault?

As shown in the sample question, the relevant question in single issue testing of a
single known issue start with the phrase ‘Did you”. Although there are other variations of
Utah ZCT for multi-facet and mixed issue testing, experts in polygraphy do not
recommend these variations as Utah ZCT was originally designed for a single issue
exam. They recommend other techniques like USAF MGQT as it is designed for multi-
facet and mixed issue examination. Also caution should be observed, as it reduces its
accuracy if it will be used for mixed issue and multi-facet.

Question Review

Like other polygraph techniques, all questions should be reviewed ahead of time
and should be conducted in the following order:

1. Sacrifice relevant question

2. Relevant questions
3. Comparison questions
4. Neutral questions
5. Introductory question

Rotation of Question

Rotation of questions is a mandatory requirement in polygraph testing using Utah

ZCT. After the first chart, move the neutral and comparison questions up and move the
relevant questions down with each subsequent chart using the table of test question
sequence. It is also important to note that the subject should be informed that the question
will be rotated on the subsequent charts.

69
 CHAPTER 9
PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

The competency of polygraph examiner is another crucial part in the field of

polygraphy. This is so because it is the examiner who formulates the proper test questions
and interprets the physiological reactions on the polygraph chart.

Polygraph Examination defined

It is a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a polygraph
examiner and an examinee during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph
examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and Cardiovascular activity must be monitored
and recorded.

PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

Prior to the start of examination, it is essential for the examiner to interview the
person requesting the examination or the investigator handling the case in order for the
examiner to have a background of the case. A copy of the investigation report would be
of great help to the examiner.

When the examination is for screening or audit purposes, an interview with the
requesting party is also important. With this, the examiner could get pertinent information
about the nature of position of the subject and the questions that the requesting wants to
be asked on the subject.

Phase I. Pre-Test Interview

A properly conducted polygraph examination begins with a pre-test interview

accomplished in a non-accusatory manner. First, the examiner introduces himself with
the subject and shakes hand with him. The examiner should obtain the necessary test
release that includes a brief statement of allegation or issues to be resolved, and if
possible, a statutory rights waiver and then collects general biographical and medical
information from the test subject. Rapport-building discussion gives the examiner a
chance to evaluate the test subject’s suitability for the examination. The examiner uses
this period of conversation to develop material for comparison questions to be used
during the testing phase of the examination. This portion is conducted with open-ended
questions and the careful use of suggestions as opposed to an interrogation of the past
deeds.

The examiner point out any monitoring or recording devices and explains the
purpose for having the examination monitored or recorded. It is only through complete
recordings that meaningful quality assurance is possible. Frankness regarding the
monitoring devices helps assure the test subject that the test will be conducted in a
professional manner.

70
 The examiner advices the test subject of the nature of the allegations and the
specific issues to be resolved by the examination. The test subject is then given the
opportunity to provide a “free narrative” to discuss his or her knowledge and/or role in
the incident. The goal of the free narrative discussion is to obtain information from the
subject without confrontation or undue stress. The examiner does not argue with the
subject nor does the examiner challenge the test subject’s version of the case facts.

In polygraph screening or monitoring programs, the discussion of the known

allegations will be replaced with a structured interview protocol which addresses content
areas pertinent to the risk or compliance issues under investigation.

This low key, non-accusatory approach presents the examiner as a neutral seeker
of the truth and helps to allay fears of pre-conceived guilt. If there are inconsistencies or
other matters that require follow-up of clarification before the examination, they are
discussed at this time in a non-confrontational fashion.

After the narrative and the discussion of any other issues, the components are
placed on the test subject. The examiner formulates the test questions that will be asked
to the subject during the in-test.

Phase II. In-Test Preparation

During this process, the functions of various polygraph component sensors are
discussed, and general explanation of the psychophysiology that underlies the polygraph
test is explained.

Once the sensors are placed on the subject, the examiner conducts an
acquaintance test or card test or number test (stimulation test). The acquaintance test is
generally a known solution peak of tension test that is used to demonstrate the efficacy of
polygraph examination. In known solution acquaintance test, the test subject is told to
select a number such that there will be additional or padding questions before and after
the selected number. This can be accomplished by directing the test subject to select a
number between 2 and 6 and write that number on a piece of paper. This paper may then
be displayed in front of the subject and the test subject is instructed to deny picking any
number from 1 and 7 while the polygraph records his or her physiological responses. The
acquaintance test allows the examiner to ensure the production of adequate quality
recordings and to take corrective actions to remedy any lack thereof.

The examiner can use the acquaintance during the question review to demonstrate
to the subject that he or she is a suitable candidate for polygraph test, and provide
assurances that successful completion of the examination can be obtained by answering
all of the test questions truthfully or that clear indication was found when the test subject
was not answering the questions truthfully.

71
 Following the acquaintance test, the test questions are reviewed with the test
subject for clarity. The order of question review would depend on the polygraph
techniques that the examiner will use. Any unclear question should be removed or
modify.

Phase III. In-Test or Instrumental Test

During the in-test operation, the subject is instructed to sit still and answer each
question truthfully. Any slightest movement by the subject may affect the reactions being
recorded by the instrument. The examiner should collect at least three charts, if
contaminated by movements or artifacts, a fourth to five charts may Testbe run.

The examiner should provide the subject an adequate rest period of about 15 to 30
minutes after collection of each chart. After the collection of necessary charts for
interpretation, polygraph attachments are then removed from the subject’s body.

Any movements made by the subject during the in-test should be noted down on
the polygraph chart. The start of examination including the period in which the questions
were administered as well as the answer of the subject should be emphasized on the
polygraph chart.

Chart markings – are annotations of the physiologic tracings to denote stimulus

(question) onset and offset, examinee’s answer, question number, question label,
artifacts, and other details important to the interpretation of the physiological data. These
are symbols and signs that a polygraph examiner indicates on the polygraph chart during
examination in order to facilitate evaluation and interpretation of physiological data
found on the chart. This will serve as guide of the examiner so as to avoid
misinterpretation.

Two Types of Chart Markings

1. Primary Markings – these are markings which indicate the beginning and end of
examination as well as the questions and answers of the subject. These are usually placed
at the bottom or top of the polygraph chart.

a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner informs the subject that the test
is about to begin.

b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks when the examiner starts
asking question. Second vertical line marks when the examiner finish asking
question.

c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject answers the question with
“yes”. This also indicates the period when the subject answers the question and
usually followed by a “number” indicating the order number of question, example
+3, +4, +5….)

72
 d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers the stimulus with “no”. This
also indicates the period when the subject answers the question and usually
followed by a “number”.

e. XX – indicates the end of test.

2. Secondary Markings – are markings which are placed only if the examinee does
something which will cause the physiological tracings to distort. These markings are
usually placed below the affected tracing.

a. M – Movement

b. T – Talking

c. DB – Deep Breath

d. C – Cough

e. CT – Clear Throat

f. SW – Swallow

g. SNF – Sniff

h. Y – Yawn

i. SZ – Sneeze

j. LGH – Laugh

k. SLP – Sleep

l. B – Belch

m. OSN – Outside Noise

n. ISN – Inside Noise

o. EE – Examiner Error

p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question

q. MI – Movement Instruction

r. TI – Talking Instruction

73
 s. AI – Answering Instruction

t. BI – Breathing Instruction

u. WU – Wake-Up

v. TDB – Take Deep Breath

For examination utilizing computerized polygraph instrument, the polygraph

system comes with built-in annotation keystrokes.

74
 Table 9
Computer Chart Markings

Annotation Description Text Keystroke

Start Announcement X X
Stop Announcement XX X
Question Reading (Gray bar) Onset button, <numeric 0>, or
<spacebar>
Note: Press the annotation key
when you start to read a
question and hold it down until
you finish.
Yes + + button or <numeric +>
Expected Response + or - <spacebar> or <numeric 0>
No - - button or <numeric ->
Not Expected Response + or - <esc> or <*>
Movement MV M
Talking T V
Deep Breath DB D
Cough C C
Clear Throat CT T
Swallow SW W
Sniff SNF F
Yawn Y Y
Sneeze SZ S
Laugh LGH L
Sleep SLP Z
Belch B B
Other OTH F1
Outside Noise OSN F2
Inside Noise ISN F3
Examiner Error EE F4
Poorly Worded Question PW F5
Will Repeat Question WRQ F6
Movement Instruction MI F7
Talking Instruction TI F8
Answering Instruction AI F9
Breathing Instruction BI F10
Wake-Up WU F11
Take Deep Breath TDB F12

Phase IV. Test Data Analysis

After the in-test, next in line will be test data analysis. The most accepted data
analysis both in investigative and evidentiary purposes is the numerical interpretation of

75
physiological data. It is accomplished by comparing the relative strengths of responses to
control and relevant questions.

Phase V. Post-Test Interrogation

The conduct of post-test interrogation would depend on the result of phase IV. If
there are presence of significant reactions on the relevant question indicative of
deception, then the examiner conduct a short interrogation. The purpose of interrogation
is to conduct obtain a confession or admission as to the relevant questions asked on the
subject. If the subject refuses to give any information, he will not be forced but instead,
he will be released from the examination room. However, if there are no indications of
deceptive response, the examiner will then discuss with the subject the presence of
physiological reactions on the questions asked upon him without the need of interrogating
him. After which the examiner releases the subject and, shake hands with him and
cordially thanks him for cooperation.

THREE MAJOR SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY

RECODED BY THE INSTRUEMNT

1. Respiratory System

The respiratory system of the human body is composed of the lungs, the
conducting airways, parts of the central nervous system concerned with the control of the
muscles of respiration, and the chest wall.

The lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity of an individual. These are elastic
structures and these elasticity helps with breathing movements. According to Bevan, the
main muscles for breathing are the diaphragm and the intercostals muscles. During
normal breathing (eupnea) the diaphragm is the more dominate of the two muscles.

Two Functions of the Respiratory System

1. To obtain oxygen from the environment and to supply it to the cells of the
body.
2. To remove carbon dioxide from the body produced by cellular
metabolism. The brain and heart collectively comprise less than 3% of
total body weight but account for over 30% of oxygen usage.

The respiration waveform that is monitored through the pneumo sensor of a

polygraph reflects either pulmonary ventilation (which actually facilitates respiration), or
the mechanics of a person’s breathing.The respiratory waveform consists of inspiration
(taking in of outside air) and expiration (removal of air carrying waste products) cycles
which are more commonly referred to as inhalation and exhalation (I&E) cycles. Bevan
(1996) states that during inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter than the
rib cage. This expansion causes the volume of the thorax to increase causing air to be

76
drawn into the lungs. Expiration occurs passively by the natural elasticity of the lung
tissue and is a relatively effortless movement. The intercostal and abdominal muscles can
produce more forceful or active expiration.

Accordingly, most people display a resting respiration rate or breathing pattern of

between 12 to 18 breaths per minute

Polygraph examiners should give attention to a person’s breathing pattern because

it is the respiration system over which an examinee exercises the greatest degree of
control.

2. Electrodermal (ED) Waveform

The monitoring and recording of ED waveform is accomplished through the

passage of an electrical current across the skin and is termed an exosomatic ED measure.
The ED waveform is a reflection of the electrical changes in human skin. Polygraph
examiners are principally involved in monitoring and recording either the examinee’s
skin resistance level (SRL) or skin conductance level (SCL) and deviations from those
levels that we refer to as phasic activity.

This channel is most heavily relied upon measure of physiological activity. Under
the Secretory Theory advanced by Tarchanoff in 1890, he believed that EDA was related
to sweat gland activity. Darrow’s research (1927) supported Tarchanoff’s theory. Darrow
found that ED activity actually began one second before moisture appeared on the surface
of the skin, so it was concluded that activity of the sweat glands, not sweat on the skin,
was critical for EDA.

Veraguth (1907) wrote, “. . .that the electrical phenomena picked up with the
galvanometer was attributable to activity of the sweat glands.” What we know is that
EDA is highly correlated with the psychological concepts of emotion, arousal, and
attention, and therefore, is of tremendous benefit in polygraphy.

The eccrine sweat gland is the component of skin that examiners are most
interested in, not so much because of its thermoregulatory function, but because of its
responsiveness to a wide variety of external stimuli. Eccrine sweat glands are generally
found all over the human body. However, they can be found in greatest concentration on
the palmar surface of the hand and soles of the feet.

According to Weinstein, there are between 2000 to 2500 eccrine sweat glands per
square centimeter of skin surface. The eccrine sweat gland constantly strives to maintain
its homeostatic state of being empty. The positioning of sweat constantly fluctuates
between the secretory portion of the sweat gland and the skin’s surface.

Weinstein further state that passive re-absorption and active re-absorption are two
mechanisms that help explain ED waveform activity that is monitored and recorded by
the instrument. When the sweat gland is innervated, sweat begins to rise through the

77
sweat duct. The sweat, as it continues its journey toward the skin’s surface will penetrate
through a membrane and hydrate the corneum (comprised of dead dry skin cells) through
a passive process. Assuming there is a sufficient amount of sweat, the sweat will then
continue toward the skin’s pore and exit onto the skin’s surface.

Active re-absorption is the process by which the body attempts to return the
sweat, which is rising through the sweat duct, back to its homeostatic state of being
empty. However, sometimes there exists a competition between sweat rising through the
duct and the bodies desire to return it back to the secretory portion of the sweat gland.

The ED tonic level is a reflection of the average moisture level of the skin’s
surface. There will have an attribute increase in baseline arousal, or change in waveform
amplitude, to sweat rise from either the sweat gland or from some other fluctuating point
between the gland and the skin’s pore at the time the stimulus was applied. Electrodermal
waveform recovery is most often attributable to active re-absorption. The time it takes for
sweat to begin rising up through the duct to the time it returns to the pre-stimulus level is
a reflection of response duration. An ED complex response is evidenced by multiple
peaks (the largest peak may be on the rise or recovery side) and suggests that as active re-
absorption is occurring sweat production increases, overcoming the sweat glands return
to homeostasis.

3. Cardiovascular (CV) System

The CV system is responsible for body temperature regulation, fluid and water
content of cells .It consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood. The principal functions
of this system are to transport nutrients, oxygen and hormones to cells and the removal of
waste products. The system also protects the body by white blood cells, antibodies and
proteins that circulate in the blood and defend the body against foreign microbes and
toxins.

According to Martini (2000) the heart is a muscular organ that beats about
100,000 times a day and is ultimately responsible for all CV functions. On the other hand
Bevan (1996) believe that the heart is also a four-chamber muscular pump with an
average size of a grapefruit and weighs about 300 grams.

Polygraph examiners are interested with pulmonary and systemic circulatory

pathways; the heart itself, particularly the chambers and valves; cardiac conduction;
cardiac muscle contraction; the cardiac cycle, specifically the segments of a heart beat;
cardiac output, such as stroke volume and heart rate; and blood pressure.

Bevan stated that the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation are
responsible for transporting blood throughout the body via a 96,500-kilometer network of
blood vessels.

The pulmonary circuit transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium where it is temporarily housed before entering the left ventricle for release

78
throughout the body via the systemic circuit. The systemic circuit then takes the
deoxygenated blood from the body and transports it to the right atrium, where it is
temporarily housed before being passed into the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps
the deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary trunk to facilitate pulmonary circulation.

The complete heartbeat involves one contraction and relaxation of both the atria
and ventricles which results to what we called cardiac cycle that describes all the
activities of the heart. This contraction phase is known as systole and the relaxation phase
is known as diastole.

According to Brownley et al, (2000) when ventricular contraction occurs, there is

an increase in pressure (ventricular pressure exceeds arterial pressure) causing the
aortic and pulmonary semi-lunar valves to open and blood is ejected out of the ventricles.
As the ventricles begin to relax, blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk begins to flow
backward, against the now-closed semi-lunar valves.

Abrams (1989) stated that the rebounding of blood against the closed semi-lunar
valve causes a momentary interruption in the flow of blood and a small increase in blood
pressure which appears as the dicrotic notch on the CV waveform. At times, the presence
of a dicrotic notch may not be visible in the waveform depicted on your computer screen
or printed charts. However, the presence of the dicrotic notch, irrespective of its
positioning along the diastolic segment of the cardiac cycle (high, middle, or low), is of
no diagnostic value with respect to the polygraph examination.

Heart rate refers to the number of heartbeats that occur per minute (bpm). Larsen
(1986) and Abrams (1989) cite 70 bpm as the approximate normal human adult heart
rate. Obrist (1981) cites 72 bmp where as Martini (2000) cited the average heart rate
ranges between 70-80 bpm. During sleep, this heart rate may decrease by 10 to 20 bpm;
during emotional excitement it may reach 150 bpm.

According to Martini (2000) a heart rate below 60 bpm is termed bradycardia

while a heart rate above 100 bpm is termed tachycardia. While many things may
contribute to bradycardia (i.e., athleticism) or tachycardia (i.e., increased body
temperature), examiners are most interested in these conditions when they are
associated with emotional excitement and behavioral states.

An examinee’s heart rate can be quickly estimated by counting the number of

heartbeats occurring within a five-second period and then by multiplying that number by
12.

The primary site where the examiner records CV activity during a polygraph
examination is over the brachial artery of the upper arm. Other arterial (i.e., radial &
ulnar) monitoring sites include the forearm and wrist and in rare instances (i.e., suitable
CV waveform cannot otherwise be obtained) behind the gastrocenemius muscle (i.e., calf)
of the lower legs.

79
 During polygraph examination, the ideal CV waveform amplitude is between one-
half inch and one inch, irrespective of grid setting.

80
 CHAPTER 10
NUMERICAL INTERPRETATION OF POLYGRAPH DATA

The numerical interpretation of physiological reactions on the polygraph chart

was first introduced by Cleve Backster in 1963. It was introduced to serve as guide of
polygraph trainees in the interpretation of data. However, a research conducted by the
University of Utah shows the numerical interpretation to more objective and accurate
than any other method of interpretation. Since then it became widely used in the
polygraph profession. Numerical scoring is applicable only to be used to all variations of
comparison question techniques.

Important Terms to Consider

1. Analysis Spot – The relevant and comparison questions that are actually evaluated
during spot analysis. The number of appropriate questions for each relevant
question will vary depending on the test technique used. Regardless of the test
format, each relevant question is always compared to the most appropriate
comparison question on a tracing basis. If the test format allows a relevant
question to be compared with more than one comparison question, then the
comparison question with the greater response for that physiological tracing is
used for comparison.

2. Artifact – A change in an examinee’s physiological pattern that is not attributable

to a reviewed test question. It includes examinee’s movements during the
examination.

3. Blind chart Analysis – Evaluation of PDD recordings without the benefit of

extrapolygraphic information, such as subject behavior, case facts, pretest
admissions, base rates of deception, etc. Studies employ various degrees of
“blindness.” It is a popular research approach to gauge interrater reliability. Also
termed “Blind Scoring”.

4. Cardiovascular tracing – a display of physiological patterns of an examinee’s

relative blood volume and pulse rate that are recorded by a cardiograph
component. The contraction and relaxation of an examinee’s heart will cause the
polygraph to record the systolic stroke (heart contraction), diastolic stroke
(Relaxation period of the heart) and a dicrotic notch, which appears during the
diastolic stroke of the heart. The criteria used to evaluate this physiological
tracing are changes in baseline, changes in amplitude and changes in rate.

5. Deception Indicated (DI) – A conventional term for a polygraph outcome along

with NDI (No Deception Indicated) and Inconclusive. A decision of DI in PDD
means that (1) the physiological data are stable and interpretable, and (2) the
evaluation criteria used by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee is
not wholly truthful to the relevant issue.

81
6. Electrodermal Activity (EDA)Tracing – The display of physiological patter of
either skin resistance or skin conductance obtained through exosomatic recording
with a galvanograph. When evaluating this component tracing, the criteria
considered are changes in amplitude, complexity and duration of response.

7. Exosomatic – Something generated from outside the body. Both skin conductance
and skin resistance are exosomatic measures because electrical currents are
applied from outside sources to detect the electrodermal activity.

8. EDA Recovery Phase – The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing

that occurs between the highest peak and subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or
newly established baseline. The EDA recovery phase begins once the tracing ahs
reached its highest peak.

9. EDA Rise Time – The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing

beginning with response onset and ending at the peak.

10. No Deception Indicated (NDI) – is a conventional term in PDD, NDI signifies

that the polygraph test recordings are stable and interpretable and the evaluation
criteria used by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee was truthful
to the relevant issue. The NDI and DI (Deception Indicated) decision options are
used in specific-issue testing and correspond to NSPR (No Significant Reaction)
and SPR (Significant Reaction) in multiple-issue or screening examinations.

11. Test Data – The signal of interest that may consit of artifacts, recovery or
examinee’s physiological response to stimuli.

12. Test Data Analysis – Analysis of the psychohysiological response activity (time)
displayed between response onset. Typically, this is the time from response onset
until return to the pre-stimulus (phasic response) or a newly established baseline
(tonic) response.

13. Recovery – A deviation in polygraph tracing attributable to a physiolog0ical

phenomenon occurring as a compensatory action after a response or an artifact.

14. Respiratory Tracing – The display of a respiratory pattern indicative of an

examinee’s breathing activity as recorded by the pneumograph component. It
consists of inhalation and exhalation strokes.

15. Response – A physiological change that occurs following, and is attributable to

the presentation of a applied stimulus.

16. Phasic Response – A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is

generally seen as an upward movement from the baseline with subsequent return
to the pre-stimulus or original baseline.

82
 17. Tonic Response – A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally
seen as a movement from the pre-stimulus baseline and establishment of a new
baseline without returning to the pre-stimulus baseline.

18. Response Amplitude – The displayed physiological activity reflected in a

polygraph tracing occurring between response onset and response peak (highest
level from pre-stimulus baseline).

19. Response Duration – The physiological activity (time) displayed between

response onset and offset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until
return to the pre-stimulus baseline (phasic response) or a newly established
baseline (tonic response).

20. Response Latency – The time between stimulus onset and response onset.

21. Response Onset – The first indication of change from the pre-stimulus level of
physiological activity to an applied stimulus.

22. Response Onset Window – The period of time between stimulus onset (verbal
presentation of question) and an examinee’s verbal to that stimulus.

23. Spot Analysis – The procedure wherein each component tracing is separately
evaluated by comparing the response of a relevant question to the response of a
comparison question.

24. Stimulus Onset – It is the beginning of the presentation of the first word of a
question.

25. Tonic Level – It describes the examinee’s physiological response when resting.
An examinee’s level of physiological activity occurring prior to stimulus onset.
This is sometimes referred to as the resting or baseline activity level.

26. Zone – A concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone is a twenty to thirty-five

seconds block of polygraph chart time initiated by a question having a unique
psychological focusing appeal to a predictable group of examinees. In his ZCT,
Backster used color-coding to identify the three zones in the ZCT: red; green; and
black. Respectively, the red zone is for relevant questions, the green zone for
comparison questions, and the black zone for symptomatic questions.

Two types of Chart Interpretation

1. Global Analysis
2. Numerical Scoring
a. Manual Numerical Scoring
b. Computer Scoring Algorithm

83
GLOBAL ANALYSIS

In global analysis, the examiner looks for significant reactions that occur
repeatedly which is referred to as “Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the
consistency of reaction to a specific question with significant magnitude. If
conspecnificance appears on the reaction of relevant question, it is considered an
indication of deception. If conspecnificance appears on the irrelevant question, it is an
indication that the subject is truthful.

NUMERICAL SCORING

The numerical scoring is a method of rendering polygraph decisions that are

based exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological responses
recorded during a structured polygraph examination. The numerical approach does not
consider extra-polygraphic information such as case facts or examinee behaviors. The
numerical approach has four primary components. They are: feature identification,
numerical value assignment, computation of the numerical values, and decision rules. In
numerical scoring, the reactions on the relevant questions are being compared on the
comparison questions using a numerical value. If there is a great reaction of the relevant
question, a negative value is assign. If a great reaction is on the comparison question, a
positive numerical value is assign.

Two Rules on Numerical Scoring

1. 3 Position Scoring Rules

2. 7 Position Scoring Rules

7 Position Scoring Rules

Step 1. Determine whether the physiological recordings are suitable for scoring. If not,
do not score.

Step 2. Channel by channel, directly compare phasic responses at the relevant question
to those at the appropriate comparison question.

Step 3. If the more significant reaction is associated with the relevant question, negative
scores are assigned. Positive scores are assigned if the larger reaction occurs to the
comparison question.

Step 4. If the difference between the reactions to the relevant and comparison questions
is noticeable, it receives a score of +/-1. The sign, plus or minus, depends on which
question has the larger reaction.

84
Step 5. If the difference between the reactions to the relevant and comparison questions
is significant, it receives a score of +/-2. The sign, plus or minus, depends on which
question has the larger reaction.

Step 6. If the difference between the reactions to the relevant and comparison questions
is dramatic, it receives a score of +/-3. The sign, plus or minus, depends on which
question has the larger reaction.

Step 7. Sum all the scores. Decision Rules may depend on what scoring system is
utilized.

3 Position Scoring Rules

Step 1. Determine whether the physiological recordings are suitable for scoring. If not,
do not score.

Step 2. Channel by channel, directly compare phasic responses at the relevant question
to those at the appropriate comparison question.

Step 3. If the more significant reaction is associated with the relevant question, negative
scores are assigned. Positive scores are assigned if the larger reaction occurs to the
comparison question.

Step 4. If the difference between the reactions to the relevant and comparison questions
is noticeable, it receives a score of +/-1. The sign, plus or minus, depends on which
question has the larger reaction.

Step 5. If the difference between the reactions to the relevant and comparison questions
is significant, it receives a score of +/-2. The sign, plus or minus, depends on which
question has the larger reaction.

Step 6. Sum all the scores. Decision Rules may depend on what scoring system is
utilized.

ELEMENTS OF SCORING SYSTEM

1. Reaction Features

The reaction features are raw physiological data that a polygraph examiner
should look into the polygraph chart for numerical interpretation. It can be scored
using the seven position or three position rules. Only reactions on the relevant and
comparison questions are scored during interpretation.

85
 2. Transformations

In transforming physiological data, combine observations of reactions to

relevant and comparison questions into a single value for each component and for
each presentation of each of the target stimuli.

• Red questions (relevant) are compared to Green question (comparison)

• Assign a - score when there is a larger response to a relevant question
• Assign a + score when there is a larger response to a comparison
question

Different scoring systems used different scoring rules in assigning

numerical value to particular reaction features on the relevant and comparison
questions.

3. Decision Rules

Decision rules determine when data meet the criteria for inclusion in a
particular category. Decision rules are the final step in polygraph numerical
scoring, producing decisions of Deception Indicated, No Deception Indicated, and
Inconclusive.

ARTIFACTS

Artifacts such as deep breaths, coughs, movements, and physiological

abnormalities affect the quality of tracings for scoring. If a deep breath occurs shortly
before question onset, the respiration tracing should not be scored. If the deep breath
affects other channels, those channels should not be scored also. If movements distort the
tracing then that tracing should not be scored. Physiological abnormalities such as
premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) also affect the cardiovascular reaction for
scoring. PVCs are contractions of the left ventricle that occur before the left atrium has
contracted and filled the left ventricle, causing very little blood to be pumped into the
aorta. This is followed by a long pause before the next ventricle contraction. During this
pause, the drop in blood pressure produces a distinct downward deflection in the cardio
tracing.

Figure 35
Premature Ventricle
Contraction (PVC)

86
MANUAL SCORING SYSTEMS

I. BACKSTER SCORING SYSTEM

In 1963, Cleve Backster introduced the first numerical scoring system in an

attempt to provide a more standardized basis for numerical interpretation of polygraph
charts. Numerical values ranging from +3 to -3 were assigned each independent
physiological tracing at each relevant question as compared to the comparison question
responses.

Backster Scoring Rules

1. Respiration Tracing

A respiration changes qualified for classification as a reaction tracing trend and

interpreted as possible indications of deception are:

1. A series of sustained suppressed respiration cycles including blocking

or apnea.
2. A series of baseline arousal respiration cycles.
3. A series of ascending suppressed respiration cycles.

A +/-1 is assigned when applying the presence of reaction via deduction rule to
the test question preceding relief or hyperventilation cycles or if there is a presence of
reaction apparent in both relevant and control questions, yet one of which is
noticeably larger or stronger than the other. A +/-2 may be given when there is a distinct
reaction present in either the relevant or control questions. A +/-2 may be upgraded to
+/-3 if the following criteria are met:

1. Respiration cycles forming a reaction, relief or tracing average trend are all in
basic conformity with one another.
2. Zones being compared are free of tracing distortion and much consist of a
minimum three complete and consecutive undistorted cycles forming the
presence of or lack of reaction tracing trend outside of time period when
relevant and control questions are asked and answered.
3. The respiration tracing, overall, of the two zones of influence being compared
much pure and stable.
4. Sufficient magnitude differences between the presence of reaction and zone
compared to the lack of reaction zone must be apparent.
5. Each question zone being compared must embrace between 23 and 32
seconds.
6. Relevant and control questions asked must be answerable by “no”. A
maximum of -2 may be assigned instances where the examinee answers “yes”
to control questions are notably larger and/or stronger. A maximum of a +/-
may be assigned in instances where relevant questions are designed to elicit a
“yes” answer.

87
2. EDA Tracing

The EDA reaction qualified for interpretation as an indication of deception is

limited to psychogalvanic reflex arousal. Height comparisons are made by the drawing of
an imaginary baseline beginning at the commencement of the arousal and terminating at
the apparent completion of recovery.

The ratio differences between the relevant and control questions height responses
are calculated. Ratio differences in evaluating electrodermal responses were established
as 3:1 = +/-1, 4:1 = +/-2 and 5:1 = +/-3.

3. Cardiovascular Activity

The changes qualifying for evaluation in cardio are:

1. Changes in blood pressure (arousal).

2. Changes in pulse amplitude (reductions).
3. Changes in pulse rate.
4. Changes in dicrotic notch position (usually reflecting blood pressure arousal).
5. Changes in overall trend of blood pressure (minor criterion)
6. Changes from a stabilized cyclic blood pressure trend (minor criterion).

A +/-1 may be assigned when applying the presence of reaction via deduction:
rule (relief – in the form of increased pulse amplitude or the appearances of a series of
extarsystoles five seconds past point of answer – when there is no reaction apparent to the
test question). Also, a +/-1 is assigned if there is a change in overall trend of the blood
pressure. A +/-2 may be given when there is a distinct presence of reaction versus a lack
of reaction between the relevant and control questions being compared. Upgrading from a
+/-2 to a +/-3 only if criteria pertaining to the purity and freeness of distortion, proper
question spacing and proper no answers to both relevant and control are met.

Backster Decision Rules

Backster until recently advocated the computation of all numerical scores, and the
subsequent elimination of one of the three scores accumulated at each relevant test
question position. The score to be eliminated would be the score closest to, or equalizing
zero, or the score furthest away from the gross trend of the other scores. This was based
on the theory that, on the average, one tracing out of three being recorded during any one
test is likely to be unproductive, or at least less productive than the other two. For
example, if the one of the relevant questions produced a score of +2 on the EDA, +2 on
the Cardio and +1 on the pneumo. The least productive score on the pneumo will be
eliminated.

All scores are summed up and the cut score is +/-9 for test question with two
relevant questions and two charts collected. A total of +9 or higher, the subject is
considered truthful and -9 or lower, deceptive. Total score between +8 and -8 considered

88
inconclusive. If three or more charts are collected with two relevant questions, the
cutscore should be +/-13 to come up with a conclusive decision of truthful or deception
respectively. Scores between falling between +/-12 shall be inconclusive. If two charts
are collected with three relevant questions, a total score or +13 or higher is the cuts core
to come with truthful decision and -13 for deceptive decision. If three charts are collected
with three relevant questions, a total of +/-20 should be the cut score.

II. FEDERAL SCORING SYSTEM

The Federal Scoring System was developed by expert polygraph examiners of the
Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) now Defense Academy for
Credibility Assessment (DACA). The federal system is the preferred and standardized
system of evaluation used throughout the Federal government. It uses seven position
rules which have a tendency to reduce the number of No Opinion decisions by allowing
an examiner to assign greater values to each recording channel.

Federal Scoring Rules

1. Respiratory Tracing

There are six diagnostic features used in evaluation of the respiration channel.
Five of these features involve some form of suppression or slowing of the respiratory
rate. The features are: apnea-blocking (suppression); decrease in amplitude (suppression);
progressive decrease in amplitude

 Apnea-blocking (suppression)
 Decrease in amplitude (suppression)
 Progressive decrease in amplitude (suppression)
 Decrease in rate (suppression)
 Inhalation/Exhalation (I/E) ratio change (suppression)
 Temporary increase in baseline

Figure 36 Figure 37
Apnea-Blocking Decrease in Amplitude
89
 Figure 38 Figure 39
Progressive Decrease in Decrease in Rate
Amplitude

Figure 40 Figure 41
Change in I/E Ratio Temporary Increase in
Baseline
Homeostasis Considerations

The examinee should present a respiration waveform before the stimulus onset
that is in homeostasis. If homeostasis does not exist at stimulus onset, the applicable spot
should not be used for evaluation.

Apnea is the temporary cessation of the respiratory cycle. Some forms of apnea
are considered diagnostic of deception while others are not. If the temporary cessation of
breathing (apnea) occurs at or toward the very end of the expiration cycle, it is defined as
blocking and is diagnostic of deception. When apnea occurs at the top of the inspiration
cycle, it is not considered diagnostic but is more likely behavioral in origin. Apnea is
considered the ultimate manifestation of respiratory suppression.

90
 Rate changes are exhibited in the form of a decrease in cyclic rate relative to an
examinee’s homeostasis. This change may also take the form of a change in the
inhalation/exhalation (I&E) ratio where there is a more protracted exhalation cycle than
what occurs during homeostasis. Assessing rate changes involves a three-way
comparison between what transpired at the relevant question, comparison question(s),
and over the course of data collection. This is sometimes referred to as the
waveform/tracing average.

Amplitude Changes may be exhibited in the following forms: (1) decrease in

amplitude (suppression) or (2) progressive decrease in amplitude (suppression). The
waveform/tracing average is defined as the average respiratory amplitude for a given
chart.

Another consideration is the Respiration Line Length (RLL), a linear

measurement of a waveform over a specified period of time. It is the primary diagnostic
measure used in evaluation of the respiration waveform. DoDPI adopted the RLL concept
with some modifications to the manner in which five of the six diagnostic features
applicable to evaluation of the respiration waveform invoke the RLL evaluation
methodology. The five diagnostic features pertaining to RLL are as follows: (1) apnea—
blocking (suppression), (2) decrease in amplitude (suppression), (3) progressive decrease
in amplitude (suppression), (4) decrease in cyclic rate, and (5) inhalation/exhalation (I/E)
ratio change. There are provisions to evaluate the respiration channel when none of the
RLL diagnostic features are present at either the relevant question analysis spot or
applicable comparison question(s). This is where signature recognition and pattern
matching become important.

Use the RLL evaluation method when an analysis spot or the applicable
comparison question exhibits any form of suppression (e.g., decrease in amplitude or
apnea-blocking) or decrease in cyclic rate relative to homeostasis.

When any of the RLL features present at the relevant question analysis spot. RLL
applies irrespective of whether the applicable comparison questions have a RLL feature
or not.

If an RLL feature appears at either applicable comparison questions, use the RLL
method irrespective of whether the applicable relevant question analysis spot has an RLL
feature or not.

If RLL features are present at two of the applicable comparison questions,

determine which comparison question has the more significant RLL response duration.
The question with the most significant degree of response duration will be used for
comparison against the relevant question in that analysis spot. If the relevant question and
comparison question in an analysis each have an RLL feature, determine which has the
most significant response duration. The question exhibiting the most significant response
duration shall serve as the default time window. That default time window is measured

91
from response onset to response end. The default time window, once determined, defines
or becomes what is called the window-of-evaluation.

If a relevant question spot has 10 seconds of response apnea-blocking and the

applicable comparison question has six seconds of decrease in amplitude (suppression),
the relevant question spot defines the default time window and that 10-second period
serves as the window-of-evaluation for the relevant and comparison question.

Recognize that even though both windows of evaluation contain 10 seconds of

data, one window will contain a waveform comprising only response while the other may
contain response, recovery, and perhaps some respiratory cycles reflective of
homeostasis.

During the comparative process, the data within each of the respective windows
of evaluation is visually transposed to a linear line length. From the example, the
respiration waveform depicted in Figure 42 is reduced to the line length depicted on the
right (Figure 43) for evaluation purposes.

Figure 42 Figure 43
Respiration Waveform Transposed Waveform

The shorter line length, be it at the relevant or comparison question, signifies the
more intense or significant response and therefore is assigned the value. The comparative
question tracing having the shorter line length is assigned a value of either minus one (-1)
or plus one (+1). If the line lengths are similar or no appreciable difference exists
between them, assign a value of zero.

In the sample (Figure 44), RLL applies because the comparison question (on the
left) displays one of the five RLL features—apnea-blocking. The relevant question
response on the right depicts another RLL feature – progressive decrease in amplitude.
The comparison question response is 10 seconds in duration, while the relevant question
response is 15 seconds in duration. Since the relevant question has 15 seconds of
response duration, it establishes the default window of evaluation. When employing RLL
evaluation procedures, both comparative responses must have equivalent windows of
evaluation. Accordingly, during the evaluation process, both comparative responses must
include 15 seconds of data (arrows represent equivalent windows of evaluation). As such,
one of the comparative responses may include recovery or homeostasis data within its
equivalent window of evaluation. In the analysis process, the comparison question is
assigned a value of plus one (+1). The comparison question line length within the 15

92
second window-of-evaluation is shorter (even though it includes a recovery cycle) than
the line length within the 15 second relevant question window.

C R

10 seconds 15 seconds is the default window time

Figure 44
Sample Evaluation with RLL

In Figure 45, RLL applies because the one of the comparative questions displays
an RLL feature. The relevant question has a progressive decrease in amplitude
response. The comparison question has a non-RLL response, temporary increase in
baseline. Since the analysis spot has a non-RLL feature and an RLL feature, the relevant
question would get a value of minus 1 (-1) since it is an RLL feature.

C R
Figure 45
Sample Evaluation with RLL

93
 The one non-RLL feature that research indicates is diagnostic in detection of
deception is temporary increase in baseline.

In the Figure 46, both responses exhibit a temporary increase in baseline, which is
a non-RLL response. The relevant question is much more significant in response and
duration than the comparison question response. During the analysis, the relevant
question would be assigned a value of minus one (-1).

C R
Figure 46
Sample Evaluation Non-RLL

In the final respiratory example (Figure 47), RLL does not apply. In the
comparison question, there is no response as the respiratory tracing remains in
homeostasis. During presentation of the relevant question, there is a temporary increase
in baseline response which is a non-RLL response. During the evaluation process, since
there was no response in the comparison question, a value of minus one (-1) would be
assigned for the relevant question response.

C R
Figure 47
Sample Evaluation
94 Non-RLL
 Under the seven-position scale, any of the following values may be assigned to a
respiration analysis spot: - 3, - 2, -1, 0, + 1, + 2, + 3. While values greater than a plus one
(i.e., +2 or +3) or less than a minus one (i.e., –2 or –3) may be justified, they are seldom
used. While a plus or minus two (+/-2) is occasionally utilized, a plus or minus three (+/-
3) is very rarely used.

There are three descriptive words that correlate to the values assigned to
evaluation of the respiration waveform. They are subtle, obvious, and dramatic. The
ability to discriminate between what is obvious from what is dramatic is a subjective and
often difficult enterprise. Notwithstanding the subjectivity in assigning values utilizing
the seven-position scale, values must be uniformly applied and consistent with the
applicable testing protocol. If the difference between one of the comparative spots is
subtly more significant, assign a value of plus one or minus one (+/- 1). If the difference
between one of the comparative spots is obviously more significant, a value of plus or
minus two (+/- 2) is justified. If the difference between one of the comparative spots is
dramatically more significant, a value of plus or minus three (+/-3) is justified.

It is virtually impossible to identify all instances where values higher than plus
one or lower than minus one may be warranted. However, consider the points below as a
general guideline in helping you to determine whether values other than plus or minus
one are warranted.

When comparing two similar responses (i.e., apnea-blocking), and one response
has twice as much response duration as the other, a value greater than plus one or less
than minus one is justified because the difference is at least obvious .When comparing a
comparative question that is devoid of response against a comparative question consisting
of 15 seconds of response, a value greater than plus one or less than minus one is justified
because the difference is at least obvious, if not dramatic. This is particularly so if the
examinee’s respiration response stereotypy is approximately five seconds in duration.

When comparing one question that is devoid of response against one question that
has several diagnostic features (irrespective of whether RLL is applicable), a value
greater than plus one or less than minus one is justified because the difference is at least
obvious.

When comparing two dissimilar responses (i.e., decrease in rate for two cycles
versus decrease in amplitude lasting for five or more cycles), where one response is at
least twice as significant in terms of response duration, a value greater than plus or minus
one may be justified.

95
EDA Tracing

There are three diagnostic features used in the evaluation of the EDA channel.
Two of these features are secondary features that are only considered in certain instances.
The features are:

 Amplitude (primary)
 Complex Response (secondary)
 Duration (secondary)

Figure 48 Figure 49
Amplitude Complexity

Amplitude (primary feature) waveform is measured from response onset to the

highest peak of a response, irrespective of whether the response is a simple or complex
response. It is the primary consideration in assigning numerical value. Remember, an
amplitude increase from homeostasis is a result of sweat rising from the gland up through
the duct and out through the duct pore on to the surface of the skin.

An ED response is represented graphically as an increase in amplitude, regardless

of whether it represents an increase in conductance or a decrease in resistance. An
amplitude change may be displayed as a simple or complex response.

An ED complex response is differentiated from a simple response in that a

complex response has multiple peaks. A response is considered complex when there is
some observable recovery that falls short of the pre-stimulus tonic level with subsequent
physiological arousal.

If the trough, between multiple peaks, returns to or below the pre-stimulus tonic
level, the response is not considered a complex response. In Figure 50, the responses are
not complex, even though they have multiple peaks, because the trough fell slightly
below the pre-stimulus tonic level in the example on the left, and it returned to the pre-
stimulus level in the example on the right.

96
 Figure 50
Trough Depiction

Response complexity, in part, is due to the competition that occurs between sweat
rising from the eccrine sweat gland through the duct on its way to the sweat pore and
active re-absorption where the sweat is being returned to its homeostatic state that is
empty. Environmental conditions and other factors affect response latency, response
magnitude and other components or attributes of response complexity.

Figure 51
Duration
The ED response duration is the time period between response onset and return to
the pre-stimulus tonic level or establishment of a new baseline. Generally, ED response
duration is highly correlated with amplitude.

Electrodermal response duration is attributable to the continuation of sweat

production or the time period between the initiations of sweat rising from the sweat gland
up the duct to its eventual return to the pre-stimulus tonic level. During a complex
response, the return to the pre-stimulus tonic level is interrupted by subsequent rise of
sweat in the duct.

Homeostasis Consideration

Homeostasis should exist prior to stimulus onset. If homeostasis does not exist at
stimulus onset, the ED waveform may generally be evaluated if any of the conditions
listed below exist. When employing one of the exceptions to homeostasis, the paramount
consideration is whether the response you anticipate evaluating is a by-product of the
activity that preceded stimulus onset or more likely a result of stimulus presentation. A
standard of reasonableness should drive your decision. If you have no confidence that the
response of interest is relatively free from influence of other activity, assigning a value of
Ø (zero with a line through it) to the respective analysis spot is appropriate.

97
Homeostasis Exceptions

1. The waveform returns to the pre-stimulus baseline with subsequent response

occurring within the response onset window. Note that the presentation of the
stimulus occurred on the rise side of the non-specific response.

Figure 52
Homeostasis Exception No.1

2. The waveform establishes a new tonic level with subsequent response occurring
within the response onset window.

Generally, there is no set period of time that the ED waveform must be

stable before deeming it to have established a new tonic level. However, the
longer the stabilization of the waveform, the greater confidence the evaluator will
have in the authenticity of the response of interest. For example, the waveform
depicted on the left in Figure 53, would not be used for evaluation because there
is no waveform stabilization separating the two peaks. However, the waveform to
the right may be used for evaluation because arguably a new tonic level was
established. Moreover, the evaluator can be reasonably more confident that the
response on the right was, more likely than not, a result of the stimulus’ content
and the examinee’s answer to the stimulus, whereas such confidence is not
possible given the response on the left. Note that the stimulus, in each case, was
presented on the rise side of the non-specific response.

Figure 53
Homeostasis Exception No. 2

98
 3. During recovery from a non-specific response, the stimulus was presented
resulting in a subsequent but distinct response that occurs within the response
onset window. In Figure 54, note that the recovery side of the non specific
response falls short of the baseline before a secondary response occurs.

Figure 54
Homeostasis Exception No.3

To assist in assigning a weighted value defers to the standard unit of

measurement—a vertical chart division set at a one-quarter grid setting. A ratio method
was devised to assist is evaluating the ED waveform, particularly in assigning values
other than zero and plus or minus one.

When using the ratio method, first determine the ratio between comparative
responses. To determine the ratio for appropriate responses, the smaller response is
divided into the larger response (i. e., six chart divisions divided by two chart divisions
would be a ratio of 3:1) and then assign a value based on the following:

 If the ratio is less than 2:1, defer to the “bigger-is-better” principle.

 If the ratio is at least 2:1, but less than 3:1, assign a plus or minus one.
 If the ratio is at least 3:1, but less than 4:1, assign a plus or minus two.
 If the ratio is at least 4:1, or greater, assign a plus or minus three.

Bigger-is-Better Principle

When the ratio between comparative responses is less than 2:1, the response with
the more significant amplitude will receive the value using the Bigger-is-Better Principle.
When the bigger-is-better principle is applicable, it may not result in assignment of any
value other than a plus or minus one.

Any visually perceptible amplitude difference between comparative responses is

sufficient to award a value. Generally, if any type of measuring device is needed to

99
discern which comparative amplitude response is greater, assign a zero to the analysis
spot.

When duration is the only discriminator between two similar comparative

responses, evaluation rules permit assignment of a value of plus or minus one only.

Dissimilar Responses

The following decision rules apply to evaluation of dissimilar comparative

responses:

a. Response amplitude is the primary criterion or diagnostic feature used in

evaluating dissimilar ED responses.
b. Duration is not an evaluation consideration when comparing dissimilar ED
responses.
c. Response complexity is not a decision factor once the amplitude ratio between
comparative responses reaches a 2:1 ratio. Response complexity will not be
assigned values higher than plus one or lower than minus one.

Something-Versus-Nothing Principle

When comparing one question containing any type of diagnostic response to

another question that is devoid of response, the something-versus nothing principle holds.

When applying the something-versus-nothing principle, defer to vertical chart

divisions as a standard unit of measurement to assist in assigning a value. By utilizing
this procedure, an examiner can always be consistent in assigning values. It’s important
to remember that all guidance in this pamphlet assumes vertical chart divisions are set at
a quarter inch grid setting. If any other grid setting is used, modify the following
guidance as appropriate.

If one comparative spot is devoid of response and the other comparative spot has
a response that measures less than two chart divisions, assign a value of plus or minus
one. If one comparative spot is devoid of response and the other comparative spot has a
response that measures at least two but less than three chart divisions, assign a value of
plus or minus two.

If one comparative spot is devoid of response and the other comparative spot has
a response that measures at least three chart divisions, assign a value of plus or minus
three.

If a response appears to be an anomaly for that channel or waveform, a lesser

value than would otherwise be justified, under the something-versus-nothing principle,
can be assigned to an analysis spot. This conservative approach to evaluation of an
analysis spot must be uniformly applied and exercised in only the most unique
circumstances.

100
Cardiovascular (CV) Tracing

There are two diagnostic features used to evaluate CV physiological data. One of
these is a primary feature and the other is a secondary diagnostic feature. A representative
signature of each feature will be shown. Traditionally, whether viewing a polygraph
computer screen or a printed chart, the fourth waveform from the top is representative of
the examinee’s CV activity.

CV Baseline Arousal (Primary Feature)

In numerical analysis, CV baseline changes typically present themselves in the

form of phasic responses. Phasic baseline changes occur as a short-term change in
physiological activity following question presentation that has a relatively rapid onset and
may return to the pre-stimulus baseline or establish a new baseline within a period
characteristic of the response system. In Figure F.27 (pg 36), the fact that one phasic
response returned to the pre-stimulus baseline and the other response resulted in
establishment of a new baseline is insignificant in determining the degree or amount of
baseline arousal.

Polygraph examiners believe that CV baseline arousal is governed by increases in

blood volume changes that occur at the respective monitoring site (Weinstein, 1994).
According to Abrams (1989), changes in baseline arousal are likely the result of a
combination of blood volume and pressure changes.

The baseline arousal is associated with sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

activation and is the type of response one would typically predict of an examinee who
was experiencing the fight, flight, freeze (F3) phenomenon.

CV amplitude refers to the measurement of height of the actual systolic and

diastolic segments of the cardiac cycle (increase or decrease in size of CV tracing). Some
research PDD literature use the term amplitude and baseline arousal interchangeably.

Figure 55
Amplitude

101
CV Duration

CV duration is the amount of time that elapses from response onset up to when
the response returns to the pre-stimulus tonic level or establishes a new tonic level.

Figure 56
Duration
Homeostasis Considerations

The homeostasis should exist prior to stimulus onset. If homeostasis does not
exist at stimulus onset, the CV waveform may generally be evaluated if any of the
conditions listed below exist. When employing one of the exceptions to homeostasis, the
paramount consideration is whether the response you anticipate evaluating is a
consequence of the activity that preceded stimulus onset or is attributable to stimulus
onset. A standard of reasonableness should drive your decision. If you have no
confidence that the response of interest is relatively free from influence of other activity
assigning a value of Ø (zero with a line through it) to an analysis spot is appropriate.

Homeostasis Exceptions

1. The waveform returns to the pre-stimulus baseline with subsequent response

occurring within the response onset window.
2. The waveform establishes a new tonic level with subsequent response within the
response onset window.
3. During recovery from a non-specific response, the stimulus is applied resulting in
a subsequent but distinct response that occurs within the response onset window.
Apply this last exception judiciously as several factors will dictate whether the
response of interest is of diagnostic value.

The primary diagnostic feature or criterion used in evaluation of the CV

waveform is the degree of baseline arousal (phasic response) one comparative response
has in relation to another.

Assign the value to the comparative response that has the most significant
increase in baseline arousal. Any visual degree of increase in baseline arousal may be
awarded the value. Baseline arousal is typically determined by looking at the diastolic
portion or points found on the underside of the waveform curve (Podlesny et al, 1999).

102
 If there is no visually discernible difference in the degree of baseline arousal
between comparative responses and the secondary feature of duration is not a
consideration, assign a value of zero (0) to the analysis spot.

If a comparative response displays phasic arousal and the other comparative

response has visually more but less than twice as much arousal, assign a value of plus or
minus one.

If a comparative response displays phasic arousal and the other comparative

response has twice, but less than three times as much arousal, a value of plus or minus
two is justified.

If a comparative response displays phasic arousal and the other comparative

response has three or more times the arousal, a value of plus or minus three is justified.

Values more significant than plus or minus one are not assigned when comparing
CV responses that are differentiated by less than the equivalent of one standard chart
division (i.e., one quarter inch or six millimeters in height). In other words, do not
consider a situation where one CV comparative response has two millimeters of baseline
arousal and another response has four millimeters of baseline arousal as warranting
assignment of a plus two given one response is twice as significant as the other.

Any visually perceptible baseline arousal difference between comparative

responses is sufficient to award a value. If any type of measuring device is needed to
discern which comparative response is greater, assign a zero to the analysis spot. The
secondary CV feature of duration may be assigned a value of plus or minus one only.
Something-Versus-Nothing Principle

When comparing one question containing any type of diagnostic response to

another question that is devoid of response, the something-versus nothing principle
applies.

When applying the something-versus-nothing principle, defer to vertical chart

divisions as a standard unit of measurement to assign a value. If one comparative spot is
devoid of response and the other comparative spot has a phasic response that measures
less than two chart divisions, assign a value of plus or minus one.

If one comparative spot is devoid of response and the other comparative spot has
a phasic response that measures at least two but less than three chart divisions, assign a
value of plus or minus two.

If one comparative spot is devoid of response and the other comparative spot has
a phasic response that measures at least three chart divisions, assign a value of plus or
minus three.

103
 If a response appears to be an anomaly for that channel or waveform, a lesser
value than would otherwise be justified under the something-versus-nothing principle can
be assigned to an analysis spot. This conservative approach to evaluation of an analysis
spot must be uniformly applied and exercised in only the most unique circumstances.

Decision Rules

The three ZCT decision outcomes that can be rendered are NDI, DI and NO. The
ZCT decision rules are predicated on vertical and horizontal spot analysis totals. For a No
Deception Indicated (NDI) opinion, there must be a plus (+) in the each overall vertical
spot with a horizontal grand total of plus six (+6) or greater. For a Deception Indicated
(DI) opinion, there must be either a minus three (-3) at any overall vertical spot or a
horizontal grand total of minus six (-6) or less. Any numerical score not meeting the
threshold for a DI or NDI decision shall be deemed No Opinion.

III. UTAH SCORING SYSTEM

The Utah scoring system was developed by the University of Utah headed by Dr.
David C. Raskin. Dr. Raskin and his colleagues refined the Utah scoring system and the
Utah ZCT. The development of the Utah scoring was preceded by numerical scoring
introduced by Cleve Backster and the U.S. Army.

Raskin, et. al., stated that the reliability of Utah Scoring System has been
evaluated in several laboratory experiments. On average, the reliability of the Utah
system exceeded 90%. The validity of Utah system has been established also, excluding
inconclusive outcomes, the overall percentage of correct decision was 91 percent for
deceptive subjects and was 89 percent for truthful subjects. The results of field studies are
also consistent with those of laboratory studies. In one field study, two evaluators
independently evaluated the polygraph charts using the Utah system. Their decisions
were 100% correct for both deceptive and truthful suspects. In another study, decisions
were 92% correct for guilty suspects and 100% correct for innocent suspects.

The Utah system uses 7 position scoring rules that range from +3 to -3. The
reaction on the relevant question is compared to the adjacent comparison question.
However, if the relevant question was presented between comparisons, the relevant
question is compared to the comparison which produces stronger reaction. The relevant
and comparison are scored channel by channel: pneumos (thoracic and abdomen), EDA,
cardio and vasomotor (finger pulse amplitude. Positive score is assigned when the
reaction on the comparison question was greater than the relevant. Negative score is
assigned when the reaction on the reaction are greater than the reaction on the
comparison. A zero is assigned when the reactions on the relevant and comparison
questions are not noticeably different. A score of 1 is assigned when there is a noticeable
difference between the reactions on the relevant and comparison questions. A strong and
clear difference between the reactions is assigned a score of 2. A score of 3 is assigned

104
only when there is a dramatic difference between the reactions on the relevant and
comparison questions.

Utah Scoring windows

The responses for all channels are not scored unless it begins after a question
onset. Respiratory and cardiograph reactions may be scored if they begin immediately
after question onset. The electrodermal reactions are scored only if they begin at least .05
seconds after question onset. Finger pulse tracing reactions are scored only if they begin
2 seconds after question onset.

The reactions for all physiological activity must begin no later than 5 seconds
after the subject’s answers otherwise, they are not scored. The duration of reactions that
begin with a scoring windows are may be scored to a duration of 15 to 20 seconds
following question onset because people hold concentration on the stimulus during this
period only.

Utah Scoring Rules

1. Respiration Tracing

The respiration is of less consideration in the interpretation of reaction. The

examiner should first determine whether the data is suitable for scoring. In general,
reaction to a question is indicated by suppressed respiratory activity. “The greater the
suppression, the stronger the reaction.” Suppression is indicated by a reduction in the
amplitude of at least two successive respiration cycles following question onset and brief
periods of apnea (cessation of breathing). A rise in respiration baseline, as indicated by a
rise in the bottoms of at least two respiration cycles, is another consideration. An increase
in cycle time (slowing of rate) is also a criterion for scoring reaction but is less heavily
weighted than changes in amplitude, apnea and baseline arousal. Increases in respiratory
activity such as increased amplitude, speeding of respiration and drops in respiration are
not indications of a reaction and are not criteria for scoring. The following are the
features of respiratory tracing:

 Apnea (Primary)
 Suppression (primary)
 Baseline Arousal (primary)
 Slowing of Rate (secondary)

105
 Figure 57 Figure 58
Apnea Suppression

Figure 59 Figure 60
Baseline Arousal Slowing of Rate

A single numerical score is assigned on the respiration tracing although it consist

of two channels (thoracic and abdominal respiration). Respiration is evaluated for
changes which may occur immediately after each stimulus. A 0 is assigned when there is
no significant difference between relevant and control responses. A +/-1 represents a
small but definitely noticeable difference, a +/-2 represents a strong and clear difference
while +/-3 is assigned only if there is a very strong, very distinct and very stable
difference between the control and relevant questions. However, a +/-3 is seldom
assigned considering the respiration is of less consideration in scoring.

2. Electrodermal Tracing

The scores for electrodermal tracing are based on changes in peak amplitude.
Amplitude is measured from the pre-stimulus baseline to the highest peak achieved
within the scoring window. The ratio of the relevant and comparison question is
calculated. A score of +/-1 is assigned if the relative strength is twice as large, a score of
+/-2 is assigned if the relative strength is three times as large and a score of +/-3 is
assigned if the relative strength is four times as large.

106
 Table 10
Ratio
Ratio Score
4:1 +3/-3
3:1 +2/-2
2:1 +1/-1
1:1 0

The second considerations are the duration and complexity. The reactions that
have clearly longer duration and complexity may increase 0 to +/-1 to +/-2. If the
amplitude ratios are at least 1.5:1 with complexity over no complexity or increased
duration of time, this allows an increase of a score of 0 to +/-1. A ration of 2.5:1 may
increase a score +/-1 to +/-2 following the same rules regarding increase complexity or
duration.

 Amplitude (phasic rise – primary)

 Duration (secondary)
 Complexity (secondary)

Figure 61 Figure 62
Amplitude Duration

Figure 63
Complexity

107
3. Cardiograph Tracing

For the cardiograph tracing, the score is based primarily on largest rise in the
baseline that occurs within the scoring windows. Measurements of baseline increases are
made on the diastolic side of the waveform because the diastolic points show greater
change than the systolic points and are easier to see. Another consideration is the duration
of response from the stimulus onset. The overall increase in blood pressure is scored as
follows:

0 = no noticeable difference
+/-1 = small but definitely noticeable difference
+/-2 = strong and clear difference
+/-3 = very strong, very distinct and very stable difference

A +/-3, as with the respiration tracing, is assigned infrequently.

 Amplitude (Primary)
 Duration (Secondary)

Figure 64 Figure 65
Amplitude Duration

4. Finger Plethysmograph Tracing

The vasomotor activity is measured from photoplethysmograph attached on the

fingertip of the subject. Constriction of blood vessels in the finger produces a reduction in
the amplitude of finger pulses. Numerical scores are based on the duration and magnitude
of reductions in finger pulse amplitude. Responses of longer duration and/or magnitude
are assigned larger numerical scores. A score of 1 or 2 may be assigned to this tracing
when there is little or no difference in the reduction of amplitude but there is a clear
difference in the duration of the reactions.

Figure 66
Finger Pulse Amplitude
Reduction

108
Utah Decision Rules

In single issue diagnostic exam, the subject should be either deceptive or truthful
only in all relevant questions. A score for all relevant questions are summed up. The
subject is reported truthful if the total score is +6 or higher and deceptive if the total is -6
or lower. If the total is between -6 and +6, the result is inconclusive.

In mixed-issue polygraph examination or multi-facet diagnostic exam, the subject

can be truthful to some relevant questions and deceptive to others. In this case, a separate
total is obtained for each relevant question. When the total score for a single relevant is
+3 or higher, the subject is reported truthful to that relevant question and if -3 or lower,
the subject is reported deceptive to that question. When the total is between +3 and -3, the
outcome is considered inconclusive. However, if the total score for all relevant questions
is +6 and the total for each relevant question is all positive, the subject is considered
truthful to all relevant questions. If the total for all relevant questions is -6 and the total
for each relevant question goes to the same direction, all negative, the subject is reported
deceptive.

IV. EMPIRICAL SCORING SYSTEM (ESS)

The empirical scoring system was described by Raymond Nelson, Donald

Krapohl and Mark Handler in 2008, a proposed hand scoring system for comparison
question polygraph examinations. ESS appear to be capable of blind scoring polygraph
examination data with decision accuracy, inconclusive and interrater reliability rates that
are equivalent to those of experienced scorers using more complex data analysis methods.

Numerical scores are assigned using the three position scale. Reactions of equal
magnitude result in a score of zero while a visibly discernable difference in the
magnitudes of the reactions being compared result in a score of plus or minus one, thus
the rule “bigger is better”. Ignoring the ratio of magnitude of the difference between two
reactions reduces the subjectivity involved in trying to ascertain if a given reaction is
“dramatic” enough, and therefore deserving a score of a plus or minus two or three. The
Empirical Scoring System, unlike the traditional 3-position scoring system, is designed to
capitalize on the discriminating power of the EDA data over the other components. To do
so, the EDA score is weighted more heavily than the other components. The weighting is
achieved by assigning a score of a zero or a plus or minus two rather than a zero or a plus
or minus one. The EDA contributes 50% of the score.

Scoring Rules

Assign a values of +, - or) using the 3 position scale and the bigger is better
principle.

 Score each relevant question to the stronger of bracketing comparison questions

for each component sensor.

109
  Do not be concerned about traditional scoring ratios.
 If you can visually (without mathematical or automated measurement0 determine
that one segment is larger than other, then you can assign a point.

Physiological Features

1. Respiratory Suppression

 Decrease in respiration amplitude for three respiratory cycles beginning

after the stimulation onset.
 Decrease in respiration rate (slowing) fro three respiratory cycles
beginning after the stimulus onset.
 Temporary increase in respiratory baseline for three respiratory cycles
beginning after stimulus onset.

2. Electrodermal Amplitude of Increase

3. Cardiograph Amplitude of Increase (measured at the diastolic baseline)

Interpretation Rules

1. Score only timely reactions.

 Do not be concerned about traditional scoring periods.

 Do not score reactions that begin before the stimulus.
 Do not score reactions that begin long (several seconds) after the stimulus.

2. Score only normal interpretable data.

 Do not attempt to score the data that are affected by movements or

artifacts.
 Do not attempt to score messy or unstable segments of data.
 Do not attempt to score data of unusual response quality (dampened or
exaggerated)

3. Double all EDA scores to +/-2. (All electrodermal response scores were +/-2
regardless of the difference in response magnitude for relevant and comparison
questions.

Decision Rules

ESS uses the Two-Stage Scoring Rules. Two-stage involves evaluating scores
assigned to individual question pairs (spots) in addition to total cutoffs with the aim of
producing more accurate and less inconclusive results.

110
 Cutscores:

 Total Score >= +2 (ignore spots) = Truthful Decision (NSR/NDI)

 Total Score<= -4 = Deceptive Decision (SR/DI)

 If INC, then any spot <= -7 = Deceptive Decision (SR/DI)

Limitation of ESS

The limitation of ESS in the present study is that it applies only to Zone
Comparison Tests using three investigation targets that described a single known incident
(single-issue diagnostic exam). Also it is limited only in the interpretation of three charts
collected and three primary systems such as: respiration, EDA and cardiovascular
activity.

COMPUTER SCORING ALGORITHM

The computer scoring algorithm is a built scoring system on computerized

instruments. It allows the examiner to evaluate the physiological reactions of the subject
and obtain a result by just a few clicks on the computer. It serves as guide of the
examiner in decision making of whether the subject is truthful or deceptive. However, in
case of conflict between the results of computer algorithm and examiner’s opinion, the
decision of the examiner shall prevail.

Present research suggests that even though the computer algorithm measures
accurately the physiological reactions, still it does not outperform human interpretation
conducted by a highly trained and experienced examiner. Another reason is that it is good
only in blind scoring or evaluation because it does not recognize artifacts or subject’s
movements which may affect the accuracy of results during evaluation.

111
 CHAPTER 11
POLYGRAPH COUNTERMEASURES

Many polygraph critics contend that the result of polygraph examination can be
altered using countermeasures especially when the subject obtained a training of doing
so. This chapter presents the different classes of countermeasures as described by Donald
J. Krapohl.

Countermeasure defined

Countermeasure is a method used to mislead an observer. In polygraph research it

has been labeled either an attempt to create a false negative outcome, or a method to
interfere with a correct polygraph outcome. Polygraph countermeasures have been found
to be effective when an examinee receives special training. However, spontaneous
attempts are crude and ineffective.

Classes of Countermeasures

1. Physical Countermeasure

From the name itself, any method that involves muscular movement as its central
feature in altering polygraph results can be considered a physical countermeasure.
Purposeful movements are prima facie evidence of deception, and therefore it could be
the physical countermeasure itself that reveals the subject’s guilt. Random movements,
even if concealed, may alert the polygraph examiner who observes a typical responses or
significant shifts in baseline patterns on the strip charts.

The Physical countermeasures are generally dismissed by practicing polygraph

examiners as being crude, ineffective or easy to detect. Honts et al. found that
spontaneous physical countermeasures did not significantly increase the likelihood of a
false negative (incorrect truthful) outcome in mock crime paradigms. Even familiarity
with the polygraph instrument and the Control Question Technique (CQT) did not enable
them to defeat the test. When Honts added expert countermeasures training and practice
to the mix, however, it had a devastating effect on detection accuracy. The combined
factors drove detection rates to change probabilities. These findings argue for more
respect for physical countermeasures, especially in the testing of populations where
sophisticated training is available.

At present with the aid of state of the art instruments, it has offered a method for
the detection of concealed muscular movements. Movement detectors are available to
reveal the shifting of body weight that accompanies certain types of countermeasures. For
example, if a subject presses down with feet or arms, sensors in the test chair can detect
the relative changes in the weight supported by each leg of the chair.

112
2. Pharmacological/Chemical Countermeasures

This type of countermeasure is being done with the use of drugs which can
heighten or dampen physiological arousal. For guilty knowledge tests, drugs would
appear to be a significant problem. In those formats equal responding to all the test items
results in a decision of truthfulness, and drugs can reduce responses equally to zero to
some dosages.

For Comparison Question Test (CQT) which relies on differential responding to

two types of questions such as relevant and control, drugs is not a problem. Equal
responses to both types of questions during an examination would render an inconclusive
outcome, versus a decision of truthfulness. If a drug could be shown to have separate
effects for relevant and control questions, the CQT would be clearly vulnerable but to
date no drug has been identified with this ability.

3. Behavioral Countermeasures

This class of countermeasure is one for which there is a total absence of research.
This may be because behavioral countermeasure is not a question in psychophysiology
but rather in social psychology. The principle function of behavioral countermeasure is to
convince the examiner that the subject is not deceptive irrespective of reactions on the
charts. Another function is to affect the conduct of the examination so that the data will
be inadequate to render a decision.

4. Mental Countermeasures

Mental countermeasures are those that draw upon psychological manipulations

exclusively in order to alter or mediate the physiological responses concomitant to
deception. Some mental countermeasures require considerable practice while others can
be performed without training or rehearsal.

Two Mental Countermeasure Approaches

a. Preparatory Countermeasures – entails those that take place before a

polygraph session with the aim of influencing the subject’s mental state or
arousal level during the examination.
b. Spontaneous Countermeasures – are those that can be performed without
rehearsal or training in advance.

Types of Mental Countermeasures

a. Imagery

Imagery is considered a preparatory mental countermeasure which is done by

envisioning exciting images in the mind’s eye can evoke physiological arousal.
Usually it is accomplished by creating or recollecting an image of something very
disturbing or thrilling, and sensing the bodily changes it induces.
113
 Studies found that imagery is an ineffective approach for most subjects. Flat
tracings or erratic recordings do not result in outcomes of truthfulness with the CQT.
The tactical use of imagery to only relevant or control questions may be useful. Since
most polygraph sessions renders three to seven charts with several relevant and
controls on each chart, however, visualizations can mitigate the emotive power of the
test questions over the entire course of the session.

b. Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a technique of altering a state of consciousness that make one

very susceptible to suggestion.

One of the earlier tests of hypnosis as a countermeasure was conducted by

Germann (1961). In his study, 7 of 15 guilty subjects obtained inconclusive results
after having amnesia hypnotically induced. In a similar study, Weisntein, Abrams,
and Gibbons (1970) also recorded inconclusive results for their three guilty subjects
who had received hypnotic suggestions of amnesia for their participation in a mock
crime. Using a guilty knowledge test (GKT), a study by Corcoran, Lewis, and Garver
(1978) found that hypnosis significantly reduced arousability and the ability to detect
concealed information.

c. Biofeedback

Biofeedback is the use of a device to measure and convey physiological

information back to a subject. The feedback can serve as a reinforced to teach
subjects to regulate a variety of physiological functions. Since biofeedback requires
training, it is said to a preparatory countermeasure.

There are two different courses in biofeedback training to manipulate

physiological activity. It can regulate phasic (response) activity or tonic (baseline
level) activity. The first concentrates on the responses, while the second focuses on
the “noise” or background. Effectiveness against the polygraph may depend which of
the two methods the subject selects.

Lykken (1960) taught his subjects to generate responses (phasic) to noncritical

items on a GKT, and found that this countermeasure was ineffective.

A study by Corcoran, Lewis, and Garver (1978) found that biofeedback-

conditioned generalized suppression of electrodermal activity (tonic) significantly
reduced detectability with the GKT.

d. Placebos

The word placebo is Latin for “I shall be acceptable.” The term is most
frequently associated with the sugar pill or similar ineffectual devices used by the

114
medical community to induce patients to believe they are being treated, when in fact
the treatment’s effectiveness lies solely in the suggestion of effectiveness.

Placebos in polygraph setting exist when a subject uses an object or procedure

that he believes to be effective against the polygraph, and consequently alters his own
psychophysiological responses with the belief.

Reid and Inbau (1979) reported a case of a police officer who placed bullets
under the blood pressure cuff and pneumograph tube in the mistaken notion that it
would diminish the discerning power of the polygraph. In that case the officer’s test
recordings was unresponsive, an example of what may have been a placebo effect.
Fortunately, the officer had been observed by the examiner placing the bullets, and so
the motives had been obvious.

e. Desensitization

Desensitization is the process by which subjects are trained to become

familiar with stimuli over time so that the stimuli no longer evoke strong
emotional responses. In the polygraph application, reducing the fear of detection
could allow subjects to control or eliminate the physiological response during
deception.

f. Personality

According to polygraph critics certain personality or mental dispositions

can interfere with the validity of the examination. However, personality has not
received any attention as a countermeasure, perhaps because it is viewed as an
essentially stable characteristic.

g. Rationalization

Rationalization is considered as a preparatory mental countermeasure. It is

the process by which a veridically deceptive subject convinces himself that he is
truthful to the relevant questions. Since it involves a measure of creativity, it is
best developed well in advance of the polygraph session.

Polygraph examiners appear to be aware that self-deception is a potential

countermeasure ploy. However, since semantic games can be detected and
neutralized during a professional pre-test interview, examiners have not
considered rationalization a serious threat. Thus, it is still considered ineffective
and there are no studies relating to its effectiveness as a mental countermeasure.

115
h. Dissociation

It involves shifting one’s attention away from the test to something neutral
and thereby avoiding the cognitive or emotional impact of the questions
altogether. Subjects divert their attention by such ploys as emptying the mind of
thoughts, concentrating on an object in the room, or mentally repeating a word or
sound.

Polygraph examiners suggest the use of questions that include some with
yes answers and others with no answers, and that question order be unpredictable
to the subject. If a subject answers incorrectly to questions under these conditions,
dissociation could be indicated.

i. Cognitive Overloading

Cognitive overloading is related to dissociation whereby the subject will

listen to the test question and provide an answer, but meanwhile will attempt to
perform complex arithmetic such as counting backgrounds from 1000 by 13s, the
cognitive processing fully occupies the mind of the subject and results in a
physiological arousal. This arousal could be used to amplify reactions anticipated
by the subject, or to induce reactions to different questions.

At present time there are no reliable methods for countering this type of
countermeasure. In the same manner, it is also unclear how powerful this method
is. With the ease of use of this countermeasure and the difficulty of its detection,
this would be an important avenue of research in the field of polygraphy today.

116
 CHAPTER 12
ACCURACY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS

Accuracy Defined

Accuracy refers to validity.

Types of Validity

1. Face Validity – opinion or consensus of experts

2. Content Validity – selection of pertinent issues of inquiry
3. Predictive Validity – ability to predict a future outcome
4. Concurrent Validity – ability to identify what is already known
5. Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant info
6. Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas
7. Construct Validity – meaningful defined and understandable relationships
(correlations) between various phenomena
8. Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions
9. Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy improves with the use of
additional information

Reliability Defined

It refers to stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in PDD

often examine the rate of decision agreement among examiners on polygraph test charts.

Two Types of Reliablity

1. Interrater reliability denotes agreement among examiners

2. Intrarater agreement (test-retest reliability) pertains to an examiner agreement

with his own decisions when evaluating the charts on different occasions.
Reliability is not the same as validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot
be more valid than it is reliable. A technique can have high agreement without
high accuracy, though the reverse is not true.

Goals of Polygraph Testing

1. Sensitivity – Ability to detect or notice the issue. A term most used in the
scientific literature to describe the selectivity of a test. Ability of a test to detect
specific features at all levels of magnitude or prevalence. If a deception test, for
example, could detect physiologic responses that accompany deception only when
they are dramatic, it is not a sensitive test. Conversely, if it enjoyed perfect
efficiency in detecting deception, but misclassified a high percentage of truthful

117
 examinees as deceptive, it would have sensitivity but poor specificity. Sensitivity
and specificity are two dimensions that define the validity of the test.

2. Specificity – Ability to reject non-involved cases. It is the ability of a test to

separate one element from among many elements regardless of their similarity.
The specificity of a test will determine its efficiency. If a PDD test can detect
deception 100% of the time, but classifies artifacts such as PVCs and coughs as
deception, it does not have good specificity. Specificity and sensitivity constrain
the validity of a test.

Threshold of Accuracy According to American Society

for Testing Materials (ASTM)

1. Ninety (90) Percent – for evidentiary polygraph examinations. Evidentiary

polygraph examinations are those conducted specifically for courtroom purposes.

2. Eighty (80) Percent – for investigative polygraph examination. Investigative

polygraph examinations are used for non-judicial purposes.

Both evidentiary and investigative examinations are permitted to an inconclusive

rate of twenty (20) percent.

Table 11
Rank Order of Polygraph Techniques by Accuracy
Donald J. Krapohl, 2006

Accuracy Without
Techniques Inconclusive Inconclusive Rate
Utah ZCT 91% 12%
Federal ZCT 89% 16%
TES 88% 2%
Relevant/Irrelevant 83% 0%
Reid 83% 6%
CIT 80% 0%
Army MGQT 61% 21%

It should be noted that the accuracy figures are based on human decisions rather
than algorithm decisions. According to the standards set by the ASTM, only the Utah
ZCT is sufficiently researched and valid for evidentiary purposes. For investigative
purposes, the Federal ZCT, TES, Relevant/Irrelevant, Reid and CIT met the standard of
ASTM.

118
Result Errors

1. False negative – refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event or
item. A false negative in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception
was not practiced by the examinee.

2. False positive – is the false detection of something that is not actually present. In
polygraphy, it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the
examinee.

Dr. Raskin (1995) stated that the error rate for diagnosing guilty subjects, i.e.,
false-negative error, is approximately 5% while the error rate for diagnosing innocent
subjects, i.e., false-positive error, is approximately 10%. This is achieved with the used of
comparison question technique and the numerical scoring of charts. The competency of
examiner and the procedures involved are also a factor.

A summary of more than two thousand (2000) cases indicates an accuracy of 98

percent. For deceptive cases, the accuracy was also 98 percent, and for non-deceptive
cases, the accuracy was 97 percent. The findings were supported by ten studies. These
studies were compared to other results such as confessions, evidence, and judicial
disposition (Ansley, Norman, 1990).

119
 CHAPTER 13
ADMISSIBLITY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS

The admissibility of polygraph results as evidence differs among countries. Most

often, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. However, there are some countries
that accept results of polygraph examination as evidence. To be particular, in the United
States, admissibility of polygraph results is changing.

In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. Many

polygraph examiners and lawyers have attempted presenting polygraph evidence in court
but all resulted to futile.

Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides that:

“The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special knowledge,

skill, experience or training which he shown to posses, may be received in
evidence.”

The rules on evidence states that the opinion of an expert can be admitted as
evidence and to be an expert one must show that he possessed special knowledge,
training, skill and experience to which he belongs. Nothing in the rules prohibits the
acceptance of polygraphy in evidence.

The admissibility of the result of polygraph test is subject to the decision of the
trial judge such that if the judge is not persuaded that the examiner is competent or that
the test was conducted under proper conditions, he may reject to accept such evidence.

However, a written confession or admission during polygraph examination may

be admitted as evidence provided that the subject was apprised of his constitutional rights
particular the Miranda Rights.

Cases Involving Polygraphy

United States vs. Frye

In 1921, a young Negro named James A. Frye was picked up for questioning
about a robbery and was interrogated about the murder of a wealthy Negro physician
who had been shot to death in his office in November 1920. Frye denied any knowledge
of the murder. However, he later confessed to the crime upon advice from a friend who
told him that by confessing he would collect half of the one thousand dollar reward for
his own conviction. Frye subsequently learned that he had been duped by his friend and
repudiated his confession but his claim of innocence fell on deaf ears.

In an attempt to arrive at the truth, Frye’s attorney solicited the aid of Dr. William
Marston, a scientist and inventor of systolic blood pressure deception test. This test
consisted of intermittent recordings of Frye’s systolic blood pressure during questioning,

120
using a standard medical blood pressure cuff and stethoscope, requiring repeated inflation
of the pressure cuff to obtain recordings at intervals during examination. For that reason
it was called the “discontinuous technique”. Obviously this was an early crude lie
detection technique by comparison with the sophisticated instrumentation and techniques
used today. Nevertheless, with that primitive lie detector, Marston accurately determined
that Frye was truthful when he denied any involvement in the murder of that doctor.

The court rejected Marston’s systolic blood pressure deception test as evidence,
holding that the lie detector test has not yet received general acceptance in the scientific
community as a valid means of verifying the truth and detecting deception. However, the
jury was sufficiently impressed to reduce Frye’s conviction first to second degree murder,
saving his life.

Three years later, Frye was freed as a result of further investigation which
revealed that his friend who had dupe him into making false confession was the real
murderer of the wealthy physician.

The district court held that polygraph result is inadmissible as evidence and stated
that scientific evidence to be admissible it must have "gained general acceptance” in the
particular field in which it belongs.

For several years, the Frye Opinion became the basis of determining the
admissibility of scientific evidence in United States and had an international influence in
admitting scientific evidence especially polygraph result in different courts throughout
the world but not until in the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals decided by
the U.S. Supreme Court in 1993.

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals

In Daubert, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1923 Frye test was superseded by
the 1975 Federal Rules of Evidence, specifically Rule 702 governing expert testimony.
Rule 702 originally stated in its entirety:

“If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist

the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a
witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or
education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise, if (1)
the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the
product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied
the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.”

The Court ruled that nothing in the Federal Rules of Evidence governing expert
evidence gives any indication that “general acceptance” is a necessary precondition to the
admissibility of scientific evidence. Moreover, such a rigid standard would be at odds
with the rules' liberal thrust and their general approach of relaxing the traditional barriers
to “opinion testimony”.

121
 It placed appropriate limits on the admissibility of scientific evidence by
assigning to the trial judge the task of ensuring that an expert's testimony both rests on a
reliable foundation and is relevant to the task at hand. The reliability standards
established that an expert's testimony pertains to "scientific knowledge," since the
adjective "scientific" implies a grounding in science's methods and procedures, while the
word "knowledge" connotes a body of known facts or of ideas inferred from such facts or
accepted as true on good grounds. The requirement that the testimony "assist the trier of
fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue" goes primarily to
relevance by demanding a valid scientific connection to the pertinent inquiry as a
precondition to admissibility.

The trial judge must make a preliminary assessment of whether the testimony's
underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied
to the facts at issue. Many considerations will bear on the inquiry including whether

1. the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested;

2. whether it has been subjected to peer review and publication;
3. its known or potential error rate;
4. the existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation; and
5. whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific
community.

The inquiry is a flexible one, and its focus must be solely on principles and
methodology, not on the conclusions that they generate.

Daubert did not involve lie detection, per se, as an issue, as Frye did, but it had a
profound effect on admissibility of polygraph results as evidence when proffered by the
defendants under the principles embodied in the Federal Rules of Evidence expressed in
Daubert.

United States vs. Posado, et. al.

In 1995, in United States v. Miriam Henao Posado, Pablo Ramirez and Irma
Clemencio Hurtado, the defendants were each indicted and subsequently convicted of one
count of conspiracy to possess and one count of possession with intent to distribute in
excess of five kilograms of cocaine.

Prior to trial, the defendants arranged to submit to polygraph tests to establish the
truth of the assertions in their affidavits. Well, before the tests were given, counsel for the
defendants contacted the prosecution and extended the opportunity to participate in the
tests. The defendants also offered to stipulate that the results would be admissible in any
way the government wanted to use them at trial or otherwise. The prosecution declined
this opportunity. Subsequently, the defendants were examined by polygraph experts Paul
K. Minor and Ernie Hulsey in separate examinations.

122
 Both Minor and Hulsey concluded that in each case "deception was not
indicated." Thereafter, the defendants moved for an order allowing Minor and Hulsey to
testify regarding the results of the three tests at the pre-trial hearing or, in the alternative,
for a hearing on the admissibility of polygraph results as expert evidence under the
Federal Rules of Evidence and the standards enunciated by the Supreme Court in Daubert
v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceutical.

On appeal, the defendants contend that Daubert required the district court to
conduct a hearing on the admissibility of the polygraph evidence as expert testimony
under Federal Rule of Evidence 702. The district court's decision was reversed, the
defendants' convictions were vacated and the case was remanded to the district court for
consideration of the evidentiary reliability and relevance of the polygraph evidence
proffered by the defendants under the principles embodied in the Federal Rules of
Evidence and the Supreme Court's decision in Daubert.

United States vs. Galbreth

Again in 1995, in United States v. Galbreth, this case had a motion submitted for
a Daubert hearing for the admissibility of polygraph evidence. Defendant William
Galbreth was indicted of three counts of willful tax evasion for intentionally filing returns
which under reported his income. Defendant failed to include on his income tax returns
certain items of income which should have been reported. At defense counsel's request,
Dr. David Raskin, a professor of psychology at the University of Utah, administered a
polygraph test to defendant to determine his knowledge and intent regarding the items
which should have been reported. The defendant filed a motion to determine whether Dr.
Raskin's testimony is admissible pursuant to the standard enunciated by the United States
Supreme Court in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

In this case, Dr. Raskin conducted the polygraph examination. There is no

question that Dr. Raskin is a well-trained, highly qualified and experienced polygraph
examiner. His experience and training as a polygrapher is critical to the court's
confidence in the accuracy of the results of the test. The Court ruled that:

"Wherefore, it is ordered that defendant's motion to admit expert

opinion evidence regarding polygraph results be and hereby is
granted.”

The defendant was acquitted at trial prior to polygraph evidence being admitted to
the jury. It was nonetheless a victory for polygraphy.

United States vs. Piccinonna

In 1989, In U.S. v. Piccinonna, the U.S. Court of Appeals held that the results of a
polygraph examination are admissible in evidence either upon stipulation of the parties or
to impeach or corroborate the testimony of a witness at trial. The pre-requisites for the

123
results to be admissible must be considered whether: the party planning to use the
evidence at trial must provide adequate notice to the opposing party that the expert
testimony will be offered; the opposing party must be given reasonable opportunity to
have its own polygraph expert administer a test covering substantially the same
questions; and the admissibility of the polygraph administrator’s testimony will be
governed by the Federal Rules of Evidence for the admissibility of corroboration or
impeachment testimony.

State of Mexico vs. Dorsey

In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in 1973, ruled that:

“Polygraph results are admissible as long as (1) the polygraph

operator is competent, (2) the procedure used is reliable, and (3) the “tests
made on the subject” are valid.”

In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of polygraph results with
Rules of Evidence, which states that:

"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the opinion of a

polygraph examiner may in the discretion of the trial judge be admitted as
evidence as to the truthfulness of any person called as a witness if the
examination was performed by a person who is qualified as an expert
polygraph examiner.”

The impact of the cited cases have had not to mention other cases decided by the
U.S. Courts, primarily of Daubert, polygraph examination admissibility is changing in
many states and countries. It only shows that polygraphy has progress to a level of
acceptance sufficient to be admitted as evidence.

124
 REFERENCES

Ansley, Norman. The Validity and Reliability of Polygraph Decisions in

Real Cases. Polygraph Journal, 1990

Baur, Daniel J. Federal Psychophysiological Detection of Deception

Examiner Handbook. Counterintelligence Field Activity Technical
Manual, 2006

Counterintelligence Evaluation Regulations. Office of Intelligence and

Counterintelligence, Department of Energy, 2006

Fridman, Daniel S. The State of Judicial Gatekeeping in New Mexico.

Harvard Law School, 1999

Gordon, Nathan J. and Fleisher, William L. Effective Interviewing and

Interrogation Techniques. California: Academic Press, 2006

Handler, Mark and Nelson, Raymond I. Utah Approach to Comparison

Question Polygraph Testing. Polygraph Journal, 2009

Krapohl, Donald J. Validated Polygraph Techniques. Polygraph Journal, 2006

Matte, James Allan. Forensic Psychophysiology Using the Polygraph.

New York: J.A.M. Publications, 1996

Matte, James Allan. The Art and Science of Polygraph Technique. Illinois:
Charles C. Tomas, 1980

Reid, John E. and Inbau, Fred E. Truth and Deception. Baltimore: The
Williams and Wilkins Company, 1977

Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and

Evaluation. Office of Technology Assessment Report, 1983

Sturm, Shirley and Krapohl Donald J. Terminology Reference for the

Science of Psychophysiological Detection of Deception. Polygraph,
Volume 31, 2007

Test Data Analysis: Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) Numerical

Evaluation Scoring System, 2006

125
 GLOSSARY

Accuracy refers to validity. There are several types of validity. The degree to
which a test measures what it professes to measure is construct validity. External validity
relates to the generalizability of the research results out of the laboratory. While there are
other types of validity as well, these two types go to the heart of research in polygraphy.

Acquaintance test is generic term for stimulation test. The acquaintance test
serves several purposes: familiarizing the examinee with the test procedures; to properly
set the gains and centerings; to help detect countermeasures; to reassure the innocent and
focus the guilty; and to assess the range of responsiveness of the examinee.

Activity monitor is a device attached to or built into the polygraph testing chairs
to detect an examinee’s concealed movements.

Apnea is the temporary cessation of breathing. It is considered as the ultimate

manifestation of respiratory suppression. When they are specifically associated with
certain questions during examination, they are considered significant physiological
reactions and strongly diagnostic of deception. True apneas almost always take place at
the bottom of the exhalation cycle.

Artifact is a change in a physiological pattern not attributable to a stimulus

question or recovery.

Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary physiological division of the

nervous system which provides nervous supply to smooth and cardiac muscles. The
autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic portions.
It performs the vegetative functions and regulates arousal levels.

Baseline arousal is a term used in polygraphy to characterize a marked upward

shift in the entire respiration tracing. Baseline arousals do not always occur during
deception; however, when they are observed they are reliable indicators of stress. Some
baseline arousals are relatively short-lived, lasting only a few respiration cycles, while
others may continue much longer.

Blood pressure is the force blood exerts against the walls of the blood vessels,
usually measured in millimeters of mercury. polygraph examiners evaluate only relative
blood volume changes, as current polygraphs are not capable of providing absolute blood
pressure measurements.

Blood volume is the quantity of blood in an organ or limb, usually recorded as

relative increases and decreases in the circumference of the affected area or size of blood
vessels. Localized changes in blood volume are mediated by chemical and neural
mechanisms, such as the shunting of blood to the major muscle groups during
sympathetic nervous system activations.

126
 Brachial artery refers to the major blood vessel located in upper arm. Occlusion
blood pressure sensors are frequently placed there, and it is the preferred placement site
for the blood pressure cuff.

Cardiograph is a general term for any recording of heart activity. In polygraphy

the use of a blood pressure cuff to monitor relative arterial blood pressure changes and
pulse wave is more precisely described as sphygmography (recording of the arterial
pulse) or occlusion plethysmography (partial blockage of circulation to measure volume
changes in a body part).

Central nervous system (CNS) is that portion of the nervous system consisting
of the brain and spinal cord. CNS activity, although closely integrated with autonomic
nervous system (ANS) activity, is not separately considered in traditional PDD
approaches.

Chart refers to graphical record of phenomena. In polygraphy it refers to the

polygram on which the physiological activity during testing is recorded.

Comparison question is a type of question used to elicit responses that are

compared with the responses to relevant questions.

Comparison Question Technique (CQT) an umbrella term for standard testing

formats that use probable-lie or directed-lie comparison questions. Included are the Reid,
the MGQT, the Zone Comparison, the Positive Control, the Utah, the Arther, the Quadri-
Track, and the Test for Espionage and Sabotage. None of the following are considered
CQTs: Relevant/Irrelevant, Peak of Tension, and Concealed Information Tests.

Countermeasures are generally, methods used to mislead an observer. In

polygraph research it has been labeled either an attempt to create a false negative
outcome, or a method to interfere with a correct polygraph outcome. Under some
circumstances polygraph countermeasures have been found to be effective, such as when
an examinee receives special training and feedback.

Deception is the act of deliberately providing or omitting information with the

intention of misleading. The most critical element of the definition is the intention of the
information provider. With no intent, deception does not take place regardless of the
accuracy of the information being conveyed. Conversely, deception takes place when
there is the intent, even if the speaker unwittingly conveys correct information.

Deception Indicated (DI) is a conventional term for a polygraph outcome along

with NDI (No Deception Indicated) and Inconclusive. A decision of DI in PDD means
that (1) the physiological data are stable and interpretable, and (2) the evaluation criteria
used by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee is not wholly truthful to the
relevant issue.

127
 Emotion is an agitation, disturbance or tumultuous physical or social movement
constituting a departure from the calm state of the organism as includes strong feeling, an
impulse to overt action and internal bodily changes in respiration, circulation and
granular action.

Epinephrine is a hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts

to constrict peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote
metabolic activity through the release of glucose, and inhibit digestive processes.
Epinephrine is considered a psychogenic hormone because it alters psychological
processes when released in large quantities, such as under stress. It is produced in the
adrenal medulla, located immediately above each kidney. It is called adrenaline in British
reports.

Exclusive (exclusionary) comparison questions are probable-lie comparison

questions that are designed to prevent overlap of the relevant issue. This is accomplished
by constructing comparison questions that are different from the relevant issue by time
period, location, or type of activity. Although they have great face validity over non-
exclusive comparison questions, research has not conclusively resolved whether one is
superior.

False negative refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event or
item. A false negative in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception was
not practiced by the examinee.

False positive is the false detection of something that is not actually present. In
polygraphy, it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the examinee.

Fight, flight, freeze are three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat,

sometimes simply called F3. The physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors
are the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of energy, and
narrowing attention focus to the features of the threat. This preparation activity of the
body explains the pattern of arousal responses that are recorded during the examination.

Forensic psychophysiological detection of deception examination is a process

that encompasses all activities that take place between a forensic psychophysiologist and
an examinee during a specific series of interactions. These interactions include the pretest
interview; the use of the polygraph to collect physiological data from the examinee while
presenting a series of tests; the diagnostic phase, which includes the analysis of
physiological data in correlation with the questions asked during each test to support a
diagnostic decision; and the posttest phase, which may or may not include interrogation
of the examinee.

Friendly polygrapher hypothesis a hypothesis proposed by Martin Orne that a

deceptive examinee would not be as detectible by an examiner who conducts a polygraph
examination on behalf of the examinee’s attorney because the examinee has no fear of

128
adverse consequences. There are no studies supporting this hypothesis with the CQT, and
all field studies that have investigated it have failed to find the effect.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is a superseded term for the electrodermal

response measured exosomatically by the change in the electrical resistance of skin. GSR
is sometimes erroneously called Galvanic Skin Resistance or Galvanic Skin Reflex. The
modern term is electrodermal response (EDR).

Global analysis is an evaluation of the polygraph recordings as a whole, as

opposed to making systematic comparisons among questions. Global evaluation can also
represent the use of extrapolygraphic information such as subject behavior and case facts
when rendering a polygraph decision, an approach championed by Reid and Arther.
When information beyond the physiological tracings is considered to produce the final
outcome, it is also called the clinical approach.

Heart rate refers to rapidity of ventricular contractions, usually measured in beats

per minute. It is one index of physiological arousal. Recent research indicates that after
stimulus onset, cardiac arousal takes the form of an immediate decrease in heart rate.
Heart rate and the interbeat interval are reciprocals of one another.

Homeostasis is a complex interactive regulatory system by which the body

strives to maintain a state of internal equilibrium.

Inclusive (inclusionary) comparison question refers to a comparison question

that potentially encompasses the activity of interest in the relevant questions. It is lso
called a non-exclusionary.

Inconclusive is a term in polygraph test outcome where testing was completed,

but neither deception nor truthfulness can be diagnosed because the physiological data
are inconsistent, inadequate, artifacted, or contaminated.

Irrelevant question is a question designed to be emotionally neutral to

examinees. Irrelevant questions are most often placed in the first position of a question
list, because an orienting response of no diagnostic value usually follows the presentation
of the first question. In CQT formats it is also used after a relevant or comparison
question that has elicited a strong response so as to permit physiologic arousal levels to
return to baseline before presenting another diagnostic question.

No Deception Indicated (NDI) is a conventional term in PDD, NDI signifies that

the polygraph test recordings are stable and interpretable and the evaluation criteria used
by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee was truthful to the relevant issue.
The NDI and DI (Deception Indicated) decision options are used in specific-issue testing
and correspond to NSPR (No Significant Physiological Responses) and SPR (Significant
Physiological Responses) in multiple-issue, or screening examinations.

129
 Numerical scoring refers to a method of rendering polygraph decisions that are
based exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological responses
recorded during a structured polygraph examination. The numerical approach does not
consider extra-polygraphic information such as case facts or examinee behaviors. The
numerical approach has four primary components. They are: feature identification,
numerical value assignment, computation of the numerical values, and decision rules.

Parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system

consisting of some cranial and sacral nerves. Functionally, it is involved in conservation
and restoration of energy. The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system function to maintain homeostasis.

Peripheral nervous system is a portion of the nervous system resident outside of

the brain and spinal cord.

Physical countermeasures are class of countermeasures in which the examinee

attempts to manipulate the polygraph recordings through the discreet use of movements.

Pneumograph refers to a device that records respiration, and one of the three
traditional channels of the modern polygraph used in PDD. Most contemporary
polygraphs use two pneumograph recordings: abdominal and thoracic. The sensors are
either the traditional convoluted rubber tube, the mercury strain gauge, or the newer
piezoelectric.

Polygraph is an instrument that simultaneously records two or more channels of

data. The term now most commonly signifies the instrument and techniques used in the
psychophysiological detection of deception, though polygraphs are also used in research
in other sciences. The polygraph instrument traditionally records physiologic activity
with four sensors: blood pressure cuff, electrodermal sensors, and two respiration sensors.

Post-test is the final portion of a polygraph examination. The post-test could

include a debriefing of an examinee who passed the examination, or an interview or
interrogation of an examinee who failed the examination.

Pre-test interview is the earliest portion of the examination process during which
the examinee and examiner discuss the test, test procedure, examinee’s medical history,
and the details of the test issues. During the pretest interview, in some techniques, the
examiner will make behavioral assessments of the examinee to help determine the
outcome. The pretest interview also serves to prepare the examinee for the testing.

Probable-lie comparison question (PLC) is one of two major types of

comparison questions. PLCs are questions to which it is likely that the examinee is
untruthful or unsure with his answer. Their intended purpose is to create a competition of
salience such that the anxious innocent examinees will expend more of their physiologic
responses on them than the relevant questions, but the guilty examinee will still find the
relevant questions more arousing than the PLCs.

130
 Psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) is a common scientific term
to denote the use of the polygraph to diagnose deception.

Relevant question is a question that deals with the true issue of concern of the
investigation. In addition to “did you do it” types of questions, relevant questions also
include evidence connecting and “do you know who” questions. Strong relevant
questions address the “did you do it” type of questions, while moderate-strength relevant
questions address evidence connecting and prior knowledge, such as participation in
planning, providing help the perpetrators, or knowing the identity of the perpetrators.
Moderate-strength relevant questions also address the examinee’s alibi or place him at the
scene of the crime.

Reliability refers to stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in

PDD often examine the rate of decision agreement among examiners on polygraph test
charts. Interrater reliability denotes agreement among examiners, whereas intrarater
agreement (test-retest reliability) pertains to an examiner agreement with his own
decisions when evaluating the charts on different occasions. Reliability is not the same as
validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot be more valid than it is reliable. A
technique can have high agreement without high accuracy, though the reverse is not true.

Skin resistance (SR) general term for the phenomena of skin resistance level and
skin resistance response. SR is recorded exosomatically and was the primary means of
detecting electrodermal activity throughout much of polygraph history until the
introduction of computerized instrument.

Stimulus is any force or motion reaching the organism from the environment and
excites the receptors. It is any force that arouses the organism or any activity of its parts.
In polygraphy, it is a series of questions being asked on the subject during the
examination.

Sympathetic nervous system refers to the thoracolumbar portion of the

autonomic nervous system centrally involved in responding to arousing stimuli. Most
sympathetic nerves are adrenergic and prepare the body to respond to increased demands.
Sympathetic nervous activation increases blood flow from the heart, triggers the release
of glucose and epinephrine, dilates the pupils, and initiates other responses in preparation
for action.

Symptomatic question is a type of question developed by Cleve Backster which

is used to identify whether or not an examinee is fearful the examiner will ask an
unreviewed question embracing an outside issue that is bothering the examinee.

Zone concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone is a twenty to thirty-five seconds

block of polygraph chart time initiated by a question having a unique psychological
focusing appeal to a predictable group of examinees. In his ZCT, Backster used color-
coding to identify the three zones in the ZCT: red; green; and black. Respectively, the red

131
zone is for relevant questions, the green zone for comparison questions, and the black
zone for symptomatic questions.

132