11/8/2021

Further Mechanics
Further momentum
What do we know about momentum?
 Linear momentum

Calculate the momentum of 5kg of and object moving in 5m/s of a speed?

Is the momentum conserved ?

How can you form an force to an energy ?

What are the newton laws that are described momentum?




SO does the kinetic energy also conserved in collision as if for momentum?

Elastic collisions Inelastic collisions

Collision which kinetic energy is Collision which kinetic energy is

conserved. not conserved.

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How do you say a collision is an inelastic or not?

Certainly we need to check for the energy before and after.

Particle momentum

What is relativistic speed?

Particle collisions

Using momentum to identify strange particles 

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More collisions

Impulse

Momentum as a vector – 2D space

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Circular motion basics

How to define radian (rad) ?

Angular velocity (ω) and instantaneous velocity (v)

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Centripetal acceleration (a)

Centripetal force
For any object moving in a circle, there must be a resultant force to cause this acceleration, and it is called
centripetal acceleration.

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The circular motion of an object moving in a vertical A pendulum motion

circular plane

Electric and magnetic fields

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Electric field
An electric field is a space around a charge where an another charge can be influenced.

Electric field lines

• Direction +-

• Closer the lines together, stronger the field strength

Electric field strength  the force
An electron beam / any charged particle can be
accelerated using an electric field.
F, that act on a charged particle

Electric potential

• The location of a charged particle in an electric field

gives it a specific electric potential

• Potential difference = Gained kinetic energy

Uniform electric field

If the field line are parallel to each other, it’s

an uniform electric field

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Equipotential

Millikan’s oil drop experiment

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Radial electric fields

The strength of the electric field decreases
when goes away from the point charge.
Why ?

The distance between equipotential

decreases when get further apart from
the charged sphere. Why ?

Radial electric field Potential in radial electric

strength field

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Combining electric field

Coulomb’s law

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Verification of coulomb’s law

- Another method ;
- Using 2 charged metal spheres charged
using Van de Graaff generator /
Electronic balance

Capacitors
- Storing charges. How?

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Energy stored on a charged capacitor

What type of energy is stored in a capacitor ?

How calculate the amount of that sort of the energy ?

Charging and discharging capacitors

- Charging

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- Time constant

Suggest a method to let the bulb to light up for a longer time ?

Explain the function of the car courtesy light ?

- discharging
What will be the effect of
the resistor and the
capacitance in terms of time
take to charge the capacitor
fully?

Capacitor mathematics
Discharging - while discharging the amount of charged stored are reducing but the rate is
constantly changing. Therefore, voltage , current also changes constantly.
Then it has an ‘exponential curve graph’.

The charge remaining in the capacitor at a time t is given by ,

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The capacitor will discharge only 37% of its calculated value of total charges by the time it stop discharging at
t = 𝜏 . Explain why?

Magnetic fields

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Magnetic Flux
Magnetic poles 
Magnetic field lines 

Magnetic flux density 

Magnetic field strength 

Flux linkage
The amount of magnetic flux interacting with a coil of wire.

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Electric motors

Motor effect 

Fleming’s left hand rule 

Magnetic force

Forces on wire :

Forces on particle :

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The mass spectrum

Generating electricity

- Electro magnetic induction

Faraday’s Law – The induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate if change in flux linkage.

Lenz’s law – the direction of an induced e.m.f is such as to oppose the change creating it.

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Electromagnets and their uses 

Transformers

Calculating induced EMF

Faradys law gives us , Lenzs law gives us ,

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Nuclear and particle physics

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Atomic

theories

through

history

Alpha particle scattering

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Angle of reflection / degrees Evidence Conclusion

0-10

10-90

90-180

Chadwick’s discovery of neutron

• Rutherford told  most of the mass if the atom is concentrated in the middle of it at the nucleus.
And the electrons are at the edge of it
• But there was a considerable difference between the masses of total proton mass + total e mass
to the actual mass of an atom.
• Rutherford though that it is due to excess protons and electrons shrinks and remain within the
atom.

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Nuclear Structure 

• Nucleons 

• Proton number(atomic number) 

• Isotopes 

• Nucleon number 

• Mass number 

• Neutron number 

A quantum mechanical atom 

What we had before is ,  ?

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principal 

• We cannot know exact position & velocity of anything at a given moment

• Regions around the nucleus which there is a high probability of fining an electron
• The shapes of these “Probability clouds” are we call orbitals.

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Electrons from atoms

Electron beam 

How we can emit electrons from a metal 

Cathode rays 

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Particle
accelerators Particle accelerators

When particles s they disintegrates collide together

in high speed, they disintegrates and additional
particle may generate with the collision energy.
Then their real structure can be observed.

Linear accelerator Accelerating particles in a circle

A long tube having in built series Cyclotron/Synchrotron

of electric fields are used.

Liner accelerators

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Can a particle exceed the speed of light ?

William Bertozzi’s finding of that a high speed particle violates the equation

And never accelerates beyond the speed of light but its mass seems to be increasing , therefore, the momentum and
the kinetic energy is much higher than the calculated value.
The apparent mass is called the “relativistic speed”

Accelerating particles in a circle

Suggest a method to let a charged particle to go in a circular path ?

 
• At slow speeds radius is proportional to the velocity ( 𝐾. 𝐸 ) 
• At high speeds (when particle approaches the speed of light) relativistic effect is accounted as follows :
particle is appeared to be increasing its mass
 Therefore,

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The Cyclotron

Go to the link and watch the video  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v

=m2jp0klZHEE

Cyclotron frequency

Acceleration take place at the gap between Dee’s. Therefore, it need to switch the polarity of the electric field exactly
when the particle reaches the gap. Then we need provide a voltage supply of a square wave.
Then only it flips instantaneously.

The frequency of the square law only depends upon




Therefore the f is independent of the radius. But what it reaches the relativistic speed ?

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The Synchrotron
If the mass keep changing with very high speeds ; suggest a method to develop a the cyclotron ?

Particle detectors
- Geiger Muller tube (GM tube)

• Detects ionizing radiations

• The tube is filled with Ar gas in low pressure
• When an ionizing radiation hit the Ar atoms it ionizes and electron and the ion reaches the
electrodes
• Then an electrical pulse is generated which is detects by a counter has connected

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- Bubble chamber

GM tube and other existing instruments just had the capability of detecting the particle but do not give
exact measures to identify the particles such as mass , charges and speed.

Therefore, Nobel prize winner Dr. Glaser has invented the bubble chamber where you can witness the
unseen world.

There it has used super heated liquid hydrogen.

The Large Hadron Collider

Particle Interactions

Creation of matter

The creation of matter is spontaneous and that is from an energy as per Einstein.

What is pair production ?

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Annihilation

Matter + Anti – Matter Energy

Electron volt unit and atomic mass units

Particle ZOO – The Standard model

With the aid of particle accelerator experiments scientist found out much newer fundamental particles those are even
the nucleons (n & p) are made out of called Quarks.

The bound together with strong nuclear forces.

Other than this we have leptons which is a separate class, that we don’t have the strong nuclear forces in between.

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We consider as per existing particle theory al matter in the universe is constructed from combinations of some these 12
particles.

As it mentioned all 12 particles there were 12 anti particles.

What is anti – Matter ?

Particles having the same mass but all other properties are opposite to each other

Particles and forces

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